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92
FEDERAL: BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION
AMERICAN FRIENDS
SERVICE COMMITTEE
PART 7 OF 25
FILE NUMBER: 100 11392
summer; AMERICAN FRIENDS SERVICE COMMITTEE
FILE #= 100-11392
SECTION: 0
I '3 P é
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Hay 12, 1956
.n92-
kr. J. Edgar Hoover
Federal Bureau of Inveeti+ation
Washington, D. C.
Dear Sir: .
I would like some_infonnation regarding the organization,
AmERlCAN FRIENDS SERVICE cUhMITT3E| Are they listed as a
subversive organiqation by your department? Are they listed
as a subversive organization, that is not exempt from tax
deductions as a charitable institution, by the U.S. Treasury
Department?
My reason for asking this information is this: Our Toarly
Meeting, Oregon Yearly ueeting of the kriends Church, severed
all connections with the A;F.S.C. in 195h- They have had me
on their mailing list, and I requested that m? "ewe be dr0PPBd
because of the action of the Yearly Meeting and the action
that 1 had heard was taken by the Treasury Department. Can
you verify my misgivings about the Organization?
Sincerely,
62/
. . __.___. _ _ N __ _~ '
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_ H R i -' . ._' - ' - .-';§':.:_ _ ' ' "/-v-'».1;k .. ,__.:-1"?1{"§f~I '- -!.¬$¥fI' I -""-'L¢~:1-1~ 3:-4%? '
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. my :1, use
Dear
Your letter dated May 12, 1956, has been
received. .
Although I would like to be oi service, information
in FBI tiles is confidential and available for oiiicial use only.
I would like to point out also that this Bureau is strictly a
{act-game:-ing agency and does not make evaluations or mew
conclusions as to the character or integrity of any organization,
publication or individual. I know that you will understand the
reasons for these rules and will not infer from my inability to
be oi assistance either that we do or that we do not have the
information you desire.
Since your communication is oi interest to
another governmental agency, I am taking the liberty oi
-referring a copy oi it to The Honorable, The Secretary of
the Treasury, Fifteenth Street and Pennsylvania Avenue,
Northwest, Washington, D. C. .
- Sincerely yours,
tor.» Copry oi ' "sent by form to Secretary oi the Treasury.
' - 92 _ _ ,_' V V _, __, .-1 _ iv
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5' REF :,__T _ _ _ V _ J f __ I _ nariij I in r:~ I M1 If QM /m:I<~¢ o I /4, "oz; .,~I!!-' - cc}, gonna I J 7 v o - -*1 * ?'3'" *_ . I /.. 4 /1 r A;. _-L L zq; o_ I ;_~~» <10 o_c_:~¢-L-F _ I -~ 6I $UB.IECT:' 92 I I,| _ j loquut for Intonation on EAIIIAI
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= by thognrlem F:j.c|5d{_$g;'!§-92 6<!!51tt-cg Iluthcr kc: tgnnl 1.0 at a prints ,
Irbn1incnnltnr0;u:d92|heth0rt-he Dopnrtnmthu II92f1nfi1i-1BnInf11Ol'Q-
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It is l.a.==Iuad that the lmorian Friends Service Ooultlt is the Q-iklr
organintionaadthxtitiunctatroctagencyo Iho0onaa1xbo92on1.d.Ioa.ppz-1
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1-1e _;|-vie, 1955 " " u
Information 'cn Iss Jean Fairfax
e J / *1-u~ n ¢/J '
The American Consulate mmm, ANGOLA
RECEIVED FROM
MAY 2 31956
' - sm . PT one M ;
The Department confirms that Yiss Qgen 5.3.! ex __ en -""'
employed by the New England Region Office of thew! _'_AI_!;e1:1Qa.lLI1:1Bn
Sefyije Cottee, Caf1b?iigé_L_i'i§_ES», but is now on e leave of
Tbaenoe iLi3'Ie f1véITin§ in Africa at her own expense. -'
fhe American Friends Service Committee, which is the Quaker
organization and not n front agency, informed the Department that
it very much hopes to reinstate Miss Fairfax upon her return from
her current tour end has already offered her a choice of three ,
different positions. The organization regards Miss Fairfax as a-7
mature, experienced worker for whom they have high respect end in
whom they have much confidence, I-ss Fairfagg had previously ' e
represented the Service Committee in field work in both Austria.
and Israel. F 4.Ref: Tour Deepatoh 180.
IUI-LB
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- ,4._ 92-"Z '.4Y E. mnauzo-25 'DEPARTMENT OF STAT UO- / 7 02. -"'N-EJ211955 / no-r n
-F,CE OF secunwv ., 11 MAY 24 " to es FILED 92 I I956 I/92 1
For -I t L e or4L -;@92~! ~5 o i s es -_ i
1 " - 1s - conrxnnrrnu. /1 W
5 _ ,l APPROVED BY-
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AF-Hr-.Dmnont SEV-l*tr.Sea.ma.n8 7
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Ofce M677207'J72d7é772 - um-rem sTA"rEs'GovE11NME1921T
1'0 1 Director. FBI mm 5/31/55
lisp:-I SAG, Phi1adelphia _
/".
$UQmCT= comxusxn AMERICAH_E§l§Q§§L
ss VICE COMMITTEE
' THUMBNhIL SKETCHES ON $
SHEHERSIVE ORGANIZATIONSQ
The following information is being submitted in
order to bring up to date the thumbnail sketch previously
submitted on the American Friends Service Ccmmittee=
*"r Confidential Informant T-2, who has furnished re-'
liable information in the_past and who is familiar with some
of the activities of the GP and CP front groups in the Phila-
delphia area, as well as the policies and activities of the
American Friends Service Committee, advised on ll/10/55 that,
to his knowledge, there have been no attempts by the CP to
infiltrate the American Friends service Committee.
7??-O
Or 3 Cromer
I.
8A0, Pbiladllphia Jana 2? 1956 I
Director, I? I
COHTHFIL AUFRICAF ERIEHDS
SYRYICE COMKITIEH -
Bgurlet 5-31-$6 auoaitting a thumbnail
sketch qf captioned organization.
In view of the nature of this orpanisoiion
and the lack of information indicating Communist Party
iqfiltration, it ahould not ha documented in reporta-
In view qr the above, the thubnail akrtch of this
organization is being cancelled. If, in the future,
the Communist Party is successful in infiltrating
this comuittsc, the Bureau should be innodiotely
advised and a revised thumbnail sketch submitted-
Q51
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The A730, rsith hendcuartara ct Philade.-Iph1°a,
Fennnyluo.-sin, has stated that its purpose: are to relieve
Iwann a:u_f,/r.r-ing wherever it iaf.-and and to ease tension
ha.-ucacn $uJtui.iur:.I gr-oupn or nations. It maintains relief
agencies :.hrou,-_mout the vol-1:1, including those countries
tender cbnfzualt conirol. The MSG in reportedly a sincere
p.1cs'_,iz>t _.;rm:p and baa been since its inception in 151?.
