FM 38 701 Packaging of Materiel Packing

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DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL
MARINE CORPS ORDER
DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY PUBLICATION
DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE PAMPHLET
DEFENSE LOGISTICS AGENCY INSTRUCTION

EM 38-701
MCO P4030.2U
NAVSUP PUB
AFPAM(I) 24
DLAI 4145.2

PACKAGING OF MATERIEL

PACKING

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution Is unlimited.

DEPARTMENTS OF THE ARMY, THE NAVY, THE AIR FORCE,
AND THE DEFENSE LOGISTICS AGENCY

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

*FM 38-701
MCO 4030.21D
NAVSUP PUB 503
AFPAM(I) 24-209
DLAI 4145.2

DEPARTMENTS OF THE ARMY,
NAVY, AND AIR FORCE, AND THE
DEFENSE LOGISTICS AGENCY

PACKAGING OF MATERIEL
PACKING

CHAPTER PAGE

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE 1

SCOPE 1

REFERENCES 8

CHAPTER 1 - PACKING

GENERAL 1-1

SEQUENCE OF PACKING OPERATION 1-1

DETERMINATION OF PACKING REQUIREMENTS 1-3

ITEM CHARACTERISTICS 1-3

LOAD CHARACTERISTICS 1-7

MODES OF TRANSPORTATION 1-7

STORAGE CONSIDERATIONS 1-8

DESTINATION AND FIELD CONDITIONS 1-9

FUNCTIONS AND SELECTION OF SHIPPING CONTAINERS 1-9

ARRANGEMENT OF CONTENTS 1-9

BLOCKING AND BRACING 1-11

APPLICATION OF BLOCKING AND BRACING 1-12

STRAPPING REINFORCEMENT FOR CONTAINERS 1-33

CUSHIONING 1-35

PACKING PROBLEMS 1-51

PACKING SMALL, LIGHTWEIGHT ITEMS 1-53

CLEARANCE BETWEEN ITEM AND CONTAINER 1-54

WEATHERPROOFING THE PACK 1-55

TESTING OF PACKS 1-59

MARKING OF PACKS 1-68

ECONOMY IN PACKING 1-68

PARCEL POST REQUIREMENTS 1-72

*This field manual supersedes DLAM 4145.2, Vol II/TM 38-230-2/NAVSUP PUB 503, Vol
IPAFP 71-16/MCO P4030.21C, Packaging of Materiel - Packing (Volume II), June 1977

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

CHAPTER 2 - FIBERBOARD AND PAPERBOARD CONTAINERS

FIBERBOARD BOXES 2-1

TRIPLE-WALL CORRUGATED FIBERBOARD BOXES (ASTM D 5168) 2-31

CHAPTER 3 - WOODEN CANTAINERS AND PALLETS

CONTAINER MATERIALS 3-1

NAILED AND LOCK-CORNER WOOD BOXES (PPP-B-621) 3-7

NAILING REQUIREMENTS 3-20

CLEATED-PANEL BOXES (GENERAL) 3-30

CLEATED PLYWOOD BOXES (PPP-B-601) 3-34

BOXES,, WOOD-CLEATED PANELBOARD 3-42

WOOD-CLEATED, SKIDDED, LOAD-BEARING BASE BOXES (MIL-B-26195) 3-42

WIREBOUND WOOD BOXES (PPP-B-585) 3-50

CLASS 3 MILITARY OVERSEA 3-53

PALLETS (GENERAL) 3-59

FOUR-WAY POST CONSTRUCTION PALLETS (MIL-P-15011) 3-62

FOUR-WAY (PARTIAL) STRINGER CONSTRUCTION PALLETS (NN-P-71) 3-62

MAINTENANCE OF PALLETS 3-62

CHAPTER 4 - BAGS AND SACKS

NEED FOR BAGS AND SACKS 4-1

BAGS DEFINED 4-1

SACKS DEFINED 4-1

SHIPPING BAGS AND SACKS 4-1

COTTON MAILING BAGS (A-A-2714) 4-1

PROCUREMENT 4-3

CUSHIONED PAPER SHIPPING SACKS (A-A-160, A-A-1588) 4-3

A-A-160 (CUSHIONED WITH POST CONSUMER RECOVERED MATERIAL) 4-3

A-A-1588 (CUSHIONED WITH CLOSED CELL PLASTIC FILM) 4-5

BURLAP SHIPPING BAGS (A-A-881) 4-7

CHAPTER 5 - PAILS AND DRUMS

DESCRIPTION, CLASSIFICATIONS, AND SELECTION FACTORS 5-1

METAL SHIPPING AND STORAGE DRUMS (MIL-D-6054) 5-3

METAL DRUMS (STANDARD) (MISCELLANEOUS) 5-9

FIBER DRUMS 5-12

CHAPTER 6 - CRATES

INTRODUCTION TO CRATES 6-1

CRATE MATERIALS 6-18

WOOD CREATES, OPEN AND COVERED, MIL-C-52950 (GENERAL) 6-29

TYPE I, STYLE A -HEAVY DUTY CRATE (MIL-C-52950) 6-34

TYPE I, STYLE B-LIGHT DUTY CRATE (MIL-C-52950) 6-35

TYPE II, STYLE A-HEAVY DUTY CRATE (MIL-C-52950) 6-37

TYPE III, STYLE B-LIGHT DUTY CRATE (MIL-C-52950) 6-40

TYPE IV, STYLE A-HEAVY DUTY CRATE (MIL-C-52950) 6-43

TYPE V, STYLE A-HEAVY DUTY (MIL-C-52950) 6-43

TYPE V, STYLE B-LIGHT DUTY CRATE (MIL-C-529502) 6-48

ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS (MIL-C-52950) 6-58

OPEN WOOD CRATES, MIL-C-3774 (GENERAL) 6-60

OPEN BOLTED CRATES (MIL-C-3774) 6-60

OPEN NAILED CRATES (MIL-C-3774) 6-72

SHEATHED WOOD CRATES, MIL-C-104 (GENERAL) 6-84

ASSEMBLY (CLASS 1 CRATES) 6-115

CRATE, SLOTTED ANGLE, STEEL OR ALUMINUM (MIL-C-9897) 6-141

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

CHAPTER 7 - CONSOLIDATION AND UNITIZATION FOR SHIPMENT
AND USE OF CARGO CONTAINERS

CONSOLIDATION AND UNITIZATION FOR SHIPMENT 7-1

PALLETIZING UNIT LOADS (MIL-HDBK-774) 7-2

SHRINK FILM AND STRETCH FILM PALLETIZATION 7-6

CONSOLIDATION CONTAINERS (GENERAL) 7-6

BOXES, SHIPPING INSERT CONSOLIDATION, MIL-B-43666 (GENERAL) 7-6

TYPE I, WOOD CLEATED PLYWOOD CONSOLIDATION INSERT BOX

(MIL-B-43666) 7-8

TYPE II, PLYWOOD WIREBOUND CONSOLIDATION INSERT BOX

(MIL-B-43666) 7-11

TYPE III, FIBERBOARD CONSOLIDATION INSERT BOX (MIL-B-43666) 7-11

PACKING CONSOLIDATION CONTAINER 7-13

PACKING SEMI-PERISHABLE SUBSISTENCE ITEMS 7-14

CARGO CONTAINERS (GENERAL) 7-16

USE OF MILVANS AND SEAVANS 7-18

SHIPMENT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 7-21

iii

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFJPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE AND SCOPE

PURPOSE

This publication contains information on the fundamental principles and
approved methods and techniques used in the protection of military supplies
and equipment against deterioration and damage during shipment and
storage. It is published as an official document for use in operations and in
the training of military and civilian personnel from all segments of the
Department of Defense (DOD) and supporting agencies, as well as for
interested industrial personnel. It contains information based on
specifications, standards, and other pertinent documents, current as of the
date of preparation and coordination of the publication.

NOTE

For Air Force use, the publication is non-directive in nature.

SCOPE

This manual emphasizes the importance of packing of military supplies and
equipment. It contains detailed information concerning the requirements to
accomplish packing operations. The requirements include use of exterior
shipping containers; the assembling of items or packs into the container;
anchoring, blocking, bracing, and cushioning of items or packages within the
container; weatherproofing; strapping of containers; the testing of exterior
packs; palletization and unitization of loads; parcel post; and related subject
matter. General exterior marking in accordance with MIL-STD-129 is
discussed.

Changes and Provisions

Changes or revisions to this manual are due to major changes in packing
concepts, policies and doctrine, and revision of specifications and other
official publications, will be made on a continuing basis, as required.
Information contained herein is current as of June 1996.

Users are encouraged to submit recommended changes or comments to
improve this manual. Comments should be keyed to the specific page,
paragraph, and line of the text in which the change is recommended.
Reasons should be provided for each comment to insure understanding and
complete evaluation. Comments should be prepared using DA Form 2028
(Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) or appropriate
service form and forwarded direct to Dean, U.S. Army Ordnance School of
Military Packaging Technology, ATTN: ATSL-MPT, 360 Lanyard Road,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21005-5003.

Objectives of Military Packaging

The objectives for achieving uniform packing of items of military supply are
to-

• Insure optimum life, utility and performance of materiel through
prevention of deterioration or damage.

• Support the materiel readiness posture of DOD.

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFJPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

• Provide for efficient receipt, storage, inventory, transfer and issue of
materiel.

• Assure that marking requirements are kept at the minimum
necessary for effective identification, handling, shipment and storage.

• Effect economies by requiring the use of packs which yield lowest
overall cost to the total DOD distribution system consistent with
known or anticipated shipment handling and storage conditions.
Considerations will include—

o Minimization of materials, methods of preservation, and
documentation.

o Accomplishment with optimum amount of automated
operations.

o Minimum weight and cube,
o Use of modular containers,
o Handling by unitized load configuration,
o Use of containerization.

o Exploitation of new materials, methods, and techniques,
o Disposability of packaging materials.

Hazards Encountered in Transportation, Handling, and Storage

Military supplies and equipment must be protected against pilferage and
damage due to force and exposure, not only until they reach their ultimate
destination, but until the items are placed into actual use or service. Force
and exposure will reduce the useful lifespan of the item or cause the item to be
damaged beyond repair. The objective of packing is to extend the lifespan of
the item so that depreciation starts, not when it leaves the manufacturing
plant, but when it is placed into service.

Force

Damage may result from hazardous forces encountered in transportation,
handling, and storage (figure 1). Transportation hazards involve forces
encountered through rail, truck, boat, or air shipments. The damage caused
can result from abrupt starts, stops, vibration, and jolting.

Handling hazards involve those damaging forces received through loading,
unloading, and handling during storage operations. Examples of handling
where damage often occurs are—

• Manual handling— dropping and puncture.

• Forklift truck handhng— dropping and puncture.

• Cargo nets— dropping, crushing, and wracking.

• Grab hooks— crushing and puncture.

• Slings— crushing, dropping, and wracking.

• Conveyers— jarring, smashing, and dropping.

Storage hazards involve those forces resulting from the crushing effect of
superimposed loads through stacking.

Exposure

Exposure to the different climatic conditions and weather hazards, such as
high humidity, rain, salt spray, extreme cold, dry intense heat, and the cycling
of these weather conditions, will tend to accelerate the breakdown or
deterioration of unprotected items.

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFJPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

HANDLING

CLIMATE

SMPT 300

SHIPMENT

Figure 1. Hazardous forces encountered in transportation handling, and storage.

Pilferage

Theft of military supplies and equipment while in transit or storage is a significant
problem for the military. Small items of high value are especially vulnerable to pilferage
and should be protected as much as possible through packing techniques.

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFJPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Countermeasures To Hazards Of Pack

Items which are packed properly will resist the damaging effects of force and
exposure. Force is counteracted by--

• Using rigid shipping containers.

