The enterprise layer represents the productive and innovative core of the global economy – the actors who create what is traded. Enterprises include producers, manufacturers, innovators and service providers who transform resources, ideas and knowledge into tradable goods, services and technologies. The layers of the trade stack are designed to clarify roles within the complex web that is the interconnected global trading system, not to create rigid boundaries. Regulated by policy, the flow of trade, data and money means that actors often operate across layers. For example: –A tech company might build digital infrastructure that supports enterprises and enables trade –National governments participate in global policy-making while regulating and enforcing rules at the national level –Logistics firms, banks and digital platforms frequently act as both enablers and innovators The trade “stack” and “layer” metaphors recognize that each part of the system has its primary functions, but interacts continuously with the others. The strength of the trade stack lies in these points of connection, where collaboration and technologies allow the entire system to interact, adapt and evolve together. None of these layers exists in isolation, and each is being reshaped by a changing geopolitical landscape that is redefining trade relationships, investment flows and the technologies that connect the entire system. For some, this fragmentation and policy divergence are adding friction, uncertainty and duplication. For others, this shift is creating new opportunities: connector countries are emerging as neutral hubs, digital infrastructure is opening new pathways for collaboration and cooperation, and firms are innovating faster to meet new demands. The trade stack reflects this reality: it is not a static structure, but a living system evolving under the pressure of geopolitics and global change. Amid these shifts, technology is playing an enabling role by facilitating connection, trust and collaboration within and across all layers.1.4 Enterprise layer 1.5 Interactions between layersEnterprise layer TABLE 4 Roles Examples of participating actors Grow, extract or harvest natural resources, agricultural goods and energy resources that form the foundations of international goods tradeFarmers and agricultural cooperatives, agribusinesses, fisheries and forestry operators, mining and extractive industries, energy producers, commodity producers and exporters Manufacture, by converting raw or intermediate goods into finished products that are traded globallyIndustrial manufacturers, assemblers and processors, equipment and machinery producers, consumer goods producers, food and beverage processors, and industrial small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and contract manufacturers Innovate, research and develop new technologies, tools, digital systems and processes that are used across sectorsTechnology enterprises, R&D labs, engineering and design firms, start-ups and scale-ups, software and IT service companies Deliver knowledge and professional service-based solutions, including consulting, legal, healthcare, education and digital servicesProfessional service providers (law, accounting, audit, finance, healthcare), consulting and advisory firms The strength of the trade stack lies in these points of connection, where collaboration and technologies allow the entire system to interact, adapt and evolve together. The TradeTech Paradox: Connectivity Amid Fragmentation 9

The TradeTech Paradox Connectivity Amid Fragmentation 2026