More is no injor-.uu'on available indicctirzg that this -
organisation has been enjoyed in any conaunia ntiuiiiesor to n_,'1'.ltrntcd by the Communist I-arty.
92-
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0_!Cé »M67Z ' iii??? - Unnxrn stir ' !VERNMEI;*T
TO a
'/ AT'I1-'1NI'ION: '
-. ~52» = SAG, PHIT..-.l.DELPHIJ92 can-amt RI-ESE!-'=.. n:
I w=Jw= COFIINFIL- DIRECTOR , FBI DATE 6-111--56
OR!-1'5-1RICAN FRIENDS stance comqwwm
i
VISIT or AMERICAN rnrsmas SERVICEcir-mrrsz T0 u.s.s.a., 1955
92_ K " '" K _-' _
On my 29, 1956, Confidential Informant , who hasished reliable information in the past, furnished SEQ
with the enclosed 94-page booklet entitled_£F=eti the & __ _ ;- ..Eusgians" which informant had received on that date from the Infor-
mation Service of the American Friends Service Committee.
of
in
ofThis booklet is a report prepared by the six-man delegatio:
the American Friends Service Comittee which visited the U.S.S.R.
Y -an 'Ir'92l=;: 'r4- 4.- 9292.-.4-H-. A-QQ4-.@-It-..~4-.-..-1 kw 4-L... 'r92.-924u-92-9»--=4--I.-..-. ¢':1.-,92-4.1.-.dbl.-J.-LC! -Lj,!!I -LII AD UELJJ5 l,.l.LD92,¢J,.LULl.UI.7iJ U IIllC LIIJULIJLOUAUII DEL V.LL¢U
the American Friends Service Committee.
This booklet is being forwarded to the Bureau for review
and if the Bureau does not desire to retain the booklet, it should
be returned to Philadelphia for inclusion in the American Friends
Service Committee file. I
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GOVERNMENT
Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation DATE: 2° 31113? P56
//,.!/ _ i - . i . L
"iiiJ.li8.m F. Tompkins, Assistant Attorney General,
Internal Security Division
Comnnmist Infiltration of the »',-Iv? - $0
' ¬~¢- -" 92 -H U0
L review of the investigative reports furnished by the
Bureau concerning the captioned organization indicates that, irre-
spective of the availability of informants, there is not sufficien
evidence at this time to justify the filing of a petition with tlie
Subversive Activities Control Board to require it to register as aCommmist-front organization under the Subversive Lctivities Contro 92Act of l9f0 _ _
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additional zutfomation is furnished relevant to the applicable
definition and criteria under the Act - '
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distances to speak in imnu'rmt.-- nj -mc'vtin_qs and by rrrdrb and l' 'ir'-
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E <MEETING THE RUSSIANS
Aniérican. Quakers Visit
the Soviet Union.
/92
<>t*~ V
A Report Prepared by the DelegationZ '
m-~.. STEPIIEN Cflnv IF .
92V|I.u.92.92| Rf1'.lJCF._IfI0N
Hucu 9292'¢J_51'c:i!nr;. C|.,92nEsc1=. t?7rq1g1;1'1,,
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American Fricn
P".ILADP.I.PIlIA
I 956ds Service Committee
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f ; -1~,;<92.- 92-|.TABLE OF CONTENTS
n
I'I'92 -__-1 _ _v-___INTRODUCTION; 1'1-IE b>'OVIET bCENE IN FOCUS
IA Naw CHAPTER [N AN Ow S1031 .
II. Sovnzr MAN AND Sovmr Socmrv . .
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII
VIII.
IX
XSovnaw CITY Lrcurs . . . .
Mam STREET, U.S.S.R. .
DOWN ON THE FARM .
THE SOVIET Faorvrnzn . . .4 .
Sovnar Euucuron AND Cumunm '. .
Rrzucxorq IN AN ANTI-RELIGIOUS STATE
THE MAN Tmav LEFT Barnum . . .
Ssrsns OF UNDERSTANDING .5
15
22
28
41
46
51
58
68
80
91
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Inirotluction '
The Soviet Scene in Focus -
It is easy for the foreign visitor in the Soviet Union to
feel a little as if he were looking at a three-dimensional motion
picture without the necessary colored spectacles that are nor-
mally furnished by the management. Through one eye he sees
a political and social system vastly different from his own at
home or from any of the systems he may know anj,'where in
the non-Communist world. Through his other eye he sees ordi~
nary human beings, very much like himself, who appear to he
leading fairly normal lives within this strange system. and who
know so little about the rest of the world that it is diilicult to
discuss it in terms that are intelligible to them. The bewihlered
foreign visitor, after trying in vain to bring these two pictures
into focus, is apt to give up and simply ignore one image or the
other.
The resultant picture of what he sees will be clear but it
will lack the full dimensions of reality. The consequence is that
31¢ imlwessioiis oi visitors returning froni the Soviet Union
tend to be even more coiitradictory than those of the usual
foreign traveler appraising a culture not his own.
Two Clues to Ciarily
Unfortunately, the blurred images of what the foreign
visitor sees in the Soviet Union cannot be brought into focus
by any such simple expedient as looking at them through red-
ancl-grcen spectacles. Facing the complex puzzle of a society
vastly different from his own, the traveler nds himself casting
about for some clue to the puzzle, some simple formula that will
enable him to understand and interpret what is strange about
it in terms that are familiar to him through his experience in
his own society. This effort to nd simple interpretations can
be misleading. and we are aware of its dangers; but we should
like, nevertheless, to preface this account of our visit to the
Soviet Union by sharing two generalizations that have made
our experiences more intelligible to us. One views Soviet moral-
ity in terms of military nccr-..~=.sity. The other secs Soviet dog-
matism as an expression of a belief in one true faith."
5
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I92
Despite this persecution, a number of non-- - prrnist
Christian groups had arisen in the Nineteenth CEl.'ll'.L|.J._, and by
1917 could count a substantial number of converts. The Rus-
sian Baptist Union, originating in the Ukraine, and the closely
related Union of Evangelical Christians that had sprung from
Lord Radstocl-Ks missionary work in St. Petersburg, were two
of the most important of these dissenting groups, and between
them they could count more than 105,000 members in 1914.
