Graphic representation of pathways, and an overview of the energy and capital requirements, nascency and regional supportFIGURE 2 High Medium LowBiochar Agriculture and forestry by-productsLow O2environment,Stable, carbon-rich solid pyrolisisCO2 capture + electricity/heatBiomass pelletsBECCS Agriculture and forestry by-productsAmbient air Co2-free airDAC Increased absorption of CO2 from atmosphereCrushed rock rich in silicate carbonateOcean LandERW orUnderground storage Soil enhancer N/ACapture StorageEnergy needs Capex Opex NascencySubsidy supportERW speeds up this process by: –Mining and grinding reactive silicate rocks into fine particles to increase surface area –Spreading the material on agricultural land or coastlines –Allowing natural chemical reactions with rainwater and atmospheric CO2 to occur The reaction converts CO2 into dissolved bicarbonates that can eventually wash into oceans or form stable carbonates in soils. Key technical considerations include: –Energy used for mining and grinding –Measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) complexity –Environmental co-benefits such as soil nutrient enhancement Like biochar, ERW is considered hybrid because it enhances a natural process through industrial intervention. CDR technologies vary significantly in their effectiveness, scalability and resource requirements. Choosing the right technology depends not only on its technical readiness or cost but also on how well it aligns with specific climate goals and operational realities. For example, companies or governments with limited energy resources may prioritize low- energy use technologies such as biochar and BECCS, while those seeking long-term carbon storage might opt for approaches such as DAC or BECCS.MRV6 readiness refers to the existence of a standardized methodology for measuring and verifying the quantity of carbon removed. Validation is generally easier in closed systems, where carbon flows occur within controlled industrial facilities and can be directly measured using sensors and mass balance calculations. Technologies such as DAC and certain biochar systems fall into this category. Carbon Dioxide Removal Technologies: Market Overview and Offtake 10

Carbon Dioxide Removal Technologies 2026