The same trend is observed for materials-related international cooperation initiatives. An analysis conducted for this report mapped 100 different international initiatives spanning intergovernmental approaches (bilateral, plurilateral, regional, multilateral) and multi-stakeholder alliances, coalitions and consortiums (see Table 1). Together, these initiatives encompass the full materials lifecycle, including mining, manufacturing and waste management. Many recent initiatives have targeted cooperation on the circular economy, as well as three closely linked areas: data traceability and transparency, standards development, and trade and market access. Notably, around 80% of initiatives launched since 2015 took the form of plurilateral, regional or multi-stakeholder arrangements, underscoring the growing role of smaller, interest-aligned groupings in advancing cooperation on materials where broader consensus is harder to achieve.11Multilateral cooperation has declined by 20% since 2019. Meaningful progress is more likely through flexible, smaller groupings that act on common interests to achieve pragmatic goals. Different approaches to international cooperation TABLE 1 Cooperation type Primary actors Description Example initiatives Intergovernmental Bilateral Two national governments Formal cooperation between two states, typically under treaties or strategic partnerships – Australia-Japan Critical Minerals Partnership – EU-Canada Strategic Partnership on Raw Materials Plurilateral Limited group of like- minded governments Cooperation among a small number of states outside universal multilateral forums– G20 Critical Minerals Framework – G7 Alliance on Resource Efficiency – Global Alliance on Circular Economy and Resource ---Efficiency – Quad Critical Minerals Initiative Regional Governments within a geographic regionInstitutionalized cooperation at regional level, often with standing bodies– ASEAN Framework for Circular Economy for the ---ASEAN Economic Community – African Mining Vision (AU-led) – Jaipur Declaration on 3R and Circular Economy – African Circular Economy Alliance Multilateral All (or near-universal) national governments, typically through intergovernmental organizationsUniversal or near- universal cooperation frameworks providing shared principles, rules and coordination mechanisms across the global system– United Nations General Assembly – UN Environment Assembly – World Trade Organization – Paris Agreement – Sustainable Development Goals – Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee on ---Plastic Pollution Multi-stakeholder Alliance Governments, industry, civil society, international organizations Strategic, ongoing alignment around shared objectives with light but intentional governance – Global Battery Alliance – Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals ---and Sustainable Development Coalition Governments, NGOs, industry, other stakeholders Looser and often time-bound grouping formed around a shared issue, agenda or reform objective – Global Plastics Action Partnership – Minerals Security Council Consortium Firms, industry bodies, technical experts, sometimes governments Formal, delivery- orientated collaboration with defined scope, outputs and technical methodologies – Global Circularity Protocol for Business – Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance – Responsible Minerals Initiative The Future of Materials Systems: Cooperation Opportunities in a Multipolar World 13

The Future of Materials Systems 2026