• Immobilizing the item within the container through anchoring,
blocking, and bracing.

• Damping forces through the use of cushioning materials and devices.

• Reinforcing shipping containers with metal and nonmetallic
strapping or reinforcement tape as appropriate.

Exposure is counteracted by the use of--

• Weather-resistant shipping containers.

• Waterproof barrier materials in various applications.

Necessity for a Packaging Policy

To attain economy, efficiency, and uniformity in packing, and to provide a
uniform procedure in connection with procurement, the services and agencies
of the Department of Defense must have a common packing policy. This is
provided by the Department of Defense (DOD) 4140. 1-R, Materiel
Management Regulation.

Military Regulations

The Joint Regulation AR 700-15/NAVSUPINST 4030.28C/AFJMAN 24-204/
MCO 4030.33D/DLAD4145.7, applies to all Department of Defense compo-
nents (Army, Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps, and the Defense Logistics
Agency) responsible for packaging an item throughout its life cycle.

This regulation on the packaging of materiel implements DOD 4140. 1-R and
covers packaging requirements, American Society for Testing and Materials
Standards (ASTM) specifications, levels of protection along with policies and
procedures for Performance Oriented Packaging (POP) and the protection of
electrostatic discharge sensitive items.

Military Packaging Levels of Protection

Concept of Military Levels of Protection

In regard to requirements for packing, the military services for many years
relied heavily on the terms "domestic" and "overseas". Experience proved
that for military purposes, these words were vague generalities with no
clear-cut meaning to them. Suppliers were often perplexed when confronted
with overseas requirements for items destined for domestic installations. It
was not apparent to them that the domestic destinations were merely initial
receiving points for projected overseas shipments, or that storage and
handling conditions were severe enough to justify an overseas type of
packing regardless of destination. To permit the military services to state
their requirements more objectively, the concept of levels of protection was
adopted. As defined in MIL-STD-2073-1C, levels of protection are a means
of specifying the level of military preservation and packing that a given item
requires to assure that it is not degraded during shipment and storage (see
figure 2). Specific levels of protection are as follows:

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFJPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

SMPT 406D

Figure 2. Examples of protection.

• Military level of preservation. Preservation designed to protect
an item during shipment, handling, indeterminate storage, and
distribution to consignees worldwide.

• Military levels of packing.

o Level A. Protection required to meet the most severe worldwide
shipment, handling, and storage conditions. Level A pack must,
in tandem with the applied preservation, be capable of protecting
material from the effects of direct exposure to extremes of
climate, terrain, operational and transportation environments.
Examples of situations which indicate a need for use of a Level A
pack are: War Reserve Material, mobilization, strategic and
theater deployment and employment, open storage, and deck
loading. Examples of containers used for Level A packing

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFJPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

requirements include, but are not limited to, overseas type wood
boxes and plastic and metal reusable containers,
o Level B. Protection required to meet moderate worldwide
shipment, handling, and storage conditions. Level B pack must,
in tandem with the applied preservation, be capable of protecting
material not directly exposed to extremes of climate, terrain, and
operational transportation environments. Examples of situations
which indicate a need for use of a Level B pack are: security
assistance (e.g.. Foreign Military Sales (FMS)) and containerized
overseas shipments. Examples of containers used for Level B
packing requirements include, but are not limited to, domestic
wood crates, weather-resistant fiberboard containers, fast pack
containers, weather-resistant fiber drums, and weather-resistant
paper and multi-wall shipping sacks.

Commercial Packaging. Commercial packaging is defined as the materials
and methods used by the supplier to meet the requirements of the
distribution systems serving both DOD and commercial consumers. The
requirements of MIL-STD-2073-1C shall only be applied to the packaging of
items that are expected to enter the military distribution system.
Commercial packaging is to be used to the maximum extent possible for all
other items. Items not going into stock shall be packaged in accordance with
ASTM D 3951, Standard Practice for Commercial Packaging.

Commercial packaging will be acceptable for any level of protection when the
technical design of the package meets all conditions of the level of protection
specified. It will be marked to the level it meets. Use of commercial
packaging is contingent upon no increase in packaging changes, size, weight,
or delay in delivery.

Bulk practices used in interplant and intraplant movements or shipments to
jobbers are not acceptable unless they are the usual trade practices for
individual commodities such as coal, textiles, petroleum, and subsistence.

The packaging details will be incorporated into standardization and
acquisition documents when applicable.

NATO STANAG 4280, Levels of Requirements for Packaging

Participating nations agree to adopt the NATO levels of requirements -
defined in this STANAG as the basis for negotiation for the procurement of
packaged materiel between nations. In defining levels of requirements it is
necessary to take into account: The characteristics of the environment and
constraints imposed by the environment; the technical considerations to
define package tests; the four levels of packaging used in NATO; and, it also
shows comparison of these NATO levels against the nearest national
packaging requirement.

Type of Load. The term "type of load" refers to the physical characteristics
of the item, including the nature of the item as it contributes to the support
of, or damage to the container. The same kind of container can be designed
to provide adequate protection to various items by adjusting the
constructional requirements. This may result in a light, medium, or
heavyduty container, as necessary. The design of the shipping container to
be used is influenced by the type of load. There are three types of loads: Type
1, Type 2 and Type 3. The types of loads will be mentioned under the various
shipping containers and in section I (figure 3).

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFJPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Type three load

(DIFFICULT)

Figure 3. Types of loads

SMPT 407

Type 1 - easy load. The load is a single item or single interior container
which provides complete and uniform support to all faces of the shipping
container. Bulk practices used in interplant and intraplant movements or
shipments to jobbers are not acceptable unless they are the usual trade
practices for individual commodities such as coal, textiles, petroleum, and
subsistence.

Type 2 - average load. The load is composed of more than one item or
interior container which give some support to all faces of the shipping
container. The contents are of moderate density and relatively sturdy. Some
examples are goods in metal cans which are not packed in an interior
container, bottles individually cushioned, and hardware in cartons.

Type 3 - Difficult load. The load gives little or no support to the shipping
container. The contents can be extremely heavy, very fragile, very irregular
in shape, bulk materials which are free to shift, and flow, or a combination of
several of these factors. Some examples are rivets, bolts, and nuts, delicate
instruments and machined parts and assemblies.

Economy in Packing

The military concept of economy in packing is to obtain maximum output of
adequately protected items at a minimum cost. Economy measures,
consistent, with the degree of protection required by an item or package
should be of prime concern to individuals engaged in the establishment of
packing requirements, and to personnel in charge of, or performing packing

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFJPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

operations. Significant savings can be accomplished by reducing the tare
weight, cubage, and packing cost of a commodity through proper
reengineering of the unit and exterior containers, use of newly developed
materials, and employment of alternate methods and techniques.

REFERENCES

Throughout this manual, packing materials, equipment, processes, methods,
etc., are referred to by their common names together with the appropriate
specification, standard, or other publication symbols. Copies of specifications
and other documents required by activities of the Defense Logistics Agency,
the Department of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, and the Marine Corps are
obtained from supply sources through established channels. Copies of
specifications, standards, and drawings required by contractors connection
with specific procurement functions should be obtained from the procuring
activity or as directed by the contracting officer. Military and Federal
Specifications and Standards are available from: Standardization Document
Order Desk, 700 Robbins Avenue, Building #4, Section D, Philadelphia PA
19111-5094. Information pamphlet titled "A Guide for the Private Industry"
provides more detailed information and is available upon request.

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

CHAPTER 1

PACKING

GENERAL

Packing of General Supplies

Some commodity items require preservation by procedures and materials
described in FM 38-700/MCO P4030.31D/NAVSUP PUB 502/AFJPAM 24-
237/DLAI 4145.14, Packaging of Materiel - Preservation, which provide unit
containers suitable for shipment without further packing. Other items may
require further packing in containers suitable for shipment. This chapter
relates to the packing of commodity items directly in shipping containers
with whatever protection is required to prevent damage in shipment,
handling and storage. The container alone cannot always provide full
protection for military items. Items must be properly anchored, braced,
blocked, or cushioned in the container to provide adequate protection. A
container is often blamed for damage to its contents when the cushioning,
blocking, or bracing are at fault (fig. 1-1). Every packing operation, including
the final closure, strapping, and marking of the container, must be carefully
planned and executed to ensure that the contents will arrive at its
destination in a usable condition.

Packaging of Hazardous Articles

Commodities classified as hazardous materials come within the scope of
TITLE 49 Code of Federal Regulations which incorporates Department of
Transportation Regulation for the Transportation of Explosives and other
Hazardous Articles by all modes. International Shipments must be packaged
in accordance with the International Air Transport Associations Dangerous
Goods Regulation (lATA) and the International Maritime Organization
Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG) codes. In addition, hazardous materials
which are to be shipped via military aircraft must be packaged in accordance
with the joint service manual AFJMAN 24-204/TM 38-250/NAVSUP PUB
505/MCO P4030. 19/D LAM 4145.3, Preparing Hazardous Materials for
Military Air Shipments.

SEQUENCE OF PACKING OPERATION

The general sequence of military packing is divided into a series of basic
operations which may include some or all of the following steps, not
necessarily in the order given below:

Determine the Packing Requirements

Knowing the item characteristics helps to determine the protection required
and the best way to provide it through the use of an adequate container,
suitable blocks, braces, and cushions, and appropriate barrier materials. This
study will include consideration of the characteristics of the item, its size,
shape, fragility, etc.; the types of loads (easy, average or difficult); the mode
of transportation (rail, ship, truck, or aircraft); the storage facilities (covered
or uncovered); the destination (domestic or overseas in the arctic, temperate,
or tropic zones); and the levels of protection required.

1-1

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Select the Container

Select and use an exterior container that will comply with the requirements
outlined in applicable chapters of this manual. This selection should consider
all factors pertinent to giving adequate protection at the minimum cost such
as the characteristics and limitations of the container; its initial cost and
upkeep expenses; its weight and cube; its availability or obtainability in
appropriate quantities; and its reusability.

Prepare protective harriers

Prepare an appropriate barrier to give weatherproofing protection not
obtainable from the container alone.

Insert and Secure the Item to the Container

Insert the item and secure it to the container to control or prevent movement
by means of adequate cushioning, blocking, and bracing. The distinction
between cushioning and blocking is that cushioning permits controlled
movement of the item within the container, while blocking and bracing
usually is designed to prevent movement of the item within the container.

Figure 1-1. Damaged items as a result of improper/inadequate packing.

1-2

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Seal the Barrier if Used

Seal the barrier material by means of adhesives, heat seals, pressure seals, or
sealing tape to provide weatherproofness of the seams, joints, and closures
equal to that of the barrier material itself.

Close the Container

Close the container following the detailed requirements outlined in the
section of this manual which describes the container selected.

Reinforce the Container. Reinforce the container with metal or plastic
strapping or reinforced tape as appropriate and as required for the container
selected.

Mark the Shipping Container. Mark the container as appropriate to
identify the contents and to ensure movement to its destination.

DETERMINATION OF PACKING REQUIREMENTS

The different types of items procured by the Department of Defense require a
wide variety of packing operations. Items vary from strong, rugged ones that
fit the container well and require no cushioning, blocking or bracing, to
others that are irregular in shape, delicate, or fragile, and require special
cushioning, blocking or bracing.

Basic Factors

To determine packing requirements, several basic factors must be considered,
namely, the item characteristics, the load characteristics, the mode of
transportation, the storage and handling facilities, the destination and field
conditions.

Basic Reference

The basic reference for blocking, bracing, and cushioning is MIL-STD-1186,
Cushioning, Anchoring, Bracing, Blocking, and Waterproofing, with
Appropriate Test Methods. This standard, approved by the Department of
Defense and mandatory for use by the Armed Forces, provides general
requirements and procedures concerning the arrangement of the contents
within the shipping container for the prevention of physical damage.