Orthodox Power Destroyed
The immediate impact of the Revolution was to benet the
non-contormist sects by destroying the power of the Orthodox
Church. For the rst time they enjoyed a legal status, and in
spite of an atmosphere of increasing Communist hostility the
Baptists and Evangelical Christians grew to a combined mem-
bership of at least 4,000,000 by 1928. The history of the Orthodox
Church during this same period is, of course, quite di!i'erent_
The unfortunate intolerance, obscurantism and corruption of
much of the State Church prior to the Revolution marked it as
a particular target of the militantly atheistic Communists, and
there began at once the long and involved struggle between the
government and the now disestablishcd church that did not end
until 1943, when an agreement was entered into which granted
all religious groups in the Soviet Union a measure of freedom
in purely religious matters in return for their pledge not to
interfere in the spheres of activity that the state reserved to
itself.
This struggle between state and church, aimed originally
Eli l'l'tD l'll'92|'V1'lHQItl' }|'ll"92nrlr9292 fl'192|rr92§"| 1' H1-nn 11' : 1-vn R01-->8 tn
include all religious groups, and between 1929 and 1943 every
religious faith operated under severe and hostile restrictions.
It was still possible to hold services of worship, but the basic
Soviet law on religion, issued in 1929, forbade activities other
than worship, and struck so eectively at church organization
that the number of functioning churches and congregations
declined drastically during the 1930's. By 1540, for example,
the number of Baptist and Evangelical Christian congregations
was cut from its 1928 gure of 3,200 to less than 1,000.
All of this changed with the 1943 agreement, which is still
the basic law under which all religious groups function. Under it
H15 church is free to organize, train its clergy, seek new members
and conduct its services without fear of persecution. We found
Serge Boiehako, Bunion Nan-Conform-ily Philadelphia: TheWestminster Press, 1950!, p, 118,
69
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.92. -E '~. v rVIII
Religion in an Anti-Religious State
When our group requested visas at the Soviet Embassy
Washington, we stated as one of our major purposes the des
to see something of religious life in the Soviet Union. It wot
appear that this desire was called to the particular attenti
of the Evangelical Christian Baptists, for their leadership w
corned us most warmly in Leningrad and Moscow, and la
advised their provincial leaders of our itinerary, so that Bapt
oicials, usually bearing owers, were almost a Welcoming xtt
at the airports whore we landed. We visited not only sex
individual congregations of the Baptists, but also several Ortl
dox churches, a theological seminary for training the Orthot
priesthood, a church of the Old Believers, who separated fr<
the Orthodox Church 300 years ago, and two Jewish synagogu
In addition, we had a number of extended conversatic
with Baptist leaders in different parts of the Soviet Union, n
with Metropolitan Nikolai in Moscow and interviewed the s
retar-y of the Council on Aairs of Religious Cults, the govei
ment agency responsible for relations with all religious groi
in the Soviet Union except the Orthodox Church!. All of th
contacts helped provide an impression of the status of religi
in Russia today and the prospects for its future vitality.
The various Christian churches in the Soviet Union hz
had a dramatic history since the 1917 Revolution. In tsai
times the Russian Orthodox Church held a privileged posit
strikingly similar to that which is held in the Soviet Union tot
by the official religion of Marxism-Leninism. Only the Orthoc
Church had the right to carry on missionary work among otl
religious groups; and a government decoration, the third gr:
of the Order of St. Anne, was granted to any Orthodox n
sionary who is so fortunate as to make, with the aid of
police, 100 converts among the schisrnatics or indels. It v
0. criminal Offense, punishable by prison or exile, to criticize
Orthodox Church or clergy, to convert an Orthodox follower
any other faith or to publish or distribute any literature c
sidered to advocate dissent from the established faith.
' M. Sea:-le Bates, Religious In'be-ray: A-n. Inquiry New York: Hm
and Brothers, 1945!, pp. 24546.
68
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of he thusiasm for O. Henry, Mark Twain, the Russian -"is-
sics am. 11 few of the better Soviet writers Even thou; <1
foreign worl-is in this rczuliniz material give the Russians an
outdated and distorted picture of the outside world based, for
example, on such assiduously reprinted works as U11-I19 T011-'-$
Cm'n'n!, still they are steeping themselves in much of the world's
greatest literature. Despite the selective process that dvlrmincs
what is to be published, this great treasury of literary classics
that is being mode available to Russian readers gives them a view
of man. the world and the meaning of life that is far too rich
and complex to t easily into the connes of Marxist-Leninist
doctrine. What is more, present trends in Soviet book publish-
ing point in the direction of greater variety in the future. The
most startling and encouraging news in recent Soviet literary
history was the announcement we heard informally during our
visit which was conrmed in the Soviet press a few months
later! that the rst sizable edition of Dostoevsl-tis works to
appear in the Soviet Union since the 1920's would be published
during 1956 as a part of the observance of the 75th anniversary
of his death. Of scarcely less signicance as a sign of the times
is the announcement that the 125th anniversary of the birth of
Nikolai Leskov will be commemorated with a 12-volume edition
of his selected writings, which will include numerous works that
have not been republished since the Soviet Revolution. Probably
no other writers of their stature in all Russian literature t so
ill into the framework of Marxist-Leninist orthodoxy, and these
two editions of their works are signicant literary events.
No one who has read The Brothers Karamozmd or The
Possessed will fail to see the clear contradiction between pub-
lishing these works of Dostoevsl-ci and attempting to impose
Mi-11xist»Leninist orthodoxy upon the whole Soviet popula-
tion. It is such contradictions as these that should make foreign
observers beware of easy generalizations about Soviet reality.
Who can say what fruits of the spirit may yet come forth in
some distant0r not so distant-future out of just such con-
tradictions as these! '
67
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F .The George W-ashingtons, Thomas Jefle is and Abraham 1
colns who struggled for justice and freedom in Nineteenth
tury Russia were not statesmen but writcrs. This truilitic
interest in literature has been increased and reinforced by
phenomenal rise in literacy rates achieved by the Soviet. emph
on universal education. Another reason is that the Yilllgt
reading matter available to Russians in their bookshops is
narrower than the range available in most non-Commn
countries in the Fest. The authoritarian control of all pubi
ing by the Soviet state gives the Russian reader no chano
be tempted by crime comics, magazines of movie gossip or s
sensationalism. It also gives him no chance nowadays to oh
the works of a number of distinguished Russian writers of
period just before and just after the Revolution.! If the Rus;
wants to read anything at all, his choice is limited virtual].
political books, technical books, carefully selected classics
Russian and foreign literatures and Soviet works written in '
oiciaily recommended spirit of optimistic idealism whicl
called socialist realism." The popularity of the Ninetee
Century Russian classics requires no particularly ingen
explanation; they are simply great literature. The popula
of foreign literature, however, seems to be due not only to
Russians robust appetite for culture but also to the fact
they have so long been cut off from most normal contacts i
the rest of the world. Translations from foreign literatures
virtually their only rst-hand contact with the thought of
outside world.
