annually prevent 26 million tons of crop losses, 255,000 premature deaths, 775 thousand asthma- related hospitalizations and 73 billion hours of lost labour due to extreme heat.23 Water pollutants Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), also known as “forever chemicals” are used in consumer products to make them water, grease or stain resistant. They are useful in many industries, and are now being detected in our drinking water, soil, air and food. They pose a significant threat to people’s health, as they do not easily break down, and are toxic at extremely low levels.24 Exposure to certain levels of PFAS can lead to significant health impacts, including decreased fertility in women, developmental delays in children, increased risk of certain cancers and reduced ability of the body to fight infections.25 Governments are increasingly showing concern over the impacts of PFAS Pollution, and regulations are emerging to limit human exposure. Micro- and nanoplastics The world is currently producing more than 430 million tonnes of plastic annually.26 Each year, 19 million tonnes of plastic waste leak into the environment – 13 million onto land and six million into rivers and coastlines. Plastic does not biodegrade,27 and over 99% of plastic is directly derived from fossil fuels.28 Plastic Pollution inaquatic environments includes Pollution from shipping and fishing.29 Microplastics – pieces of plastic of less than five millimetres wide – include plastics originally manufactured to be that size (‘primary microplastics’), for example microbeads, industrial plastic powders and pellets, but also pieces of plastic that have resulted from the degradation and fragmentation of larger items, for example plastic bottles, synthetic textiles and tyres. The World Health Organization (WHO) concludes that although further work is required to understand the impacts of microplastics on human and biodiversity health,30 their presence has been detected both in our bodies and in the air, causing rising concern. Microplastics also affect the soil ecosystem and restrict the growth of plants,31 both in marine and freshwater settings. Nanoplastics – pieces of plastic even smaller than microplastics at 100-1,000 nanometers wide – are an emerging area of high risk, as there is an increased chance of them being ingested, inhaled or absorbed. Chemicals present in plastics are endocrine disrupting, interfering with hormone actions in the body. These chemicals can be released during the entire life cycle, with more than 13,000 chemical substances identified.32 This is an area of emerging research and concern given that endocrine- disrupting chemicals are linked to significant health effects including infertility, obesity, cancer, thyroid problems and developmental issues.33 Pharmaceuticals Pharmaceutical Pollution falls into the category of “contaminants of emerging concern”,34 alongside personal care products, sunscreen, insect repellents and detergents, which all tend to be long-lived and therefore accumulate at low levels over long periods of time in the environment. While pharmaceuticals have been well-established as water pollutants for decades, it is only recently that the extent and nature of that Pollution is starting to be assessed.35 This is currently an unregulated category of pollutants. Antimicrobial resistance in both people and animals is in part associated with antimicrobials entering water bodies, along with overuse and misuse of antimicrobials. Antimicrobials are medicines that are used to treat infections in people, animals and plants and include a range of antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals and antiparasitics.36 Antimicrobials, when released into water from manufacturing waste, healthcare facilities, farming, and directly from consumers (both people and animals), can remain in the environment. Globally, there is insufficient awareness of and incentives among manufacturers and users of antimicrobials for sparing usage and correct disposal. The WHO issued guidelines on antimicrobial Pollution from medicines manufacturing in September 2024, aimed at providing a basis for better practices and regulation.37 Muhammad Numan, Unsplash Global Risks Report 2025 51