CDR technologies can be broadly categorized into engineered and nature-based solutions, each relying on distinct physical, chemical or biological processes to capture and store CO2. DAC DAC removes CO2 directly from ambient air using chemical processes. Air is drawn through contactors containing either liquid solvents (typically alkaline solutions such as potassium hydroxide), which chemically bind CO2 and form carbonate compounds, or solid sorbents (amine- based materials or metal-organic frameworks), which adsorb CO2 onto their surfaces. Once captured, the CO2 is released through heat or pressure changes (a regeneration step), producing a concentrated CO2 stream. This purified CO2 can then be: –Injected into deep geological formations (for example, saline aquifers or depleted oil and gas reservoirs) for permanent storage –Mineralized by reacting with rock formations to form stable carbonates DAC is highly measurable and durable but also energy-intensive due to the low concentration of CO2 in air (~0.04%). Its scalability depends on access to low-carbon energy and CO2 transport and storage infrastructure. BECCS BECCS integrates biomass energy production with carbon capture and storage. The process works as follows: 1. Plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere through photosynthesis during growth. 2. Biomass (for example, agricultural residues, wood pellets, energy crops) is combusted or converted into biofuels to produce energy. 3. CO2 released during combustion or fermentation is captured at the facility using post-combustion capture technologies (similar to those used in fossil fuel carbon capture and storage). 4. The captured CO2 is compressed and transported for permanent geological storage. Because the carbon originated from atmospheric CO2 absorbed during plant growth, and is then captured and stored underground, BECCS can result in net-negative emissions. Key constraints include sustainable biomass supply, land-use impacts, life-cycle emissions accounting and the availability of CO2 transport and storage networks. Biochar Biochar is produced through pyrolysis, a thermochemical process that heats biomass in a low-oxygen environment. Instead of fully combusting, the biomass decomposes into a stable carbon-rich solid (biochar), syngas and bio-oil. The carbon in biochar is chemically stabilized into aromatic structures that are resistant to microbial decomposition. When applied to soils, biochar can: –Store carbon for decades or centuries –Improve soil water retention –Enhance nutrient retention and agricultural productivity The permanence of biochar depends on feedstock type, pyrolysis temperature and soil conditions. It is considered a hybrid solution because it relies on natural carbon cycling but enhances durability through engineered processing. ERW ERW accelerates a natural geological process. In nature, silicate rocks (basalt, for example) chemically react with CO2 and water over thousands of years, forming stable bicarbonates or carbonate minerals.CDR technologies CDR can follow various pathways, but supportive policies and early investments have accelerated deployment for some technologies. 2.1 What are the different technologies? 2 Carbon Dioxide Removal Technologies: Market Overview and Offtake 9

Carbon Dioxide Removal Technologies 2026