Scope of MIL-STD-1186

The standard covers common packing requirements which may be omitted
from detail specifications for items or categories of items when this standard
is referenced in the detail specification. It does not contain requirements for
shipping containers, themselves or for unit packing, both of which also
provide physical protection.

ITEM CHARACTERISTICS

The first step in any packaging operation is a careful study of the item to be
packed. It is necessary to consider the shape, size, weight, strength, and
degree of fragility of the item in all directions. The availability of mounting
provisions, the degree of disassembly permissible for shipment, corrosion
prevention requirements and special use requirements which affect the
packing operations must also be considered.

1-3

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Shape

The shape of the item to be packed is an important factor to consider in
designing blocking and bracing. A regular-shaped item with rectangular
surfaces requires a minimum of blocking, while an irregular-shaped item
with uneven surfaces, including projections, often require an elaborate
blocking system. Curved surfaces require carefully fitted blocking to prevent
damage caused by concentrated stresses at contact points, and to distribute
internal forces over a greater area of the faces of the container (fig 1-2).
Long, slender items, particularly if heavy, exert a tremendous concentrated
force on the ends of the container during handling. This force may be
counteracted by securely blocking the item to the sides, top, or bottom of the
container, and by increasing the thickness of the ends of the container (fig
1-3). Relatively heavy, irregular-shaped small items present a particularly
difficult problem when they must be cushioned as well as blocked. Generally,
in solving this problem, it is desirable to even out the surfaces by means of
pads and blocking to increase the bearing area. This in turn decreases the
load per unit area of bearing on the cushion (fig 1-4).

Size and Weight

A large item may require more extensive blocking and larger amounts of
cushioning than a smaller one. The blocking may be necessary to bridge the
relatively wide spans of the container faces, or it may be required to
distribute the cushioning over larger areas of the item. Since the impact
force developed by the abrupt stopping of a moving object is directly
proportional to its weight, the weight of an item is very important in
considering the blocking and cushioning. In studying the item, consider the
distribution of the weight with respect to the size and bearing areas. Where
the weight is concentrated, it may be necessary to distribute it over a larger
area. This may be done by transferring some of it from one container face to
the edges or corners of the container by the use of end blocks.

Figure 1-2. Interior blocking for an irregular shaped item.

1-4

SMPT 787

Figure 1-4. Interior blocking to protect container against end thrust.

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Strength and Fragility

Some items are rugged enough to withstand greater stacking loads and
handling forces than their containers. Various components of vehicles and
tanks, in particular, require little protection against shipping hazards, but
are placed in containers for ease of handling, stowage, and storage. On the
other hand, there are numerous items that require the maximum protection
afforded by packing materials. Equipment is considered rugged or highly
resistant to shock when bracing and blocking within the container is all that
is needed for protection. Items that require cushioning for protection are
considered to be fragile. The degree of fragility of an item determines the
amount and type of cushioning required to protect it from damage during
handling and shipment. Some items are inherently strong and rugged except
for one or more fragile components. When the fragile components cannot be
removed for separate packing the entire item must be treated as fragile, even
though this may result in an unavoidably large, cumbersome pack.

Availability of Mounting Provisions

An important factor to consider in packing is the availability of brackets and
holddowns on the item that can be used to mount it within the container.
Frequently, it is possible to mount an item within the container by using the
same brackets and holddowns that are used for positioning and securing it in
place when it is permanently installed. Mounting facilities should be
examined to determine if they are adequate, especially if the container is
likely to be tipped on end (fig 1-5). Compressors, engines, engine components,
generators, starters, and carburetors are often secured in this manner.

Figure 1-5. Mounting facilities of item must be adequate.

1-6

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Disassembling of an item

Items should be thoroughly investigated to determine if disassembly of
simple parts can reduce the size of the container required and/or simplify the
packaging. Proper authorization must be obtained before disassembling any
portion of an item that would require technical skills or special tools to
reassemble, realign, or recalibrate. The disassembly of simple-to-remove
components with standard tools (i.e.., handles, wheels) does not require prior
authorization.

Disassembled Parts

When practicable, items should be disassembled to afford protection of
components, attachments, and accessories against damage and pilferage and
to reduce cubage. Disassembled parts should be wrapped, packaged,
anchored, braced, blocked, or cushioned within the shipping container so that
parts or protective devices within the shipping container cannot be damaged
by mutual contact. Disassembled parts should be clearly and legibly marked
as to identity and proper location on the assembled item. All fasteners
removed during disassembly should be secured in one of the mating parts. A
part should not be removed from an assembly unless it can be reassembled
readily in the field without special tools.

CAUTION

Proper authorization must be obtained before disassembling any
portion of an item that would require technical skills or special
tools to reassemble, realign or recalibrate. Disassembly of simple-
to-remove components such as handles, wheels, etc., requiring
standard tools, does not need authorization.

Special Packing Requirements

Reusable and other special purpose containers usually require special
consideration of the packing of the contents in the container. For instance, in
reusable containers, the blocking and cushioning must be arranged so that it
may be easily removed, and when replaced, it will adequately protect the
contents. However, reusable and special purpose containers should be
considered for use, especially if their use results in reduced weight, cube, or
cost. For example, the reusable container for a missile nose cone, shown in
figure 1-6 while expensive to procure, may more than pay for itself through
its reusability and its designed protection features.

LOAD CHARACTERISTICS

The proper selection of the shipping container for a given load is of the
utmost importance. The kind of container must be determined by the weight,
size, shape, and fragility of the load. To aid in this selection, the various
loads have been classified as Type 1-Easy Load, Type 2-Average Load, and
Type 3-Difficult Load. (See fig. 3 of the Introduction.)

MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

The mode of transportation is an important factor in determining the packing
requirements. The hazards of handling and shipping vary greatly between
motor, rail, ship, or aircraft. As an example, there could be considerable
difference in the amount of handling that an item being transshipped from
truck to rail to ship would receive, and the amount of handling an item
delivered by air freight would receive. Likewise, an item

1-7

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

MISSLE

HOISTING/TIEDOWN/TOWING RINGS

11.

DESICCANT PORT

CRADLE

RESTRAINT STRAP

12.

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

UPPER RESTRAINT

LATCH

13.

HUMIDITY INDICATOR

FOAM CUSHIONING

GASKET

COVER LIFT HANDLE

QUICK-PIN WITH CABLE

10.

, FORKLIFT POCKETS

15.

STACKING INTERFACE

SMPT 4A4A

Figure 1-6. Protection features of a reusable missile container.

to be delivered by airdrop would require much more protection than one to be
delivered by truck.

STORAGE CONSIDERATIONS

To assure serviceability of the contents after prolonged exposure to
deteriorating elements, not only the supplies, but the packing materials
which enclose them must be protected. There may be a considerable period
from the time the material leaves the manufacturer until it is used. It may
be stored outdoors in domestic depots, then shipped to staging areas or ports
of embarkation to await transportation overseas. Finally arriving, it may
again be stored in depots or supply areas which could be improvised shacks,
native huts, tents, caves, or even in the open. At oversea supply points, the
packs are often broken open and smaller intermediate packs distributed to
forward areas. On the other hand, items may be shipped directly from the
supplier to the user with a minimum of delay. In this instance, the protection
provided by the pack could be considerably reduced from the amount
required for the oversea pack.

1-8

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

DESTINATION AND FIELD CONDITIONS

The ultimate destination of items is generally unknown when they leave a
packing facility. Some items may be used domestically while the rest will
eventually go overseas. They may be shipped to the arctic regions, the
islands of the seas, or the tropical jungles. They may be subjected to the cold,
heat, humidity, aridity, or the extreme temperature changes of the various
regions, all of which must be considered in planning the pack to assure
adequate protection through the time of delivery and after arrival at
destination when they may be subjected to unfavorable field conditions.

FUNCTIONS AND SELECTION OF SHIPPING CONTAINERS

Functions

A shipping container is any exterior box, crate, drum, etc., which is required
to enclose one or more items during transit or storage. The basic functions of
a shipping container are to protect the contents and to provide for ease of
handling. Shipping containers assist in the handling of a number of items by
consolidation, and of a single item which is difficult to handle. The degree of
protection derived from the shipping container depends upon its type, the
materials used in its fabrication, its construction features, its final
destination, the nature of the contents, and the anticipated hazards.
Chapters 2 through 7 of this manual contain information on approved
containers for military shipments and should be consulted when making
selection of the appropriate containers.

Selection

The shipping container is usually established by specifications, directives,
technical orders, or other authorized publications. Where a group of
containers is authorized, or when the proper container is not specified, the
packing supervisor is responsible for the selection of the appropriate
container. They must base their selection upon the physical characteristics of
the item; its destination; whether domestic or overseas; the level of protection
required; the type of load; the initial cost of the container; the weight and
cube of the container; the simplicity, economy and ease of assembly and
closure; the availability; and need for reusability of the container (fig 1-7).
Nailed wood boxes or similar heavy wooden containers will not be used
unless fully justified by past experience or environmental, geographical, or
security considerations.

ARRANGEMENT OF CONTENTS

The contents of a pack should be arranged within the shipping container so
as to provide maximum protection to its contents and the container. Where
applicable, the arrangement should permit a container fabricated of
materials that will result in low tare weight, smallest practical cube,
convenient handling, and suitability for palletization. Contents should
completely fill the container or be secured therein with suitable clearance.
Packs of like items should contain like quantities and should be uniform in
size, shape, and weight.

Movable Parts and Projecting Parts

Articles with moving external parts or projecting parts that might become
damaged by shock or vibration encountered in shipment should have these
parts made secure against movement by means of blocking, bracing, tiedown,
or other adequate provisions, or should be disassembled, if practicable.

1-9

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

FACTORS TO CONSIDER
IN CONTAINER SELECTION

• MODE OF TRANSPORTATION

SMPT 402A

Figure 1-7. Container selection factors.

Segregation of Packed Contents

So far as practicable, contents of shipping containers should be segregated in
the following order: (a) the order on the packing list; (b) items of the same
contract; (c) items of the same National Stock Numbers; and (d) items of the
same Federal Supply Class.

Conversion of Type 3 Loads

Where practicable, type 3 loads should be converted to type 1 or type 2 loads.

1-10

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

BLOCKING AND BRACING

Blocking and Bracing Defined

Blocking and bracing is the process of providing physical and mechanical
protection to an item by means of materials, other than cushioning materials,
intended to prevent any free movement of the item within the container, and
distribute or transfer concentrated loads of the item to larger areas of other
faces of the container.

Functions of Blocking and Bracing

Items which do not completely fill the shipping container should be blocked,
braced, anchored, or otherwise immobilized within the container. Blocking
and bracing should be used to secure items or components so that they will
not shift within a container; to make irregular shaped items fit a regular
container; to distribute the weight of irregular items over all edges and faces
of the container; to protect projections from injury; to prevent projections
from damaging the barrier or container; to provide space for spare parts or
make room for desiccant; and to reinforce weak portions or mountings.
Blocking and bracing modifies the original shape of an item so that it is
protected adequately and so that it fits the container. The materials used for
this purpose differ from cushioning in that they are not intended to absorb
shocks. Items having legs or other projecting portions which may become
loose or broken, or which might puncture the container, must be supported by
adequate blocking and bracing. The blocks and braces should be applied
against portions of the container that are strong enough to resist forces
tending to distort them. Likewise, the bracing should be arranged to
distribute forces to several reinforced sections of the surface of the item (fig
1-8). Items with movable parts, items mounted springs or other flexible
supports should be braced securely to prevent movement, except where such
mounting is part of the package cushioning or is designed to protect against
shock and vibration during shipment.

