Copper and steel for electrification 1.3 Awareness of the grid’s mineral intensity – particularly its reliance on copper and grain-oriented electrical steel (GOES) – is rising, as reflected by recent studies and by the consultations with industry players. ET&D systems rank among the most metal-intensive infrastructure segments, comparable to transport and construction in their reliance on bulk metals.7 By 2035, grids are expected to account for about 29% of global vanadium demand, 18% of copper and 7% of lithium, underscoring how expansion will increasingly depend on secure, diversified mineral supply. Decomposing the grid into its main physical components shows where material demand concentrates and how it defines project timelines and resilience. Towers and poles Structures account for the largest share of total ET&D metal mass, driven by extensive use of steel, aluminium and protective zinc coatings. Steel fabrication determines both cost and lead time, while aluminium reduces weight for long-span transmission lines. Substations and transformers Substations and transformers combine copper windings, GOES cores, and structural iron and aluminium frames. Electricity cables Copper and aluminium are the principal conductors in transmission and distribution cables, supported by steel for sheathing and structural reinforcement. Material selection depends on voltage, cost and weight considerations. Battery energy storage systems (BESS) BESS are emerging as a new grid asset class to reinforce the reliability of fluctuating renewable power generation. Material needs vary by chemistry: lithium-ion systems rely on lithium, nickel and graphite; sodium-ion systems use iron and aluminium; and vanadium redox-flow systems draw on vanadium and phosphorus. Trend: Grid expansion and electrification are intensifying demand for copper, aluminium and electrical steel, and tightening supply chains for cables and transformers, while emerging battery storage technologies add new dependencies on lithium, iron, phosphate and vanadium.8 From Minerals to Megawatts: Building Resilience for EVs, Data Centres and Power Grids 11

From Minerals to Megawatts 2025