Powering the Future 2025

Endnotes 1. Throughout this report, “EVBs” refers to the batteries used to power EVs – currently lithium-ion batteries, and potentially sodium-ion or solid-state batteries in the future. While EVs also contain lead-acid batteries (LABs) used to start the vehicle, this report does not examine or make recommendations related to LABs. 2. International Energy Agency. (2024). Critical Minerals Data Explorer. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/ critical-minerals-data-explorer . 3. International Energy Agency. (2024). Global EV Outlook 2024: Outlook for Battery and Energy Demand. https://www.iea. org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2024/outlook-for-battery-and-energy-demand. 4. International Energy Agency. (2024). Critical Minerals Data Explorer. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/ critical-minerals-data-explorer . 5. RMI. (2024). The Battery Mineral Loop: The Path from Extraction to Circularity. https://rmi.org/insight/the-battery-mineral-loop/. 6. International Energy Agency. (2024). Critical Minerals Data Explorer. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/ critical-minerals-data-explorer . 7. Ibid. 8. Ibid. 9. Kirchherr, J., et al. (2023). Conceptualizing the Circular Economy (Revisited): An Analysis of 221 Definitions. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, vol. 194, 107001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.107001. 10. UN Secretary-General’s Panel on Critical Energy Transition Minerals. (2024). Resourcing the Energy Transition: Principles to Guide Critical Energy Transition Minerals Towards Equity and Justice. https://www.unep.org/resources/report/ resourcing-energy-transition. 11. International Energy Agency. (2024). Critical Minerals Data Explorer. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/ critical-minerals-data-explorer . 12. BloombergNEF. (2022). China’s Battery Supply Chain Tops BNEF Ranking for Third Consecutive Time, with Canada a Close Second. https://about.bnef.com/blog/chinas-battery-supply-chain-tops-bnef-ranking-for-third-consecutive-time- with-canada-a-close-second/. 13. Written testimony of J.B. Straubel, CEO, Redwood Materials, before the US Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. The scope and scale of critical mineral demand and recycling of critical minerals. (2022). https://www.energy. senate.gov/services/files/43143C20-B0B4-4BC7-A5E2-5B2CB2CDE4D2. 14. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. (2023). Technical note on critical minerals: Supply chains, trade flows and value addition. UNCTAD/DITC/MISC/2023/14. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ ditcmisc2023d1_en_0.pdf. 15. International Energy Agency. (2024). Global EV Outlook 2024: Outlook for Battery and Energy Demand. https://www.iea. org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2024/outlook-for-battery-and-energy-demand. 16. Argonne National Lab. (2023). EverBatt: Argonne’s Closed-Loop Battery Life-Cycle Model. https://www.anl.gov/amd/everbatt. 17. Form factor describes the physical shape of the battery cell, which can differ depending on design of the cell casing and the arrangement of cell components (cathode, anode, electrolyte and separator). There are three prevalent form factors for lithium-ion batteries used in EVs - cylindrical, prismatic and pouch.  18. Thompson, D. L., et al. (2020). The Importance of Design in Lithium Ion Battery Recycling – A Critical Review. Green Chemistry, vol. 22, no. 22, pp. 7585–7603. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0gc02745f. 19. Ibid. 20. Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives (GAIA). (n.d.). Info Sheet - Electric Vehicle Battery Disassembly. https://www.no- burn.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/02-Battery-Infosheet-EV-Battery-Disassembly.pdf. 21. Mobility Open Blockchain Initiative. (2022). Electric Vehicle Battery State of Health Business White Paper. https://dlt.mobi/ wp-content/uploads/2024/03/MOBI-SOH0001_WP_2022-Version-1.3.pdf. 22. International Energy Agency. (2024). Global EV Outlook 2024: Outlook for Battery and Energy Demand. https://www.iea.org/ reports/global-ev-outlook-2024/outlook-for-battery-and-energy-demand. 23. Breiter, A., et al. (2023). Battery Recycling Takes the Driver’s Seat . McKinsey & Company. https://www.mckinsey.com/ industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/battery-recycling-takes-the-drivers-seat. 24. Buzwani, M., Mohanty, S. and Tenne, A. (2024). Battery Recycling: How Accounting for Social and Environmental Benefits Boosts Returns. RMI. https://rmi.org/battery-recycling-how-accounting-for-social-and-environmental-benefits-boosts-returns. 25. Breiter, A., et al. (2023). Battery Recycling Takes the Driver’s Seat. McKinsey & Company. https://www.mckinsey.com/ industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/battery-recycling-takes-the-drivers-seat. 26. Council Directive 75/442/EEC of 15 July 1975 on Waste (1975). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ ALL/?uri=CELEX:31975L0442. 27. Kampker, A., et al. (2023). Identification of Challenges for Second-Life Battery Systems – A Literature Review. World Powering the Future: Overcoming Battery Supply Chain Challenges with Circularity 39