Reading Choice Restricted 92
This paternalistic control of literature by the Soviet
thorities would be insufferable to most Western readers, whc
accustomed to deciding for themselves what literature they
sider good and what literature bad. Nevertheless, it will be i:
esting to see what nally comes of this state-enforced lite
tutelage in the Soviet Union. Today, thanks to his narrow r
of choice in reading matter, to his isolation from the ou
world and perhaps also to the rather drab reality of his
life, the average Russian--especially in the cities-re.-1d:
more and far better books than the average American or l
ern European. We saw taxi drivers reading Dreiser and I
Zola, discussed Pushl-cins and Lermontovs poetry with a
miner on a Volga excursion boat, saw ordinary people in tr~
busses reading Leo Tolstoy and others uncritically devoi
Jack Londonl!, and listened to a pretty airline stewardes
66
of Quixote in Russian translation. which '8-S ism few
montns before our visit, did not appear in the bookstores at all,
__, __ _ _ _ _ _A M _ _ because the entire edition had been bought up b5 Bdvane 5T<i@1'5-
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-1- -.,_.._:"-_.,* .-:**$ : >-r ';-seas?» --' -'-'i*"l- - :£f:;:£.'i£::%;_' "*- ..'e.L. a.-.; . uWe heard a few Russians grumbling about this state of affairs
in terms that hinted at speculation in literature. These hints
were apparently conrmed later when one member oi our g1'°11P
happened upon a kind of arnbulant literary black market in the
heart of Moscow. The market was hlaclt not because the books
that changed hands there were forbidden but because specula-
tion in anything is forbidden in the Soviet Union. The books
were simply works that were in such great demand they 601115
not he obtained in the bookshops. Most of them were Russian
translations of works by foreign authorsDickens, Balms. 0.
Henry, Dreiser. Jack London, Mark Twain and 0ib¬!5-
C rorrded Bookstores
In Moscow bookstores we often saw crowds standing three
and four deep around the counters at which literary works were
sold. The contrast between the literary counters and the political
counters was so striking that we began deliberately checking on
our impressions during our walks through the city. Not once did
We see a crowd standing around the counter at which political
books were sold. Several times we did not even see a clerk there.
No doubt she was helping to take care of the crowd at the liter-
ary counter I! Once when we teased a Soviet acquaintance about
this implication of political indifference, he replied indignantly:
It tloesnt mean a thing! That's only because there are always
so many new books appearing at the literary counters. All of
us have the Marxist classics at home already; so we don't have
to spend a lot of time at the political counter. But you should
see the c'ro9292'd there when some important new political book
comes outi"
We are still not convinced. To us the empty political counters
in the bookshops reinforced our impression that Soviet citizens
are among the most unpolitical people we have evcr known.
Here too, no doubt, one can see the Communists own dialectical
process at work, as if to spite them. Their ovet-emphasis upon
the forms of political activity without the political freedom that
would give life to these forms has produced the very antithesis
of what they wanted: political formalism and apathy, the trans-
formation of political activity into political ritual.
What is it that has led to the great Russian interest in the
classics of their own and foreign literaturw? One reason. no
doubt, is that the Russians have always taken literature seriously.
' as
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1Q1Igor is presented in such realistic detail it one's attention
in danger of being drawn away from the music by the stu
that come out one by one when the eclipse reaches its heigl
In the nal act of Moussorgs1~:ys Bo:--is Godunov at the Bolsh
Theater ancient wooden MDSCOIV burns down with enough re:
ism to make the audience start looking for the nearest exit.
tion, which had been created by such masters as Stanislavsl-1
and Nemirovich-Danchenko and was enriched in the early year
of the Soviet period by the bold genius of Vsevolod Meyerholr
The experimental vigor of the 1920s was numbed, however, i
the cold winds of conformity that swept through the Sovie
Union in the 1930's, and the Soviet theater has remained fairl
static ever since. This conservatism has been reinforced by th
traditional repertory system of Russian theaters. Virtually th
same selection of Russian and foreign plays is produced yea
after year. The strength of this system is that it oers Sovie
thcatergoersparticularly in the large citiesa magnicer
array 0f the best drama of all times. During one week of on
visit the theaters of Moscow alone offered ve plays of Shakes
peare Hamlet, Othello played in two different theaters, Twclft
Night, Much Ado About Nothing and Two Gentlemen of Vcro no!
and plays by s dozen other foreign authors, including the Eng
lishman John Galsworthy, the German Friedrich Schiller, th
Spaniard Lope de Vega and the American Lillian Hellmai
Foreign and pre-revolutionary Russian drama made up abou
half of that week's repertory of all the theaters in Moscow. Alon
with its strength, this-conservative Soviet theatrical system als
has the weakness of monotony. Vfnile New Yorkers are able t
see some 80 new plays every year, Londoners about 100 an
Parisians about 150 few of them masterpieces, to be sure!, th
I92Ioseow theatergoer rarely has a chance to see more than
dozen new plays from one year to the next.
Literary Black Market
The most interesting manifestation of the Russians cui
tural interests was to be found in their bookshops. Books in th
Soviet Union are relatively cheap, and the Russians are inst
tiable readers. Their tastes run strongly to their own classics an
to the foreign works that are permitted to circulate in Russia
tratisiaizion. Vforks by Tolstoy, Turgenev, Fuslilcin, Gogol and
host of lesser Russian writers of the Nineteenth Century ar
pubiished in enormous editions, often running into hundreds c
thousands of copies. Several Russians told us that a new editio
§-1
-v VT _ _The Soviet theater inherited a magnicent theatrical tradi
%?_:" e
A J -: l - se-' "':;¢.~¢ "n-'J'92.1 1.---y . = -_ .. .' ;f_'~=. . . - i .1..- -.c-M... . ._.. .1 i, -r, . at
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.,- ~"w=*c'-- » 'every t .nd all day long there was a line of people in f ' é
of the museum awaiting their turn to see the collection. '
Some mi-nibcrs 01' our group were particularly interested in
the plastic arts and made an elfort to tluturniinc what new trends
or innovations had appeared since 1939, when the ower of
Snvint rpn]i_~:m was exhibited at the New York World.-. Fair.