Figure 1-8. Blocking and bracing to prevent movement.

1-11

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Abrasion Protection

Protection should be provided when the surface of the item in contact with
the blocking an bracing can be damaged by relative motion between the
contacting surfaces or could become corroded as a result of such continuous
contact. Protection against abrasion should be provided for highly finished or
easily marred surfaces by wrapping or covering with cushioning material.
Surfaces that might be damaged by contact with cushioning material should
be separated by a covering of noncorrosive paper conforming to MIL-P-130 or
greaseproof barrier material conforming to MIL-B-121, grade A.

APPLICATION OF BLOCKING AND BRACING MATERIALS

The materials selected for all blocking and bracing, the design and
application of the blocking and bracing should be compatible with the load to
be supported and the size, shape, and strength of bearing areas of the item.
The heavier the load needing support, the stiffer and stronger the materials
for blocks and braces must be. Hence, the choice of materials depends upon
the size and shape of the areas against which the blocking and bracing will be
placed, as well as the size and weight of the item being secured. Since a
shipping container may be dropped on any of its faces or corners, blocks and
braces must be designed to withstand the thrust and impact applied on any
direction. The choice of materials used for blocking and bracing vary widely.
The chief materials used are corrugated fiberboard in cells, trays, pleated
pads, and flat pads, for relatively lightweight items or for supplementary
primary blocking of heavy items. Wood, plywood, rigid plastic foams, and
metal are used as the primary blocking materials for large and heavy items.

Fiberboard

Open-end cells and trays of corrugated fiberboard. When used as blocking,
corrugated fiberboard must be designed to fit the bearing area of the item to
support and evenly distribute the load. Common forms of corrugated
fiberboard blocking are die-cuts, open end cells, trays, pleated pads, and flat
pads (fig 1-9). Frequently, various combinations of these forms are employed.
They can be used to provide spaces for, and restrain the movement of,
disassembled parts, as well as provide openings for bags of desiccant.
Generally, cells and trays should be held in shape with tape or staples.

Figure 1-9. Cells and trays made of corrugated fiberboard.

1-12

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Figure 1-10. Incorrect and correct direction of corrugation.

SMPT 803

Those surfaces of the cell or tray which are perpendicular to the contacting
surface of the item are called bracing supports and are the load bearing
members. No bracing support allowances should be made for the other
surfaces. To utilize all of the strength of these bracing supports, they should
bear directly on the item. The weight of the item must be exerted in the
same direction as the corrugations. If not, the item is inadequately supported
and damage may result (fig 1-10). Open-end cells and trays should be used
for blocking and bracing deep recesses; bridging long projections; providing
spaces for disassembling parts, accessories, and dessicants; and providing
clearance between item and container. Bracing supports should bear directly
on the article. Allowable loads for bracing supports of open-end cells loaded
in the flute direction should be in accordance with table 1-1. If flute direction
is at right angles to the direction of the load, the allowable loads should be 50
percent of the values of table 1-1. Trays should be scored and folded parallel
to the flute direction and should not exceed 4 inches in height.

Corrugated Fiberboard Forms

Corrugated fiberboard used for blocking and bracing should conform to
ASTM D 4727. Blocking and bracing forms should be loaded in the direction
parallel to the flutes wherever possible. The cutting, slotting, scoring, and
folding of fiberboard blanks to make blocking and bracing supports or forms
shall be such as to assure proper fitting and distribution.

Folded Pads

Folded pads of corrugated fiberboard may be used for blocking greater loads
than are feasible to support with cells and trays. The pads should be
designed to fit against a flat surface (flat pads) or along an edge (corner
pads). Connecting webs between flat pads should always contact the
container and not the item. All scores and folds should be made at right
angles to the flute direction. Flat pads should be a minimum of 2 inches
wide. Portions of folded pads in direct contact with the item are bearing
areas. The maximum loads for these bearing areas should be in accordance

1-13

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Table 1-1. Allowable loads for corrugated fiberboard. Columns loaded in the
flute direction.

Material

Allowable loads per lineal inch
of bracing support or column

Height up to
4 inches

Height over
4 inches

Pounds

Double-faced fiberboard:

200-pound bursting strength

275-pound bursting strength

2.5

1.5

350-pound bursting strength

Double-wall fiberboard:

275-pound bursting strength

2.5

1.5

350-pound bursting strength

500-pound bursting strength

2.5

Triple-wall fiberboard:

1,100-pound bursting strength

Note. When a greater load is imposed than that permitted by the table, use wood
blocking and bracing

with table 1-2. Accordion folded pads have greater resistance to breakdown
than open end cells because the load is spread over a large area rather than
on bracing supports. Accordion folded pads with tight folds distribute the
load more evenly to the container. The connecting web between the folded
pleats should be placed in contact with the container rather than the item.
Creases for accordion folded pads should be made across the corrugations,
and the pleat should be at least 2 inches in width. If necessary, a pleat 1 1/2
inches wide may be made, but extreme care must be exercised when folding
the pad to prevent crushing the corrugations. Tape should be used to keep
accordion folded pads in shape. The load bearing capacity of a pad is based
on the initial compressibility of the corrugated material. Increasing the
number of pleats does not increase the safe load limit; numerous pleats
increase the cushioning value only. Wide or long items are better supported
by several accordion folded pads, placed side by side, than by one pad having
extremely wide folded pleats.

Flat Pads

Flat pads of corrugated fiberboard may be used to block very shallow
projections, such as hinges or slight offsets on surfaces; to level off projecting
screw heads; to fill in the space between ends of inner flaps of slotted
fiberboard boxes to provide additional protection to contents at top and
bottom of boxes; and to separate items within a container. Allowable loads
should be in accordance with table 1-2. Maximum allowable loads per square
inch of bearing area on a flat pad are the same as those for a pleated pad.
Flat pads can be slotted to form partitions, or they may be die cut or punched
to fit items or irregular shape. Figure 1-11 shows the assembling of slotted
fiberboard partitions.

1-14

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Table 1-2. Allowable loads for folded corner and flat pads of corrugated fiberboard

Flute design

Maximum allowable load for bearing

areas

Pounds per square inch

A-flute (36"3 corrugations per foot)

2.0

B-flute (50"3 corrugations per foot)

3.0

C-flute (42"3 corrugations per foot)

2.5

Note. The flat crush resistance of the corrugations shall determine the load that may be carried
in flat loading of corrugated flberboard. This shall not be construed to meet the bursting
strength of the material.

Figure 1-11. Assembling of slotted flberboard partitions.

Corner Pads

The use of corner pads made of multiple layers of corrugated flberboard shall
comply with the load requirements of table 1-2. The pads shall provide
required clearances and support for rectangular shaped items or for an inner
box in which items are packed.

Tubes

Fiberboard tubes should be used as blocking when items mounted on an
auxiliary base are packed on flberboard boxes. The bottom of the tube shall
contact the top of the auxiliary base and the top of the tube shall contact the
top inside surface of the container. The flutes shall be oriented in the top-to-
bottom direction of the tube. The weight of the item plus auxiliary base, in
pounds, divided by the perimeter of the tube, in inches, shall not exceed the
appropriate values given in table 1-2 for column heights over 4 inches.

Corrugated Fiberboard Liners

A liner is a continuous pad, bent to fully contact two or more inner faces of a
container. Liners are used to reinforce a container against crushing by forces
imposed during stacking, or to take the place of two or more flat pads. A liner
may also be used as a holddown for base mounted items weighing not more
than 20 pounds. The creases in a liner should be made parallel to the

1-15

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

direction of the corrugations of the fiberboard, in order that the resistance to
forces ordinarily encountered in stacking be the greatest.

Corner Posts

Fiberboard corner posts should be used to reinforce the shipping container
and provide blocking for platform-mounted equipment. The flutes should be
oriented in the top-to-bottom direction. The bottom end of the corner post
shall bear uniformly on the platform, and the top end of the corner post shall
bear on the inner flap of the container or top member of a crate. Corner
posts, when installed, must so interlock with the contents and other inner
padding pieces in order not to become displaced during transportation.

Wood or Plywood

Wood or plywood may be used alone or in combination for blocking and
bracing. Wood or plywood blocking and bracing members should bear
against only those parts of the packed item capable of withstanding the
applied dynamic forces or should bear against blocking pads or pressure
strips that adequately distribute these forces. Wood or plywood blocking and
bracing should be designed to permit easy removal without damage to the
item. Both wood and plywood are used for blocking and bracing because of
their high strength-weight ratio, general availability, and ease of cutting and
fastening. Lumber has certain weaknesses, such as low splitting resistance
parallel with the grain, and a tendency to shrink or swell with change in
moisture content.

Plywood has high resistance to splitting and high dimensional stability with
changes in moisture content. Because they are more resistant to splitting
than solid wood, plywood panels are more often used in thinner dimensions
than lumber, and are readily nailed or fastened with screws near the edges.
Plywood is more apt to have a lower moisture content than lumber because of
the manner in which it is manufactured and stored. Plywood, being
constructed of alternate plies at right angles to each other possesses more
uniformly distributed strength properties than lumber. When considering
lumber and plywood of comparable sizes and quality, it is generally true that
the strength properties of lumber parallel to the grain are greater than the
respective strength properties of plywood parallel to the grain of the face ply.

It is also true that the strength properties of lumber perpendicular to the
grain are generally less than the respective strength properties of plywood
perpendicular to the grain of the face ply.

Wood

Wood members of each size and type used in the blocking and bracing should
be tested for moisture content. Structural members (those subject to critical
bending stresses) shall conform to class 1. All other blocking and bracing
members shall conform to class 3. Whenever possible, wood blocks or braces
shall be placed so that the load is applied against the end grain of the
member. Ends of braces shall be socketed or fitted and secured into
appropriate notches in load-bearing members.

Plywood

Plywood used for blocking and bracing should conform to A-A-55057.

1-16

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Wood Blocking and Bracing

The species of woods differ greatly in strength and related properties and,
accordingly, have been separated into four groups. Certain species, such as
those of Group IV, excel in toughness and shock resistance, but care must be
exercised in nailing them to avoid splitting. Other species, such as southern
yellow pine and Douglas fir of Group 11, are high in bending strength and
stiffness; and nailing is a lesser problem. The characteristics of the groups of
wood may be used to advantage in various forms of blocking and bracing (fig.
1-12). Thin pieces of lumber split more easily than thick pieces; hence, thin
pieces for blocking should be avoided if possible. If the dimensional limits of
the item require that the blocking be thin, it is preferable to use plywood.

Moisture Content

The moisture content of lumber employed as blocking and bracing material
should not exceed 19 percent nor be less than 12 percent of its oven dry
weight at the time of fabrication. Shrinkage is objectionable because it allows
movement of the item and the item may actually break loose. Moisture in
lumber is objectionable because it is apt to evaporate into the pack, thus
raising the humidity of the pack and causing corrosion of metals or decay of
organic materials.

CAUTION

Lumber, plywood, or other hygroscopic materials should never be placed in direct
contact with critical metal surfaces since such materials tend to absorb and
retain moisture next to the surfaces, finally causing corrosion. Provide always a
water-vaporproof barrier between any critical metal surfaces and hygroscopic
packing materials, and a waterproof or moisture-resistant barrier between all
metal surfaces and hygroscopic materials.

Defects in Blocks and Braces

Wooden members used for blocking and bracing are often subjected to great
stress and careful consideration must be given to any weakening defects. If
the member functions as a beam or column, defects such as divergence of
grain, knots, splits and decay should be avoided. This is especially important
if the defect is located near the center of the piece, because of the great
reduction in shock resistance. If a piece with a knot is used, the load is
placed so that the knot is in compression as shown in @, Figure 1-12. Lumber
having knots of a diameter exceeding one-fourth the width of the piece should
not be used (fig 1-12). The slope of grain in each piece should not exceed 1
inch in 10 inches of length, or splitting is likely to occur. Decayed wood is
avoided under all circumstances because there is not way of determining how
much the decay may have weakened the wood. For additional information on
wood knots, see chapter 3 and figure 3-3.

