94 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 4 Amon, D.J., Gollner, S., Morato, T., et al., 2022, “Assessment of scientific gaps related to the effective environmental management of deep-seabed mining”, Marine Policy 138. 5 Galparsoro, I., Menchaca, I., Garmendia, J.M., et al., 2022, “Reviewing the ecological impacts of offshore wind farms”, npj Ocean Sustainability, 1(1), 1. 6 American Wind Wildlife Institute (AWWI), Wind Turbine Interactions with Wildlife and Their Habitats: A Summary of Research Results and Priority Questions, 2021, https:/ /rewi.org/ wp-content/uploads/2020/07/AWWI-Wind-Power-Wildlife-Interactions-Summary-2021.pdf . 7 Naylor, R.L., Hardy, R.W., Buschmann, A.H. et al., 2021, “A 20-year retrospective review of global aquaculture”, Nature 591, 551–563. 8 FAO, Position paper on “Ecosystem Restoration” of production ecosystems, in the context of the UN Decade of Ecosystem Restoration 2021-2030, 2020, COFI/2020/Inf.15.2 9 UNCTAD, Review of Maritime Transport - Navigating maritime chokepoints, 2024, https:/ /unctad.org/publication/review-maritime-transport-2024 10 World Travel and Tourism Council, Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2024: Global Trends, 2024, https:/ /researchhub.wttc.org/product/economic-impact-report-global-trends 11 Sengupta, D., Choi, Y.R., Tian, B., et al., 2023, “Mapping 21st century global coastal land reclamation”. Earth’s Future, 11(2), e2022EF002927. 12 Yan, F., Wang, X., Huang, C., et al., 2023. “Sea reclamation in mainland China: process, pattern, and management”, Land Use Policy, 127, 106555. 13 Sengupta, D., Choi, Y. R., Tian, B., 2023, “Mapping 21st century global coastal land reclamation”. Earth’s Future, 11(2), e2022EF002927. 14 Lynch, A. H., Norchi, C. H., Li, X., 2022, “The interaction of ice and law in Arctic marine accessibility”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(26), e2202720119. 15 Aksenov, Y., Popova, E.E., Yool, A., et al, 2017, “On the future navigability of Arctic sea routes: High-resolution projections of the Arctic Ocean and sea ice”, Marine Policy, 75, 300-317. 16 Weber, J., Handbook on Geopolitics and Security in the Arctic, 2020, Springer International Publishing. 17 Dodds, K., Nuttall, M., The scramble for the poles: The geopolitics of the Arctic and Antarctic, 2015, John Wiley & Sons. 18 Prip, C., 2022, “Arctic Ocean governance in light of an of an international legally binding instrument on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction”, Marine Policy, 142, 103768.BOX 1: Five emerging key drivers of change in the ocean economy 1. The quest for renewables: The transition to renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, is essential for mitigating climate change. However, the production of renewable energy technologies requires rare minerals and metals. These resources, including cobalt, nickel and rare earth elements, are increasingly sought after in the deep sea due to the depletion of terrestrial sources. The extraction of minerals from the ocean floor poses substantial risks to marine ecosystems. The process can cause habitat destruction, sediment plumes and the release of toxic substances, adversely affecting deep-sea species and ecosystems. The long- term environmental impacts of deep sea-bed mining are not fully understood, and there is therefore a need to close key scientific gaps before any exploitation is considered4. A circular economy approach should be prioritized and implemented. 2. The shift to sea-based energy production: Land-based wind power projects have faced increasing opposition due to land use conflicts, noise and visual impacts. As a result, there has been a shift toward offshore wind energy, which is seen as a more viable alternative. Offshore wind farms are being developed at an unprecedented rate, placing additional impacts on marine environments5. Beyond offshore wind, other forms of ocean-based energy generation are also being developed to harness the vast energy potential of the ocean. The shift toward offshore sources of energy can conflict with other ocean uses, such as fisheries, shipping, and tourism. Moreover, the construction and operation of offshore wind farms can have significant impacts on marine biodiversity. For instance, the noise from turbine construction and operation can disrupt marine mammals, particularly whales, which rely on sound for communication and navigation. Additionally, the physical presence of turbines can alter habitats and pose collision risks to birds and bats6. Effective ecosystem-based marine spatial planning (MSP) is crucial to balance the competing uses of ocean space. However, MSP faces challenges in reconciling the interests of different stakeholders and ensuring the protection of marine ecosystems. There is a need for multi-stakeholder integrated approaches that fully consider ecological, economic and social dimensions, ensuring that planetary boundaries are not exceeded. 3. A growing demand for seafood: The global demand for seafood is rising due to population growth and changing dietary preferences. This has led to the expansion of offshore aquaculture, which is seen as a solution to overfishing and declining wild fish stocks. Offshore aquaculture involves the farming of fish, shellfish and seaweed in open ocean environments, often far from the coast. While offshore aquaculture can reduce pressure on wild fish populations, it also poses environmental risks. These include the potential for disease transmission to wild populations, nutrient pollution and habitat degradation. The use of chemicals and antibiotics in aquaculture can also impact marine ecosystems7. Ensuring that offshore aquaculture is sustainable requires robust regulatory frameworks and best practices. These include monitoring and managing environmental impacts, promoting the use of sustainable feed and protecting marine habitats. It is also crucial to acknowledge that wild-caught fisheries remain a significant source of seafood, and that persistent overfishing in these areas has substantial implications for food security, particularly in regions where aquaculture development may be limited. There is a need, therefore, for a balance between increasing production and maintaining ecological integrity8. 4. Continued growth in trade and coastal urbanization: Over 80% of world trade volume is carried by sea9. The continued growth of international trade has driven unprecedented expansion in coastal infrastructure. Global seaborne trade volumes have more than tripled between 1970 and 2022, necessitating continuous port development and the expansion of shipping lanes (ibid.). In parallel, coastal tourism remains a powerful economic force, contributing nearly $11 trillion — or 10% of GDP — to the global economy in 202410 and fueling extensive urbanization along coastlines. In Asia, coastal expansion has led to major land reclamation projects that have altered natural habitats and increased exposure to sea level rise11. China exemplifies this trend. The country’s share of artificial coastlines resulting from reclamation projects has increased from 24% to 70.9% over the past four decades, largely driven by the development of aquaculture ponds ports and agricultural land12. Globally, 78% of major coastal cities have resorted to land reclamation, collectively adding over 25,000 hectares of new land — equivalent to the size of Luxembourg — since the start of the 21st century13. 5. Melting poles and geopolitical conflicts: The melting of sea ice due to climate change is opening new navigational routes, particularly in the Arctic region. This development is leading to increased interest in previously inaccessible areas for shipping, resource extraction and fishing14. The Northern Sea Route and the Northwest Passage are becoming viable options for shorter shipping routes between Europe and Asia, potentially reducing transit times and fuel consumption15. However, the opening of these routes is also sparking new geopolitical conflicts, as nations vie for control over these strategic waterways and the resources they harbor. Issues of territorial claims, environmental protection and the rights of indigenous peoples are becoming increasingly prominent16. Increased human activity in these fragile environments poses significant risks to local ecosystems and biodiversity17. Effective international governance and cooperation are essential to manage these new challenges and ensure that the exploitation of polar regions is conducted sustainably18.

Advancing China's Sustainable Blue Economy 2025