We spent some time in the 'l.retyakov Gallery in I92lo-cow, which
specializes in Russian art and is arranged by years, thus facilitat-
ing our etlort to study the trends. We got the impression that
there was probably some greater freedom in the choice of subject
matter today than in 1939. Along with the prevailing type of
painting with an obvious social message there were some land-
scapes and some still lifes. As for techniques, there was nothing
new or experimental. A very few canvasses had touches of im-
pressionistic brush work but nothing reflecting the inuence of
Twentieth Century painting in the West. While considerable
technical skill of a conventional kind was reected in numerous
paintings, the general result might be described as c:92lend.'=.r art.
Going back to the Nineteenth Century and before, we felt that
even Soviet realism was perhaps an improvement on early Rus-
sian painting. For many decades Russian painters seemed to be
concerned largely with portraiture in a static style.
The canons of Russian taste are perhaps more acceptable
in sculpture than in painting. There were some effective char-
acter studies in this medium, and in some public buildings we
saw monumental examples of high relief, with hundreds of
on sculptured gures marching out of a painted background. The
' v 92 x r
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=' ' 2-sill as : .. ' _ ._ - ,5 ;
. "'-Vi 1 uni -- ~~ . ,,-,_ ._.;_._.-n__i- .-.,-_.£-|.£_.-_.;-92~>|1._:_; __3, . Z ,_.;_.,'- ~._";._~.¢. J.-
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av;-J... a.._.,....._-t-s-._....-.u._4..e--.._,~ ..,,-in . ,_ |absence of what we call modern archltecture is one of the most
striking things about the Soviet building program. New con-
struction is almost entirely in ornate Victorian style, an indica-
tion perhaps of the cultural stage through which the Soviet
people are now passing. The only modern building we saw
was the box-like theatre in Rostov, built experimentally in the
193Os and now considered outdated by the Soviet citizenry.
Theatrical Realism
The Soviet cultivation of realism in art probably nds its
best application in the theater. For perfection in creating the
theatrical illusion of reality it would probably be hard to nd
an equal anywhere in the world to the Bolshoi Theater in Mos-
cow. On the tremendous stage of the Bolshoi, almost as deep as
the auditorium itself, a river is not just a painted strip on a
backdrop, but it has waves and ripples and keeps owing
throughout the scene. The total eclipse in B01'0 lin's opera P1-in :
63
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r
_.Nquite as impressive as present-day achie i:nts.in the nature
sciences.
In general the Soviet. lJ.lli92HlNli;li!:l :i§ipunr tn bu miv 0F {hi
most hopeful forces in Soviet society. By its very nature ar
institution organized to explore the frontiers of knowledge, the
university cannot be wholly rt-gimuntr-cl, for than it would cons:
to function as a university, and the vital sources of our expand-
ing knowledge about man and the world would begin to dry up
The great emphasis that is placed on the natural sciences ant
the scientic method in Soviet education tends to cultivate it
Soviet students and scholars an attitude of mind that is unlikely
to prove compatible very long with any dogmatism, including
the present dogmatic interpretations of Marxism. It will be
interesting to see what the ultimate consequences will be of the
present emphasis on science in Soviet education. One wonder:
what signicance there he even now in the proportions oi
Communist Party members in university faculties. 92Vhile 34.4
per cent of all teachers in higher education in 1947 were Part;
members, the percentage among full professors was only 25.1
and among professors in engineering technical elds only 17
During 92V0rld 92Var I1, when Wendell l.Villkie visited thl
Soviet Union on his trip around the world, he told Stalin he wa:
impressed by the schools and libraries he had seen. But if yoi
continue to educate the Russian people, Mr. Stalin," he said
the rst thing you know you'll educate yourself out of a job."'
It must be admitted that the Communist Party is a Ion:
way as yet from having educated its own dictatorship out 0
existence. But in the emphasis it has placed upon edncation--
even though that education is as "partisan" and biased as th
Party can make itthe Party has set in motion a force that ma;
possibly have a signicant leavening inuence, in the course 0
time, upon the Communist dictatorship itself.
Thirst for Culture
Few things in Russia impressed us so much as the well
nigh inexhaustible thirst of the Russian people for culture. I:
Leningrad we saw crowds of unsophisticated-looking Russian
walking wide-eyed through the galleries of the Hermitage Mu
seum, which holds one of the richest art collections in the world
In Moscow, where the Dresden art treasures taken out of Ger
many at the end of World War II! were placed on display to
the three summer months before being returned to German;
Wendell Willkie, One World {New York: Pocket Books, Inc., 1943'
pp. 70-71. -
62
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*' _' "" -"r -T '- - »--»-92-m..-a._-4,.- , _,_,.____=_;_~insti ; was approximately 1 to 12.6, while in the United States
it is ut 1 to 14. Although there were only 27,000 £1 -ta
students enrolled in the Soviet Union in 1952 as cornpa. .' to
69,000 rnasters and doctor's degrees alone awarded in the United
States that year!, the Soviet Union in 1954 graduated twice as
many engineers as the United States and three times as many
physicians. More than 60 per cent of all Soviet graduates that
year were in engineering and the sciences, as cmpared to 25
per cent in the United States. By 1950 the Soviet Union had
about 100 persons with a higher education for every 10,000 popu-
lation, which is a slightly higher proportion than that of most
Western European countries but is far oeiotr the United States
gure of 320 pcr 10,000 population. The number of Soviet citi-
zens with higher education working in the applied scientic
elds, however, is believed to equal or slightly surpass the num-
ber in the United States.
Up to 1040 all Soviet education was tuition-free and a broad
scholarship program provided all students except those on pro-
bation with a monthly stipend for expenses. In 1940 moderate
tuition fees of 150 to 200 rubies were introduced into the three
upper grades of middle school, and fees of 300 to 500 rubies in
all institutions of higher education. These tuition fees still exist
in higher education, but almost all students more than 96 per
cent at the Uni-¢ersit5' of Mc:sc0'.'.', for e.*:arnple! receive scholar-
ships, which are awarded on the basis of grades.
Science Education Advanced '
From what has already been said it is no doubt clear that
the Soviet educational system is impressive and deserves to be
Q 92!1§ilj_Q[Q _i_ Qnii of the most notable achievements of the Soviet
regime. Its level of scientic and technical work in general
appears to be comparable to that of the United States. On the
other hand, much less attention is devoted to the humanities and
sociai sciences in Soviet education than in American education,
and Soviet vvork in these areas is much more seriously affected
than Soviet science by the Procrustean bed of Marxist-Leninist
dogma. If Soviet scholarship is ever freed from the dead weight
of Marxist scholasticisrn and political censorship, the subsequent
achievements in the humanities and social sciences may well he
" On January 2, 1956, The New York Times cited an article in the
Scientic American showing that the United States had lost ve years in
time and spent $200,000 unnecessarily in an eiiort to solve a number of
problems in the area of electrical circuits which had already been solved
in the Soviet Union and described in a Soviet scientic magazine in 1550.