Size of Wood Braces of Holddowns

Braces or holddowns must be of sufficient size to withstand the shocks
encountered. The size of a brace varies with the weight of the item, the
length of the brace, and the type of loading. Table 1-3 used with figure 1-13
gives the recommended allowable load in pounds for the various sizes of
braces and the various types of loading. For example, assume that the
weight of the item is 60 pounds, the length of the brace is 24 inches, and the
type of loading is the third type illustrated in figure 1-13 (loading in the

1-17

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

MEASUREMENT OF KNOTS

PROPER POSITIONING OF KNOTS IN
LUMBER WITH RESPECT TO LOAD

RIGHT

POSITIONING OF A BEAM
IN RELATION TO THE LOAD

IRREGULARLY SHAPED MEDIUM WEIGHT
RUGGED ARTICLE MADE REGULAR BY
USE OF WOOD BLOCKING

CROSS BRACE OR HOLD DOWi

CLEATS

EXAMPLES OF BLOCKING AND BRACING APPLICATIONS

SMPT 236

BACK-UP CLEATS

Figure 1-12. Application of wooden blocks and braces.

1-18

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Table 1-3

THE ALLOWABLE LOAD IN POUNDS IS FOR GROUP II WOODS

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515

102

143

200

?25

494

296

859

28Q_

?fin

/,/,n

69?

580

1 909

108

280

101

487

135

189

212

467

280

811

265

416

654

548

1136

114

265

461

128

179

201

442

265

768

251

394

619

519

1075

120

252

438

122

170

191

420

252

730

238

374

588

493

1022

LUMBER CROSS SECTION SIZES AS SHOWN IN TABLE ARE NOMINAL.

THE ALLOWABLE LOAD IN POUNDS AS SHOWN ARE FOR ACTUAL OR DRESSED SIZES - EXAMPLE : 11/2 x 31/2 = 2x4 ETC.

SMPT 794C

1-19

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

WHEN BRACE IS LOADED
IN THE CENTER 1/3 OF ITS
UNSUPPORTED LENGTH
MULTIPLY weight OF
ITEM BY I *

WHEN BRACE IS LOADED
ON ONE END IN THE
OUTER 1/3 OF ITS
UNSUPPORTED LENGTH
MULTIPLY WEIGHT OF ITEM
BY 9/10#

when brace is LOADED
IN THE CENTER 4/5 TO
1/3 OF ITS UNSUPPORTED
LENGTH MULTIPLY WEIGHT
OF ITEM BY 3/4 #

WHEN BRACE IS LOADED
ON ONE END IN THE
OUTER 1/4 OF ITS
UNSUPPORTED LENGTH
MULTIPLY WEIGHT OF ITEIK
BY 2/3 #

WHEN BRACE IS LOADED
IN THE CENTER 4/5 TO
ITS FULL UNSUPPORTED
length multiply WEIGHT
OF ITEM BY 1/2 #

* VALUE obtained BY MULTIPLYING WEIGHT OF ITEM BY
ABOVE FACTOR IS USED DIRECTLY IN BRACE SELECTION
table to find CORRECT SIZE OF BRACE

SMPT 793

Figure 1-13. Types of loading (use with table 1-3).

center 4/5 to 1/3 of the unsupported length of the brace). For this type of
loading, multiply the weight of the item by the factor 3/4, as shown in figure
1-13. Three-fourths times 60 equals 45. In the column headed "Length of
brace in inches", of table 1-3, find 24 inches and read to the right until a
value near 45 is found. The heading for this column shows that the proper
size of member and direction of loading is a 1 x 2-inch member used on edge,
or a 1 X 4 inch member used flatwise.

Positioning Loads on Blocks and Braces

When wood blocking and bracing is used to secure heavy items, place the
block SO that the load rests on the end grain of the piece, whenever possible.
If this cannot be done, the load should bear on the edge grain. When so
placed, the maximum strength of the brace is used (fig 1-14). Since wood is
relatively stable in dimension along the grain, there is little effect from
shrinkage or swelling with a change in moisture content. The brace should, if
possible, have its narrow face against the item so that its maximum stiffness
is utilized. If a larger bearing area is required, and it becomes necessary to
have the fiat face of the brace against the item, the size of the brace against

1-20

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

the item, must be increased (table 1-3). Lumber which is relatively wide for
its thickness must be reinforced throughout its length to prevent twisting or
buckling.

Using Lumber as a Mounting Base

If an item is to be secured to a base, and plywood is not available, use
dimensional lumber. Bases of dimensional lumber should be constructed
with sufficient cleats at right angles to the grain of the baseboards, and
fastened with clinched nails to prevent the boards from splitting at the bolt
holes. Strength of the bases must be adequate to withstand any rough
handling the pack may be likely to receive.

Securing Lumber Blocking

Securing lumber blocking properly is the most essential factor in blocking
and bracing. Wooden braces positioned between two faces of a container
should never be secured with end grain nailing, toenailing, or similar
methods, nor should they ever be inserted into notches cut into the container
faceboards. Instead, the braces should be secured by cleats fastened to the
faces of the container with a sufficient number of clinched nails. When
pressures are great or an increased nailing area is required, backup blocks
are used to reinforce the cleats and give increased nailing area. When
pressure is from more than one direction, a pocket cleat arrangement is used
to hold the braces in position @ fig 1-12. The backup blocks are positioned
with their end grain in contact with the brace in order to make use of the
high strength property of wood in compression parallel to the grain. The
cleats and backup cleats ® fig 1-12 are secured with clinched nails properly
staggered at intervals along their length. Sometimes, however, bolts are
used to fasten these members in place. This is especially desirable when the
entire weight of the item thrusts against the block, or when the cleat
supports a framework attached to one or more faces of the container.

SMPT 795

Figure 1-14. Positioning load according to grain of wood

1-21

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Plywood Blocking and Bracing

Plywood is used to distribute the load when the face of an item is flat but
structurally weak and the weakness prevents that face from being used as a
bearing area. By covering the face of the item with a sheet of plywood, so
that the plywood bears on stronger portions of the face, the load of the item is
distributed uniformly against the container and injury to the weak face is
prevented. The edges of the plywood sheet are padded with felt, if necessary,
to prevent the plywood from marring the surface of the item (fig 1-15).
Plywood can be used for making pressure strips to distribute the load of an
item on the gaskets when a floating water-vaporproof barrier is used. This
method, which minimized the possibility of barrier damage during shipment,
is illustrated in figure 1-15. When it is not practical to block an irregular
item to transfer the load evenly to all faces of the container, it is wise to
secure the item to a solid base which may in turn be blocked to evenly
distribute the load. If the container is of fiberboard, plywood serves as a good
pallet to which the item may be bolted or strapped. The plywood, in turn, is
securely blocked into the container by a holddown or top pad. Thin plywood
is used to advantage where the blocking must be flexible to conform to a
curved surface.

Plywood is used where thin material is required as a brace in tension. When
an item is to be bolted to a base or auxiliary base, plywood is used for the
base because of its resistance to splitting (fig 1-16). Since plywood is
obtainable in wide panels, it is especially useful in base construction. For
light items, 1/2-or 3/4-inch plywood should be used. For medium and heavy
items, two or more pieces of plywood can be fastened together, or a series of
strengthening cleats can be added to the panel. The cleats also may be of
plywood to reduce the possibility of splitting.

Combined Plywood and Lumber Blocking and Bracing

Plywood and lumber, combined into a blocking and bracing assembly, unite
the advantages of a strong, lightweight sheet material with a material that is
easily cut and nailed. Plywood is used as a sheet with wooden blocks nailed
to the sheet. The number, dimensions, and placement of the wooden blocks
depend upon the shape of the item, its depth, the position of any projections,
and the loads to be supported at the various bearing areas. The required
thickness of the plywood depends upon the span between the blocks and the
load to be distributed. The sheet of plywood must be stiff enough to resist
bending so as to evenly distribute the weight of the item. Position the blocks
upon the plywood sheet at places where the item can withstand concentrated
loads. Wherever possible, locate the blocks and braces against the stronger
portions of the item. Choose nails that are long enough to permit clinching
after being driven through the wooden blocks and the plywood sheets. If
clinching is impractical, drive the nails through the thinner piece first. Cover
all surfaces of wood blocks contacting the item with felt and glue in place.
Where the felt-covered blocks normally contact critical surfaces of the item,
use greaseproof or water-vaporproof barrier material between the felt and
the item. Eliminate time consuming construction of a framework at the time
of packing by using prefabricated blocking.

1-23

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

TIP END OF WING

SMPT 237

USE OF PLYWOOD TO REINFORCE

r»i T/-V DCCICT COlITTlKiri

Figure 1-16. Uses of plywood for blocking and bracing.

Nails and Nailing

Nails shall conform to the requirements of ASTM F 1667-95. All nails that
are not clinched shall be cement coated, etched or mechanically deformed
(helically or annularly threaded). Unclinched nails shall be as long as
practicable without splitting the material, but not shorter than three times
the thickness of the member holding the nailhead for tenpenny nails and
smaller, or not shorter than the thickness of the same member plus 1 1/2
inches for twelvepenny nails and larger. Nails loaded transversely to their
length (lateral) in blocking and bracing joints need not be clinched. End

1-24

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

grain nailing in solid wood or edge nailing in plywood shall not be permitted.
Nails shall be driven through the thinner member into the thicker member
wherever possible. Nails shall not be subject to withdrawal stresses. Nails
shall be driven not closer to the end of a piece of lumber than the thickness of
the piece and not closer to its side than one-half its thickness. There shall be
at least two nails in each joint. Lateral loading of nails for blocking and
bracing shall be in accordance with table 1-4. Ends of blocks and braces shall
not be fastened to a wood container by end-grain nailing methods. Blocking
and bracing shall be applied against areas of item(s) that are of sufficient
strength and rigidity to resist damage. A description of the various types of
nails and general requirements for their use are given in chapter 3.
Standard sinker and cooler nails are particularly well suited for use in
blocking and bracing and should be coated or chemically etched etched
especially if the nails cannot be clinched. If nails fail when subjected to
forces of direct withdrawal, apply nails so that they are subjected to forces of
lateral displacement rather than direct withdrawal, that is, the direction of
the nails is perpendicular to the direction of the load, rather than in line with
the direction of the load.

Bolts and Bolting

Carriage or step bolts shall be used as fastenings for wood or plywood
blocking and bracing where necessary to facilitate disassembly for removal of
container contents. Bolts shall also be used for fastening blocking and
bracing members that are too thick for proper fastening with nails. Bolt
holes in wood or plywood shall be of the same diameter as the bolts. Bolts
commonly used for blocking and bracing are machine bolts, carriage bolts,
and step bolts.

Step bolts are preferred for this use because of their larger head diameter. J-
or U-bolts are used for special conditions where regular bolts cannot be
applied (fig 1-17). Tie rods and J-bolts are actually extended bolts, applied in
pairs either vertically (fig 1-18) or diagonally (fig 1-19), and are used where
standard length bolts would not apply. See table 1-5 for the suggested
allowable load for the various sizes of bolts. The following precautions should
be observed in the use of bolts:

Items such as machines or subassemblies having bolt holes in parts which are
sturdy enough to resist breakage when rough handling should, if practical, be
bolted to one face of the container. If nonprecision bolt holes are involved,
the diameter of the bolt should be the nearest standard size consistent with
the diameter of the hole.

Table 1-4. Allowable lateral loads for unclinched cement-coated or etched common wire nails
when used for blocking or bracing.

Species of wood

Load, pounds per nail

lOd

12d

16d

20d

30d

40d

White pine, ponderosa pine, spruce and
other group I woods

Southern yellow pine, Douglas fir,
western larch, and other group II woods

Oak, maple, birch, beech, ash, and other
group III and IV woods

1-25

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

MACHINE CARRIAGE STEP
BOLT BOLT BOLT

BOLT SMPT 798A

Figure 1-17 Bolts for blocking and bracing.

’>' '1

[

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Figure 1-19. Diagonal use of tie rods.

Table 1-5. Suggested allowable lateral loads for bolts-impact loading

SMPT 800

Diameter of bolt (inch) Allowable load
(pounds)

3/8 35

1/2 90

5/8 150

3/4 200

-27

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

If precision bolt holes are involved, precautions should be taken to insure
that precision fitting bolts of the proper fit and characteristics are used to
prevent marring or elongation.

Lag bolts should not be used for blocking and bracing.

Holes bored through containers or mounting bases must be the same size as
the diameter of the bolts to be used. When mounting items to container bases
equipped with skids, extend the bolts through the skids, whenever practical,
and in such instances countersink the bolt in the outer surface of the rubbing
strip. Use standard cut washers under the nuts to decrease the possibility of
the bolt pulling through the wood. Make sure that the nuts do not come loose
intransit by turning the nut securely on the bolt, and either upsetting or
nicking the threads of the bolt beyond the nut; applying asphaltum, paint, or
lacquer on the threads; using lock nuts; or using cotter pins with the nuts; or
lock washers. Metal plates or flat washers are used between lock washers
and wood to prevent direct contact.

Bolts and nuts that are not corrosion-resistant must be completely covered
with corrosion preventative compounds. The compound must be thoroughly
set before the bolts are used.

Where the item has strong frame members fairly close to the face of the
container, consider using U- or J-bolts. Whenever feasible, the nut end of the
U- or J-bolt should be on the outside of the container. In such cases, it is
especially important to upset the threads or otherwise prevent the nuts from
loosening.

Use tie rods as extended bolts to secure items when J- or U-bolts are
unsuitable. Place tie rods in pairs, either diagonally or vertically as may be
necessary. Attach the tie rods to a reinforced point of the container and use
them with washers bearing against the wood. Be sure the tie rods pass
through the base at an angle which will not cause bending or kinking of the
rod. Any kinking will weaken the rods and increase the possibility of failure.

Anchoring

Anchoring of heavy items should be accomplished by securing the item to a
base by tension devices, either by bolts through mounting bolt holes on the
item (bolting down); or by metal strapping, cables, tie rods, chains, wire, or
other tension devices attached to, or applied over, the item (tiedown or
holddown); or by both. The same washer requirement as specified for bolts of
equal diameter should apply to tie rods.

Anchor Bolts

Carriage or step bolts should be used. Articles having mounting holes in
areas that can withstand rough handling without breakage shall be bolted to
either the base of the container or an auxiliary base. The bolt heads of
anchor bolts (those holding the item to the container base or the auxiliary
base) should be on the outside of the container, otherwise on the underside of
the auxiliary base. The heads of all anchor bolts shall bear against a wide
washer conforming to FF-W-92, type A or B, grade I, class A, medium size,
except that the minimum diameter or minimum size of square bolts shall be
as specified in table 1-6 when the member adjacent to the bolt head is wood.
Bolts through mounting bolt holes shall form a snug fit, except that precision
holes shall be bushed to prevent damage by anchor bolts. In a crate where
the item is bolted to a skid-type base, the anchor bolts shall pass through the

1-28

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

skids or through loadbearing members that are bolted to the skids. Bolt
holes in wood should be of the same diameter as the bolts. The maximum
allowable load for anchor bolts required and the minimum size of wood-
bearing washers should be as specified in table 1-6. When the weight of the
item exceeds that shown which can be anchored adequately using allowable
loads in table 1-6 and all of the available mounting bolt holes on the item, the
excess weight shall be taken care of by tiedown provisions specified herein.
After the nuts have been tightened, the exposed bolt thread should be
painted with asphalt unless locknuts or cotter pins are used. The required
size and quantity of bolts used as tie rods or for anchoring the ends of the
tiedown tension members should be in accordance with table 1-6. Lag bolts
should not be used in lieu of carriage or step bolts.

Metal Brackets or Frames

Many items have attachment points which provide facilities for bolting, but
often these points are not located on the base, so that brackets must be used
to fasten the item to the container. In those situations where tie rods or U- or
J-bolts cannot be used, specially constructed brackets, sleeves, or frames
made entirely of metal, wood, or a combination of these, are used to act as
intermediate connections between the item and the container. These frames
or brackets must be designed with sufficient strength and fastening facilities
to hold the item to the container securely. Select sleeves that will fit the
interior of the container snugly and will have sufficient structural strength to
support the load (fig 1-20).

Table 1-6. Maximum allowable loads and minimum sizes of wood-bearing washers for anchor or
tiedown bolts.

Diameter of
bolt

Wood-bearing washers

Maximum allowable load per bolt

Minimum
diameter of
round

Minimum size
of square

Items weighing
200 pounds and
less

Items weighing
200 to 3,000
pounds

Items weighing
over 3,000
pounds

Inch

Pounds

1/4

1.35

1.00

5/16

1.75

1.25

3/8

2.10

1.50

2.85

2.10

100

150

300

5/8

3.60

2.65

150

225

450

3/4

4.70

3.25

375

750

1-29

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

/SOFT ]RON BRACKET BOLTED
/TO ITEM AND SILL OF BASE

SPECIALLY DESIGNED BRACKET BOLTED
TO STUD BOLTS ON BRAKE DRUMS
AND BLOCK

BLOCK BOLTED OR
NAILED TO SILL

MOTOR GENERATOR SET BOLTED TO METAL
FRAME READY FOR PACKING IN DRUM

Figure 1-20. Use of metal brackets, frames, and sleeves.

Metal Strapping

Metal strapping used to tie down an item to the base or other face of the
container or to an auxiliary base should be flat steel strapping material
conforming to ASTM D 3953 and ASTM D 4675. Tiedown strapping shall be
securely attached to fig 1-20 or looped over the item. It shall be anchored to
the container or auxiliary base either by looping around a load bearing
member or by utilizing steel slotted anchor plates for fiat strapping secured
to the container or auxiliary base. Padding material or suitable edge
protectors, as applicable, shall be used under the straps to prevent damage to
the item. Whenever possible, all strands holding down an item shall be of

1-30

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

approximately the same length. Maximum allowable loads for each strand of
tiedown strapping shall be in accordance with ASTM D 4675. Each tiedown
strap passed over an item should be considered as one strand. All tiedown
strapping shall be tensioned and sealed or tied securely.

Strapping Precautions

Metal strapping may be the only convenient way in which an item or
container can be secured or reinforced (fig 1-21). Metal strapping may be fiat
steel material. Strapping is tensioned and preferably sealed with specially
designed tools. If this is not possible, fiat strapping can be held in place with
anchor plates. General precautions on the use of metal strapping which
applies to fiat steel are as follows-

Where possible, the item and its support must be completely encircled. When
it is impossible to do this, anchor the two ends of the metal strapping as
follows:

• For fiat strapping, anchor the two ends of the strap to the container
base with anchor plates, or if the strap is designed for nailing, nail
the ends of the strap to the container base. Place the nails so that the
straps exert a pull at right angles to the nail axis. For round wire,
anchor the two ends of the round wire to the container with
drivescrews and staples. Loop the wire around the shank of the
drivescrew and further anchor the wire by means of staples. Be sure
the wood is thick enough to hold the entire length of the drivescrew
and that the drivescrew is of adequate gauge to carry the load. When
drivescrews are used, place them so that the wire exerts a pull right
angles to the drivescrews axis. Apply tension to the strap with a
tension tool and seal the strap in the customary manner. Use a one-
piece strap wherever possible. Straps should be placed only on those
strong portions of the item which can withstand the impact load and
weight of the item. Where strapping passes over a sharp edge of the
item, use corner protectors, if necessary, to prevent the strapping
from becoming fractured.

• Protective materials should be used between the item and the strap if
the strap is likely to scratch or otherwise injure the item. Arrange
strapping on the container, where possible, to further reinforce
blocking and bracing or anchoring of the item within the container.
Use annealed strapping only for lighter items, since it stretches more
readily than the more highly tempered tension strapping.

Minimum Lengths of Straps

The minimum total length of straps shown in table 1-7 does not include that
portion of material used to make a secure fastening at the ends of each
strand but is the sum of, and does include, all lengths of material between
such fastenings. Overall lengths of each strand shall be adequate to permit
fastening as specified above.

Maximum Allowable Loads

The maximum allowable loads are based on available energy of 8,640 inch-
pounds per cubic inch of strap in tension and an assumed drop height of 30
inches, as established by ASTM D 3953. If greater loads are to be tied down
or if other sizes of strap are used, additional strapping shall be applied on the
basis of 300 pounds of load per cubic inch of strap in tension.

1-31

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

NAILED TO
•BASE ONLY

NAIL-ON STRAPPING

FLAT METAL BAND FASTENED
WITH ANCHOR PLATES

STRAPPING REINFORCES
CONTAINER AT LOAD
CONCENTRATIONS AREAS

SMPT 239A

Figure 1-21. Use of metal strapping for bracing and anchoring.

1-32

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Table 1-7. Tape strips used in handling rigid materials^

Type III tape band width in inches (minimum)

Gross weight of bundle Number of encirclements (Example: Three encirclements could refer to either three

separately located single wrapped bands or to one band which completely overlaps itself three
times)

Pounds 1234567

Up to 20 incl 3/4 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

Over 20 to 40 incl 1 3/4 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

Over 40 to 60 incl 1 1/4 1 3/4 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

Over 60 to 80 incl 1 1/2 1 1/4 1 3/4 3/4 1/2 1/2

Over 80 to 100

incl

Over 100 to 150
incl

Over 150 to 200
incl

Over 200 to 300
incl

Over 300 to 400
incl

Over 400 to 500
incl

1/2

3/4

1 1/2

1 1/4

1 If material to be bonded is somewhat flexible, tape widths may be reduced by 25 to 50 percent.
In no case should less than 1/2 inch tape be used.

STRAPPING REINFORCEMENT FOR CONTAINERS.

Strapping Reinforcement for Containers

In additions to the use of metal strapping as reinforcement for blocking or
bracing, its widest use is for reinforcement of exterior wooden containers.
Only tempered high tensile strength, flat steel strapping should be used as
wood container reinforcement, except in limited instances such as reinforcing
of a crate corner where annealed nail-on-type flat steel strapping is
employed. For export shipments, bare metal strapping should not be used
due to its lack of corrosion resistance. Each military and commercial
container specification has a section or an appendix devoted to closure and
strapping. It is important that the instruction contained in these
publications be observed.

Web Strapping

The use of web strapping to tie down an item to a base, to other faces of the
containers, or to built up frame, is NOT considered a good practice. Web
strapping has a tendency to shrink or stretch with change in moisture
content, thereby losing its ability to hold the item firmly in place. It is
hygroscopic, and may cause corrosion to contacting metal surfaces, and it is
often difficult to anchor properly.