. at
in
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--.<'=¥-'-;T.- - ti-. a-/.55 ,. '.'1&i 1-. e-.1 .1 ~.:;~:_-' ¥¬+;A,2a-.:f::-.f~=I~':r:.: §. ?.~=-w 1? t-*.;<;_s?~rJi'~*"-'-92-w-<*-92..»'-=t--= -4,4 ,.¬.".*,.IL"'.{.-'.s|:r._ '-_'-1* 5 ;-, '?£;,§§ *1--. ~33--.-' "As-<5 ;,i_1'~i~'r£,-WI
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. Ti-L-. s 1M '3' ';- . . 1' ~.' -i ,1» --c.- -t -:.e -_.92.=.- ' " F
= 1 -_ ti-¥.: . t; 1-.4 -' ..8r-0 ,_'.-4»_ ._.___ ,, ,C1955, marks the beginning of 9. transitic iward universal
year compuisory education, which is e.., cred to be achi
by about 1960.
Except for the choice of foreign language usually Eng
German or French!, the curriculum in all ten grades is the s
for all students. Soviet schools devote much more time
American schools to foreign languages, geography, mathem;
and the natural sciences. For example, a foreign languag
begun in the fth grade and studied for six years. Most
versity curriculurns require four more years of foreign-iang
study, and medical students study two years of Latin in addi
In 1953 almost 41 per cent of the class hours in the three u
grades was devoted to mathematics and the sciences, an
the fall of 1955 the proportion was increased even more.
revised at that time, the required program in all ten-year sci
now _includes the following subjects: Russian language
literature including the study of some foreign tvorks in ti
lation, among them Shakespeare's Hamlet and Part I of Goe
Faust!, a foreign language, history, geography, the Cons
tion of the U.S.S.R., psychology, arithmetic, algebra, geom
trigonometry, chemistry, physics, astronomy, singing, drzu
manual arts and physical culture and sport including
miiitnry training as eariy as the fifth grade}.
Teacher Ratio High
' The pupil-teacher ratio in Soviet schools has been ste
improving. In 1030 there were 36 pupils per teacher in pri:
and secondary schools,,__i_n 1940 there were 28, in 1950 there
23; and the ratio since 1050 appears to have dropped even li
owing partly to the drop in enrollment as a result of the
time decrease in birth rate and losses in population.
Soviet university work includes a basic program la
four to six years, depending on the eld; and graduate worl-
comprises two advanced degrees, the kcmclidat degree of
didste!, which requires three years of graduate work a
thesis; and the doctoral degree, which is normally received
siderably later than in the United States and is not consi
a prerequisite for employment or advancement in a. unive
In 1954 there were about 1,100,000 full-time univ<
students in the Soviet Union-considerably less than he
many as in the United States, where there were 2,600,00
I953-54 there were S03 institutions of higher education i
Soviet Union, as compared to 1,851 in the United States. I
1954 the ratio of faculty to students in Soviet universitie
6_0
as .l » - -:~.e..- It
it._ -
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-=- i. » ~ .= ~*~" 1?? -'; ~*~.-=:l f. - . -I.. ' - -* -f _ ii '. " . . ,-1 .L- ,=_ 1 -1 _4~.___.:--';-I:.92.:'.-1-I';i1a:"'~ . ."- -.-;' ' .».w -._;1_; -. i .5:-_;-1: ;; 1_::_-_',.'..=» ;,;_'._-r.>.=- 1" ,L-'~."t';,;i-'- ,<V , 0- K re, _ ->.- A .i 92.i.-if-, l , . -.~.»A..§-*1---r,,!~ N.--P't',**_...; / l -. I. -. »t I _ - -i i_~,..;'-7; =-92 -r,F'.;-'<- >,-1-M: ~3_--" -~ ,_., A.-.=.z-=- c= ea. <=~=..-1czss.=1:.i.:~2»~.c,,,,* 1==,>M=. ate.;§L-1;.;..,.**ri5i.- i£¬§::$r§¢153'?_§i='¢..,.*4; at
$2
c
.
1
-
- i
.-= E
2,, -_ K L _ .._' :;-:'.._ -i..<. .. '- _; 92- _r: " s '. j .-
f-;;;*;<.f1* :5» ~_ _ 5" ' .c i to lwhich comprises the rst {our grades; the in: llete middle
school, comprising the rst seven grades: i1l'l l. the middle
school," comprising the full ten-year program that prepares
students for entrance into the uni92'cr.sity. The tn-Ilchilll-I Dfrm
is identical at corresponding levels in all three t_92']'K>s of schools.
The student who has L-O!|l;JiL'iu i a. seven-year school or the S092' ?llll
grade of a ten-year school can enter a "technicum," or trade
high school, which allows him to complete his ten-year school
program with three years of semi-professional technical train-
ing in one of a great variety oi elds.
An example of the distribution of these schools might be
given by citing the town of Penza, which as was noted earlier
has a population of perhaps 175,000. Vfhcn we asked the alert
young principal of one of its middle schools how many schools
there were in the town, her answer was simple: "Enough for
everybody." Apparently the Soviet State Secrets law of 1947
still makes Soviet citizens reluctant to give any kind of statis-
tics to foreigners. Fortunately, there is less reluctance in the
Large Soviet Eizcyclopcdio, which declares that on January 1,
1955, the town of Panza had 12 primary schools, 15 seven-year
schools, 22 ten-year schools and 7 trade high schools. In addi-
finn ii. 1431!} 11 .er"hnr92l=: FOP 9292'nri.:i?92 vn|:l'l'| " val-|ir~ln nriar-aha nr T h 9 ...... __ ...._. _- ........_,._. _..- .-... .....= _,v-.--..»| ..-.._... vr~--92- Hv~
mally in three daily shifts and provide the basic ten-3-"ear edu-
cation for young people who for one reason or another have
dropped out of regular schools and wish to continue studying
while they work. These schools for working youth were set up
near the end of World War II as an emergency measure for
young people whose schooling had been interrupted, but now
they appear to have become a permanent part of the Soviet
educational system.