Reinforced Tapes for Packing

Various kinds of tapes have been developed with longitudinal filament
reinforcing strands to provide high tensile strength. When such tapes are
properly applied to containers or bundled items, significant increases in
resistance to rough handling are attained. These tapes consist of either a
paper or plastic backing, which has been coated on one side with an insoluble
pressure-sensitive adhesive, or a gummed adhesive that is activated by a
solvent. The high tensile strength of the tape is produced by filaments of

1-33

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

nylon, rayon, glass, or otherfibers that have been lineally aligned and
embedded in the backing material. When the tape is applied to the container
so that the direction of the rough handling stresses are parallel to the
embedded filaments of the tape, considerable container strengthening
results. Longitudinal tensile strength of these tapes may be over 500 pounds
per inch of width. Some of the advantages claimed for their use are that
sufficient tensile strength and elastic properties are present to enable a
package or pack to be highly resistant to shock loads. The adhesive holds the
tape to the area of application and thus prevents slippage during handling.
These tapes do not easily snag and do not interfere with stacking and
handling of containers. No special equipment is needed for their application.

They provide a means of reducing pilferage.

Reinforced paper, gummed tape A-A-1492, A-A-1671

There are three types and two classes available. Type I (reinforced, asphaltic
laminated) and Type II (reinforced, nonasphaltic laminated) are intended for
use in so called single strip closure under the Uniform Freight Classification
Rule 41, section 7. Types I and II are used for closure of fiberboard boxes for
domestic shipment and storage and for securing wrappers of packages. Type
II shall be used where the presence of asphalt would have a deleterious effect
on the contents, such as food products. Type III is intended for use in general
sealing of cartons, fiberboard boxes, and wrappers and for banding paper and
paper products. Class 1 (strippable) is used when ease of opening and
removal of the tape is desired. Class 2 (non-strippable) is used when removal
of the tape from boxes is not necessary for reuse.

Filament Reinforced, Pressure Tape ASTM D 5330

These tapes are supplied in four types based on tensile strength. Type I (low
tensile strength) has a minimum tensile strength of 160 pounds per inch of
width. Type II (medium tensile strength) has a minimum tensile strength of
240 pounds per inch of width for Class A, and 300 pounds per inch of width
for Class B. Type III (high tensile strength) has a minimum tensile strength
of 425 pounds per inch of width. Type IV (high tensile strength, weather-
resistant) has a minimum tensile strength of 400 pounds per inch of width.
Only Type II has two classes, based on the transparency of the tape. Class A
is opaque or nontransparent, and Class B is transparent enough to allow
reading of printed matter through one layer of the tape. These tapes are
intended for use in securing packages and reinforcing bundles and
containers.

Reinforced Tape Application Guidelines

Individual container specifications, and appropriate standards should be
checked for the proper use of reinforced tapes. Some basic rules that may be
helpful are as follows:

• Do not use a wide tape if a narrower tape is strong enough to
accomplish the intended purpose.

• If it is anticipated that high humidity conditions or excessive
moisture will be encountered in shipment or storage, use tapes with
water insoluble adhesives.

The adhesion of tapes to the surface of a container will depend upon the
condition of the surface. Hence, in strip applications, the strips should be
long enough to provide sufficient adhesion to take advantage of the full
potential strength of the tape. This should require at least 6 or more inches

1-34

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

of good contact between the tape and the container surface. The tape length
should be equally divided over a seam, scoreline, or other point of application.
In using reinforced paper gummed tape (A-A-1492, A-A-1671) for sealing
containers shipped under the jurisdiction of the Interstate Commerce
Commission, only the center seam of a container needs to be sealed. This is
accomplished by using a strip at least 3 inches wide which must extend no
less than 2 1/2 inches over each end of the container.

In using filament reinforced, pressure-sensitive tape ASTM D 5330, the
following information will serve as a guide in its use. It should be recognized
that special conditions will necessitate occasional deviations from these
recommendations in the interest of economy or good practice. The filament
reinforced, pressure sensitive tapes are intended for use in reinforcing
fiberboard or fiberboard surfaced containers, strapping, bundling, and other
miscellaneous applications. Type I, characterized by high elongation and low
tensile strength, is best suited for strip reinforcement of containers and
anchoring moving parts. Type II with lower elongation but high tensile
strength, is also suited for closures. Type III, with higher tensile strength
and low elongation, is most effectively used in complete wraparounds such as
bundling and other forms of circumferential binding. Type IV should be used
where weather resistance is required and should be used in the same length
as the type it replaces. These tapes should be applied in continuous strips.
Typical application are shown in figure 1-22. Tape should be smoothly and
firmly adhered to surfaces which are relatively smooth and nominally free
from dust, dirt, grease, and moisture. Care should be taken to avoid excessive
handling of tape adhesive surfaces, particularly at the ends of the strips.
Such excessive handling might contaminate the surface of the adhesive and
reduce its ability to bond firmly.

The high tensile strength tapes are also used for bundling of rods, shafts, or
tubular objects for easier handling. Table 1-7 shows the correct amounts of
Type III ASTM D 5330 tape for use in bundling. The tape should be applied
with sufficient hand tension to "snug" the bundle and secure maximum
contact between the tape and the bundled items.

CUSHIONING

Cushioning Defined

Cushioning is the protection given to items against physical and mechanical
damage by means of appropriate materials which absorb the energy of shocks
and vibrations through a gradual but increasing resistance to the movement
of the item. The energy from shocks and impact is absorbed when the
cushioning material is compressed, which in turn increases the pressure
upon the entrapped air within the cushioning material, resulting in a
damping or minimizing of the force to the item.

Cushioning Versus Blocking and Bracing

The distinction between cushioning and blocking and bracing is that
cushioning permits controlled movement of the item within the container,
while blocking and bracing usually are designed to prevent movement of the
item within the container.

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SMPT 929A

Figure 1-22. Use of filament reinforced tape.

Cushioning and Corrosion

Where applicable, cushioning should be used in one or more of the following
ways to provide necessary physical protection. Cushioning materials shall be
separated from surfaces which might be corroded at points of contact by
either noncorrosive wrapping paper conforming to Specification MIL-P-130 or
greaseproof barrier material conforming to Specification MIL-B-121, grade A.
If a noncorrosive cushioning material is used, the wrap is not required.
Cushioning materials containing asphalt shall not be permitted to come in
direct contact with highly finished, varnished, or lacquered surfaces.

Flotation or Suspension

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Delicate or fragile items should be protected against shock and vibration by
flotation or suspension within the shipping container by suitable cushioning
materials. These materials may be in sheet form applied to give support at
top, bottom, sides, and ends of the item. For items in sturdy cabinets, cases,
consoles, or packed in an inner box, the cushioning material may be in the
form of prefabricated corner pads. Materials shall be bound fiber conforming
to PPP-C-1120; fiberboard conforming to ASTM D 4727; cellulosic material
conforming to A-A-1898; expanded polystyrene conforming to PPP-C-850;
prefoamed polyurethane conforming to MIL-P-26514; foam-in-place materials
complying with MIL-F-83671; or such other materials as specified in the
procurement documents.

Abrasion Protection

Protection against abrasion should be provided for highly finished or easily
marred surfaces by wrapping or covering with cushioning material.
Surfaces damaged by contact with cushioning material should be separated
by a covering of noncorrosive paper conforming to MIL-P-130 or MIL -
P-17667 or greaseproof barrier material conforming to MIL-B-121, Grade A.

Coatings and Barriers

Protection should be provided for strippable compound coatings and for
greaseproof, waterproof, or water vaporproof barriers at points of contact
with blocking, bracing or projecting members of containers. Cushioning
materials should be applied to reduce the static pressure at points of contact
of 30 pounds or less per square inch.

Moisture Resistance

Unless otherwise specified in the product specification, cushioning material
conforming to A-A-1898 should be of the water resistant type.

Dusting

Cushioning materials that are not dust producing should be used for packing
items that are adversely affected by dust, unless a dustproof barrier is used
to prevent dust from reaching the item.

Factors Influence Cushioning Selection and Use

Shock resulting from rough handling or dropping of a shipping container is
the usual cause of mechanical damage to the contents. The purpose of
package or item cushioning is to reduce the intensity of the shock reaching
the packed item to a level which the item can withstand. Factors influencing
cushion design are the fragility and weight of the item, the load-bearing area
of the cushion, the dynamic, force deformation characteristics of the
cushioning material, and the equivalent height of drop (usually 30 inches) for
which protection is desired. Among these, the fragility and weight of the item
are fixed values for any particular item. The load-bearing area of the cushion
can be altered by suitable blocking or by packing the item in an inner
container, if desired.

Concept of Cushioning

Cushioning is the protection from physical and mechanical damage afforded
an item by means of compressible and resilient materials, known as
cushioning materials, designed to absorb the energy of shocks and vibration
caused by external forces. Details on "Package Cushioning Design" may be
obtained in MIL-HDBK-304.

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Functions of Cushioning

In order to properly utilize the many cushioning materials available in the
military supply system, it is necessary to understand the functions of
cushioning. Among these functions (fig 1-23) the more important are—

• Controls movement and prevents damage caused by vibration.
Cushioning, when properly applied, controls the movement of the
item within the barrier or container and dampens vibration.

• Protect fragile or delicate components. When fragile or delicate
components form a part of an otherwise rugged item, they may be
disassembled and packaged separately. If disassembly is not
permitted and they must be left in place, cushioning is applied to give
them protection.

• Prevent rupture of barriers and containers. Many items have sharp
corners or projections which could puncture the barriers or containers
in which they are packaged, resulting in the entry of moisture or
water. Cushioning is applied to these projections or corners to insure
that waterproof or water-vaporproof barriers are not rendered useless
by such damage.

• Distribute forces. Cushioning materials reduce the shock to an item
by distributing forces over a large area, thus lowering the stress
concentration at any one point on the surface of the item.

• Prevent abrasion. Items with highly finished surfaces which may be
marred by blocking, strapping, contact with container surfaces, or
contact with other items in the container, must be protected against
abrasion by cushioning. Usually, lesser amounts and thickness of
cushioning materials are employed to accomplish this cushioning
function.

• Absorb shocks. Perhaps the most frequent and important use of
cushioning is to absorb the energy resulting when an impact shock
strikes a container. This shock energy is absorbed as the cushioning
material is compressed by the impact.

Multipurpose cushioning

The foregoing functions of cushioning should not be considered separately
because cushioning is often used for more than one purpose in the same
package. Material selected to protect an item against shock may at the same
time minimize movement, prevent abrasion, protect barriers, and cover sharp
projections. Many cushioning materials also act as good insulation to protect
items against drastic temperature changes. Cushioning may be required to
absorb liquids and consequently must have liquid-absorbing qualities to
prevent liquid flow in case of breakage of the containers.

Requirements for the Use of Cushioning Materials

In addition to the requirements established in cushioning specifications in
regard to material quality, construction, and performance, other important
requirements must be met when cushioning materials are used within
waterproof or water-vaporproof barriers. Sound packaging design practices
dictate placing only the minimal required amount of cushioning material
within water-vaporproof barriers, thereby minimizing the barrier area and
the desiccant requirements, in addition.

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

CONTROL MOVEMENT
AND VIBRATION

PROTECT
FRAGILE ITEi

PREVENT RUPTURE
OF BARRIERS AND
CONTAINERS

PREVENT ABRASION

ABSORBS SHOCKS
DUE TO IMPACT

SMPT 312A

Figure 1-23. Functions of cushioning.

• Cushioning shall be as dry as practicable.

• If the item is coated with a preservative, the preserved item must
first be wrapped in a barrier conforming to MIL-B-121, Grade A, QQ-
A-1876, or MIL-B-22191, Type I or II, before applying the cushioning
material.

Cushioning Selection Factors

There are several factors that must be considered in selecting the appropriate
cushioning material for a given application. The nature and physical
limitations of the item, the favorable and unfavorable characteristics of the

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

cushioning material, the destination of the packages, and the means of
transportation must all be taken into consideration before an item can be
properly cushioned.

Nature of the Item

In planning to cushion an item, the nature and physical limitations of the
item must first be considered. The shock resistance, size, weight, shape,
surface finish, and the degree of disassembly permitted will influence the
way an item is to be cushioned (fig 1-24).