Longer Schooling Git-en
In the United States about 55 per cent of the children who
enter the rst grade complete the iull 12 years of gramrnar
high School. In the Soviet Union the proportion of those who
complete the ten-year-school program was only about 5 per cent
in the past and even today is only about 12 per cent. This has
resulted partly from lack of school facilities and partly from
a highly selective educational policy, designed to weed our all
but the most able students and direct the others into types of
education or occupations more suited to their ability. Until
recently the ten-year middle school served primarily to. prepare
the able: students for the University. A substantial revision of
the ten-year curriculum, which went into eect in the fall of
59
E. _',. . _.
.. .-+7.}-.s-/i-j_i~*'*';i -.__i',' '~" _._.;¢ ;
. . ,~, . .. -H 92
-- -- - .- -, is <.-in-~.'== z"*:-;f==T15-=J""-. Q ,r_'., _-1 -_ . » _; ~_ ;92_.* ~:_;=,92.'-.~_-.-,,;-_~,k ~ -~.¢i.;. _|_-3'1 ~. ; :=-,3;>z-'».-,;,gl;,,'=._:»;.u,~.i.E1i-ea_-=..r_;__,4l..s-~._.w.~t....>92 -1
--.... .._.g
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"1_ _.A _ _ __ 1Sirixiui lI_1l.{lII_ILlii !Il auu
Since Leninist doctrine in the Soviet Union is p1'OC]
as the one illfallibie key to truth, the principle function .
Soviet school system is to bring the younger generation u
staunch believers in the Marxist religion. And since the Ma
doctrine of ciass war has ieci iogicaiiy to the extension of mil
thinking. military strategy and wartime ethical values t
areas of life, the Soviet educational system can likewise be
pared to the special training programs set up within mc
armies to supply whatever cadres of trained personnel the 1
Of the armies require.
According to Marxist-Leninist doctrine, there is no corn
between these two aims and the aim of giving every persot
opportunity to develop his own abilities. Since Marxist-Leni
doctrine teaches that the individual nds real self-fulfilln
only in identifying himself with his Soviet society. the us-
Soviet schools as instruments for the propagation of the Mar
faith and the gearing of Soviet education to the needs of
state are considered actually to make it easier for the indivii...
Soviet citizen to achieve self-realization.
Within this framework, reecting as it does a system
values considerably different from those which are reected
American-education, it can be said that the Soviet e-rlucatio
system otters signicant opportunities for a large number
young men and women to get training in proportion to th
ability. It is understandable that the opportunity is greater
present in the cities than in the country. Whereas rural childre
form 69 per cent of the total Soviet school enrollment and or
nttmber city children in the rst four grades by three to or
the proportion is almost reversed in the last three grades eight
ninth, and tenth!, where city children form 59 per cent of t
total enrollment.
Soviet children start to school at the age of seven. Thr
types of basic schools exist side by side: the primary schooi
' These gures and much of the other statistical data in this chspte
are drawn from the excellent new study of the whole Soviet education
system by Nicholas Dewitt, Soviet Profosrimwl Manpower Washingtoi
national Science Foundation, 1955!.
58
92..~.,,¢~
0
¢._,,,
--»_9292. .,_
-' ,- .. ' _92 , vi . __t -92'=._'.,92t r ,4,-Q» ,-~ 3;?
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-_ I'92P_1 . . .. ,., _.._,- 92:,.-.1 92¢*4A-{Tn _,_ .,tr .' _ ,1. l
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, ~ , '3 .1 ,:*92 -_ ca 1'1.
.'-' Si i"-:- " I '.-i 5 -.:1.-.:I"--5331?"i.-ii-1}? :--'i-Uii7.<§l.'3.::?";total! ' i§>- .""
P r 92 - *' - 4'_ .-¢§_92,f; E_l' §.";_.w i' _>.»_;-;_'»_<;-5. .15}-'-_-n;>5~'»~,~§}i _-'.-, -:; .s R-r-:'
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's"'-, '5,
N- t .:
1!1. red to an interview with an official in the Al-zmo l: Agri-
cultural Ministry. From this discussion and from .-iers in
Moscow, as well as from our own observation in Geritral Asia,
we conclude that the whole vast experiment represents an enor-
mous gamble. Rainfall is the key to success or failure, and rain-
fall per year averages only a marginal I2 inches. With a weather
break, good crops will be produced, as they were in the rst year
954! of the experiment, but in a dry year they will fail. Even-
tually enough snow fences may be built and wind breaks planted
to help hold moisture and top soil, but in the meantime it seemed
likely to us that several years of consecutive drought might turn
the whole region into a dust bowl, especially in view of the wind
which seems to sweep constantly across the at plain. The land
itself is adequate, but we were advised that some fertilizer is
necessary and is being widely used. No irrigation is attempted,
since the engineering and supply problems
present Soviet resources, although
possibility.
It is too early to predict with any certainty the chances of
success without irrigation. All that can be said is that if the
project succeeds, it will make a major contribution to the solu-
tion of the Soviet farm problem. If it fails, it will he a failure
of vast proportions, carrying with it the hopes and dreams, if
not the lives, of great numbers of Soviet citizens. On the basis
of our own inadequate visit, and bearing in mind the drought
conditions which prevailed in the course of it and may l'1a92'e
influenced our view, we are inclined to the opinion that the new
lands are not the basic answer to the Soviet agricultural proh-
Iem. Dramatic as is the experiment, we suggest that a more
fundamental answer must be found on the farms of European
Russia, an a.ns9292.'er which will result in increased productivity
on existing farms, especially in the fertile Ukraine.are to great for
irrigation is a theoretical
92. 557
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»a reasonable quantity of maps. Lahore !equipn-lent and
onstration apparatus for the physics an-u mathematics d
ments were, however, limited and poor in both schools. l
we were told with pride that two graduates were studying
University of Moscow, a large painting" of which form:
backdrop of the auditorium stage. This school also boa:
farm and a model railroad. Each class was required to
two afternoons a week working its plot on the school farr
we were particularly impressed with the work of the
grades, who were being taught irrigation techniques and
applying them on their plots.
The model railroad is 8. rather common adjunct of 1
middle schools, but we were surprised to nd one in Akrm
The Soviet Union is in the midst of the railroad age, and ir
in railroading among school children is stimulated by pro
them with opportunity to operate small model railroads
one at Akmolinsk included two stations and two kilornet
track, with s four-car train running on a regular schedule
older children serve as engineers, conductors, switchmen, s
masters, ticket sellers and so forth, while the younger ch
do work under their direction and ride as passengers.
There is a functioning Orthodox church in Akml
built of wood and painted a faded blue, but we did not
attracting large numbers of people to its evening services.
was in sharp contrast to our experience with church atter
in other parts of the Soviet Union, and it may have been
the pressure of agricultural activity, since our visit occur
the height of the growing season.
Sewing Machine Villain
Several movie houses were playing Russian and Uzbek
and were being well patronized. We saw an Uzbek lm th.
been produced in Tashkent and were impressed with its t
ca! quality, if not its story content. The plot related
capture by Communist forces of the city of Bukhara in
and suffered badly from the stereotyped casting that ha
most Soviet art expression in a straitjacket since the revo
One noteworthy aspect of the picture was the presence
villain's role, of course-of a Western businessman wh
identied only as the representative of the Singer Com}
which suggests that the impact of American merchandisir
deep enough to be recognized by Central Asian audience
after 40 years.
Our direct contact with the new lands program itse
56
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riding an atomic bomb and grasping at a gold do.._.r as he
approaches the edge of a cliff, at the foot of which lies the
wreckage of the Nazi war machine. This poster was the only
remaining example that we found in the Soviet Union of these
Once common expressions of propaganda. Much more annoying
were the obvious suspicions of the functionary from the Educa-
tion Ministry assigned to show us the sights. This young man
accompanied us on most of the excursions around town-to a
chick hatchery, to two middle schools, to the house of culture,"
to the model railroad and to the park of rest, and rarely did
he let us out of his sight. On one occasion, after one of our group
had gotten grease on his hands, our guide instructed the taxi
driver to accompany him to the river edge, ostensibly to show
him how to wash his hands, but obviously to make sure he took
no pictures under cover of the bank. Pictures were not permitted
of any living creature and only of especially approved buildings
so conventional that their counterparts could be found in every
country of the world. This excessive caution, and a cool detached
manner, marked our guide as a young man anxious to succeed
by hewing to the letter of every regulation. He was only trying
to do his duty, but he sorely tried our patience in the process.
Limited Facilities
In spite of these difficulties, we managed to see a large part
of the town and to gather some impression of the new lands
program. For its size, Akrnolinsk was the most poorly equipped
community from a cultural standpoint that we visited. its house
Of culture" was a rather iarge two-story wood structure badly
in need of paint both inside and out, with a fair library on the
rst oor and an auditorium on the second. Large posters giving
statistics on 1954. farm production and announcing the 1955
goals lined the corridors on both oors. Few persons were in
evidence, but our visit occurred during the work day, and we
were assured that the facilities were well utilized in the evening.
Ten years of schooling is available to Alimolinsi-t children,
and we visited two of the town's middle schools. One was under-
going extensive repairs, including the installation of a com-
pletely new heating system, although the building was only eight
years old. The other was notable for its cosmopolitan atmos-
phere, with a North Korean principal, a Tartar associate and
various racial strains evident on the playground. Equipment
in both schools was limited, although there was an adequate
supply of desks and chairs, blackboards in every classroom and
55
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' _sHwe clashed head-on with Soviet bureaucra t was here th
We were kept under denite surveillance; it was here that 92
found a remnant of the old, hostile, anti-American displays a1
attitudes that have h-ppily gone out of fashion in more acce
sible Darts of the Soviet Union. As a result, we were unable
accomplish our main purpose in coming to Akmolinsk: we nev
got outside the town onto one of the new farms. The only vie
we gained of the new lands program itself was from the air I
the way to and from Akmolinsk. This glimpse of vast new tiel
stretching as far as the eye could see across the at ernptine
of the central Asian plain was breathtaking and impressive, b
it was no substitute for direct ground observation of the hu,
machines at work, the new farms in construction or the 191
crop in preparation. Judged by this result alone, the Akmolin
visit would have to be written oft as a failure.
Fortunately, there were some valuable by-products. In t
rst place, we learned something about the plight of the in:
vidual and unknown citizen who tries to do battle with 1:
massive Soviet bureaucracy. Bureaucracy and big governme
always go together, and in the Soviet Union where governme
is bigger than anywhere else, bureaucracy manages somehow
keep pace. As in Panza, we spent three days trying to beat clot
its provincial expression in Ahmolinsk and retired in total defez
Basically, the problem was that the particular ofcial who giv
permission to foreigners to move outside the city was away, at
in his absence nothing could be done. Delegation of responz
bility is not a part of the Soviet system. Nobody will give
permission not specically within his sphere of 1'ESp0nSibilit
Neither will he provide a direct answer as to when the need
ofcial will return or whether he can be reached in the interi;
In our case, local agricultural oicials were in constant telepho
communication with their chief, but even our able Intour;
guide was unable to learn where he was or whether our requs
was ever transmitted. For three days we went from piliar
post, and the only answer we ever got was: The countrysi
is no concern of mine.
Anti-American Feeling '
We also saw something of the openly suspicious cllmz
about which Westerners have complained in the past. In sha
contrast to the relaxing atmosphere and lack of surveillan
that we noted in other Soviet cities, Akmolinsk oflicials h
apparently not yet been notied of the change in Soviet poli
toward the West. Still to be seen in the town's park of res
54
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_ _, __,... r..r_. ___ __,_v.___-_.____.i.iiEI in the well, the washroom was alternately 1. . to ovc-r-
owing or cOmpletely deserted. When it was lled. three 01' fvur
persons sometimes crowded around a single basin, one attempt»
ing to wash his face, another his feet, a. third to cup his hands
for a drink and a fourth to ll a water jug. Under these circum-
stances, washing was not a leisurely occasion.
The hotel teemed with a rnelange of people from all parts
of the Soviet Union, and indeed from the Whole Communist
world. Most of the accommodations were dormitory style, but
there were a number of small private rooms into which as many
beds as possible were crammed. The overow slept on the oor
and on benches or chairs in the central lobby. Most of the guests
appeared to be minor government officials or farmers in town
for business purposes in connection with the new lands program.
Certainly the hotel was not being used as a transient center for
new recruits coming into the region to work on the massive new
state farms. These people are quartered in dormitories better
equipped to handle the numbers involved.
Labor Not Quite Forced
Akmolinsk is an overcrowded community thrust into promi-
nence by the great project which it helps to service. We were
impressed by the large numbers of young people to be seen on
the streets and concluded that young people make up the hulk
of the new farm labor needed in the region. As far as ,we could
learn, these recruits are not actually dragooned into coming out
into this empty prairie land, but they are certainly given every
encouragement to do so. In the rst place, there is a wage incen-
tive: wagcs offered by the government on e three-year contrac-
tual basis are almost double those offered by state farms in the
Ukraine. Second, since this is apparently not enough, consider-
able pressure is placed on the graduates of agricultural schools
to go into the new lands region on the completion of their train-
ing. We have no grounds for suggesting that such a move is
actually obligatory, but we concluded that unless a person had
a pretty good reason for not doing so, he would be likely to end
up in Al-rmolinsl-c or Barnaul or one of the other centers serving
the new lands program. Obviously, some pressure is exerted,
because the region is not an appealing one in which to invest
one's life, or even a few years of it.
In retrospect, our stay in Akmolinsk emerges as one of the
most interesting and illuminating experiences of our whole
Soviet visit, although while it was in process we felt only frus-
tration, annoyance and physical discomfort. It was here that
53