Shock Resistance or Fragility

Fragility may be observed, but cannot be measured accurately by eye. The
tendency is to overcushion seemingly fragile items and to undercushion
seemingly sturdy items. Fragility-the greatest amount of dynamic force an
item can withstand without destruction— can be measured with scientific
instruments. The term "G-factor" has been accepted as indicating the shock
resistance of an item. This resistance is determined by measuring the peak
acceleration (deceleration) an item will withstand during impact and dividing
this acceleration value by the acceleration due to gravity (32.16ft/sec/sec).
This is expressed as-

G-factor — Acceleration of the Item

Acceleration due to Gravity

The G-factor values of many military items are being determined. In the
absence of known G-factor values, the selection of cushioning must be based
on experience with previous shipments and testing of similar items, or by
assuming a G-factor for drop test purposes.

Figure 1-24. Item characteristics determines the selection
of cushioning materials.

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Size

A large item may require a thinner layer of cushioning than a smaller item of
the same weight because there is less load per square inch applied to the
cushioning. This should be kept in mind when an item is irregular in shape-
more cushioning may be required at the small end than at the large end.

Weight

Weight in motion results in force, and force can cause damage. Thus, the
weight of an item controls the thickness, quantity, and firmness of the
cushioning material to be used. Generally, the heavier the item, the firmer
the cushioning must be.

Shape

A regular-shaped item will ordinarily fit snugly into a container with a
minimum of cushioning, while an irregular-shaped one may require a
complicated arrangement of pads and cells or foamed-in-place cushioning to
bring it to a more regular shape. Light, small items which are irregular in
shape can be made regular and at the same time positioned and held in the
container merely by a wrap of cushioning material. Large, irregular items
may make it impractical to use cushioning materials to make them regular.
Blocking and bracing will have to be employed to adequately protect such
items.

Surface Finish

An otherwise sturdy item may have highly finished surfaces which could be
damaged by the rubbing action of harsh abrasive cushioning material, or the
surfaces may be corroded and pitted by chemical action due to the presence of
moisture and acidic or basic elements in the cushioning material.

Characteristics of Cushioning Materials

The chemical and physical properties of cushioning materials are many and
may display both desirable and undesirable characteristics. These
characteristics vary in importance for different applications. What might be a
highly desirable characteristic in one application, may be detrimental in
another. For instance, high moisture absorbency is required for packaging
liquids, but is not desirable when packaging corrodible metal items.

Compression set (fig 1-25) is the difference between the original thickness of
a cushioning material and the thickness of the same material after having
been released from compression under a standard load for a given period of
time. This is important in determining whether a cushioned item can remain
in storage for an extended period of time without causing the cushioning to
lose its resiliency. Permanent compression set is undesirable when it creates
free-moving space in the container.

Resilience (fig 1-25) is the ability of a material to absorb a series of shocks
and return to its original shape and thickness after each shock. Few
materials are completely resilient and this quality is often greatly altered by
changes in temperature. Rubber, for instance, is highly resilient in
temperate zones, but loses its resilience under extreme climatic conditions.
Rate of recovery (fig 1-25), or the time it takes for a cushioning material to
return to its original shape after compression, is also important as some
materials have too rapid a rate of recovery and "spring back" so quickly that
damage to the item may result.

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

CUSHIONING BEFORE
COMPRESSION

DURING COMPRESSION

AFTER COMPRESSION

RESILIENCE

RATE OF RECOVERY

SMPT 191

Figure 1-25. Characteristics of cushioning compression set,
resilience, and rate of recovery.

Dusting, which results from the breakdown and disintegration of certain
materials used for cushioning, allows small particles to become detached and
work into crevices and critical working surfaces of the cushioned item (fig
1-26).

The corrosive effect of some cushioning materials is undesirable when
packaging items with critical surfaces. When this cannot be avoided, the
item must be shielded from such materials by a neutral wrap or liner.
Cushioning materials with a high acidic or basic content must not be enclosed
within waterproof or water-vaporproof barriers (fig 1-26). When cushioning
material contains natural hair, it shall be treated with insecticide to prevent
carpet beetle infestation.

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Fungus resistance of some materials is low and allows for the growth of mold,
mildew, and other fungi. Many materials can be treated to inhibit such
growth. However., such treated materials are often very corrosive to metal
surfaces and must be isolated from them (fig 1-26).

The abrasive characteristics of some materials are factors which must be
considered when protecting precision surfaces such as the lenses of optical
instruments. Some cushioning material are soft-textured and generally can
be placed in contact with easily marred surfaces. Coarse textured materials
should not be used on such surfaces (fig 1-27).

DUSTING MON-DllSIiHG

DUSTINESS

PAPER BOAR&

MOH-FU^GUS RESISTANT

FUNGUS RESISTANCE

rUHGyS RESISTANT

SMPT 192A

Figure 1-26 Characteristics of cushioning dustiness, corrosiveness,
and fungus resistance.

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Low temperature performance of certain cushioning materials makes them
suitable for use in high altitude transport and in shipments to cold regions
because they remain relatively soft and resilient (fig 1-27).

Other characteristics which should not be neglected in choosing cushioning
materials are fire resistance or flammability (fig 1-27), and the possibility of
the materials causing skin irritation to personnel who come in contact with it.

Destination of the Item

The destination of the item is a factor in cushioning. Many cushioning
materials change their characteristics under extreme climatic conditions.
Some materials become so rigid or brittle at extremely low temperatures as to
make them useless as cushioning materials. In tropical climates, some
materials soften and lose their cushioning qualities. In jungles or rainy
locations, some materials will pick up excessive moisture which will result in
the loss of resilience and will lead to growth of fungus and accelerated
corrosion.

Means of transportation. The means of transportation must not be
overlooked. Hazards and handling situations vary greatly between air, motor,
rail, and ship. For example, there may be considerable difference between
the amount of handling that an item being transshipped from truck, to rail,
to ship would get and one that is being shipped by air freight. Likewise, an
item to be delivered by air drop would require different protection from one
that would be delivered by truck.

Representative Cushioning Materials

Cushioning Material, Uncompressed Bound Fiber (PPP-C-1120)

This material may consist of any suitable natural hair, vegetable fiber, or
synthetic fiber bound with an elastic material. Horsehair, sisal, and cactus
fibers sprayed with latex are examples. It is furnished in five types and two
classes and three grades. Type I is soft. Type II is medium soft. Type III is
medium firm. Type IV is firm, and Type V is extra firm. When specified, each
type shall be identified with a color matching as closely as possible to colors
shown in Federal Standard 595, as follows: Type I, brown; Type II yellow;
Type III, orange; Type IV, red; and Type V, black. Class A is water-resistant
and Class B, a commercial class, is not necessarily water-resistant. Grade 1 is
a flame resistant material; Grade 2 provides low temperature characteristics;
and Grade 3 is a standard material. This material may be supplied as
uncompressed sheets and rolls and in molded shapes to fit the contours of the
item. The materials have a high degree of resilience, low compression set,
fair damping quality, and do not disintegrate easily. They are neutral and
have a low water-soluble acidity so that their corrosive effects are slight.
Moisture content and moisture absorption are both low; however, the
materials may need to be treated for fungus resistance. Their performance is
good at low temperature. They are intended to protect items against
vibrational and impact shocks where resilient and water-resistant cushions
are required.

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

BOOND FIBER

AlMASWi

iOi-AIRASl¥l

fILl

CIllUlAR

ABRASWEMESS

NORMAl TEMPIRAIURE PIBfORMANCI lOW IIMPERATUIE PEIFORMAMCI

TEMPERATURE PERFORMANCE

CIIIUIOSIC CUSHIONING

FLAMMABLE

flSERBOARD

FLAMMABILITY

S»PI 1?3A

Figure 1-27. Characteristics of cushioning abrasiveness,
temperature performance and flammability.

Cellulosic Cushioning Material (A-A-1898)

This material may be made of any kind of cellulosic matter which will result in a
product meeting specification requirements. The cellulosic matter used may be
cotton, bonded fibers, natural fibers, or creped wadding. The material is
furnished in two types-Type I, water absorbent, and Type II, water resistant. It
is available in three classes-Class A, low tensile strength. Class B, high tensile
strength, and Class C, very high tensile strength. Cellulosic cushioning material
is readily moldable and fairly resilient. Its compression set is high, its damping
ability excellent, but dusting is great enough to require an excluding wrap
around items susceptible to dust damage. Its performance in cold temperature is
good. This material is intended for use in packaging lightweight, fragile items; as
a protection against abrasion; and Type I, specifically, for absorbing liquids from
containers broken in transit.

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Solid And Corrugated Fiberboard (ASTM D 4727)

Both solid and corrugated fiberboard are used in cushioning, but corrugated is
more frequently used because it has greater cushioning value. The most common
forms of fiberboard applications are die-cuts, open end cells trays, pleated pads,
and fiat pads (fig 1-28). Generally, cells and trays should be held in shape with
tape. Those surfaces of the cell or tray which are perpendicular to the contacting
surface of the item are called bracing supports and are load bearing members. To
utilize all of the strength of these bracing supports, they should bear directly on
the item. Pleated pads have greater resistance to breakdown than open end cells
because the load is spread over a large area rather than bracing supports.
Therefore, they should be used to cushion heavier loads (up to 2 pounds per
square inch). Flat pads are used to block shallow projections, to level off
projecting screw heads, and to separate items within a container. They can be
slotted to form partitions, or may be die-cut or punched to fit articles or irregular
shape. Application of fiberboard cells, trays, and pads is illustrated in figure 1-29.

Unicellular Polypropylene Foam (PPP-C-1797)

This material is a low density, resilient, unicellular (closed cell) polypropylene
foam material for use in cushioning and packing applications in the form of rolls
or fiat sheets. Type I electrostatic discharge is required. It is useful throughout a
temperature range from minus 65°F to 160°F. It is intended for use as a
cushioning wrap for low density items. The foam can be laminated to a wide
range of products including paper, paperboard, and may be used for the
protection for optical lenses, equipment with critical surfaces, electrical and
electronic equipment, glassware, ceramics, and magnetic tape rolls. When stored
in closed containers it produces no trapped volatiles which could cause fire or
explosions. Polypropylene, by its nature, is unaffected by most exposures to
grease water and most acids, bases and solvents. It contains no plasticizers,
solvents, or lubricants.

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

TRAY CAP

Figure 1-29. Application of fiberboard die-cuts, open end cells,
trays, and pads.

Expanded Polystyrene (PPP-C-850)

This resilient cushioning material consists of expanded polymers or copolymers of
styrene for use in packaging applications. It is furnished in two types. Type I is
in sheet form and Type II is in roll form. Both types come in four classes and two
grades. Class 1 is soft, class 2-medium, class 3-firm, class 4-extra firm. Grade SE
is self-extinguishing. This cushioning material is used within packages to protect
items from damage due to shock, vibration, abrasion, and concentrated forces
during handling and shipment. It is especially suited where a high degree of
energy absorption is required in a minimum space and with a minimum weight of
cushioning. It can also be used to provide temperature insulation or when
cushioning material must perform at extremely low temperature.

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Cushioning, Wrapping Paperboard (A-A-1051)

This is a paperboard composed of a corrugated sheet or a solid molded pulp sheet
firmly cemented to a backing flat sheet of unbleached sulfate fiber paper. The
paperboard is furnished in two types--light and heavy-duty, and in two styles.
Style 1 material must have a backing sheet. The backing sheet is optional for
Style 2. It is furnished in sheets or rolls, as desired. Both styles are flexible in all
directions. This material has high compression, low resilience, excellent
damping, and some dusting. The moisture content and moisture absorption are
high. The moisture is not neutral and hence has a high corrosion effect. Its
performance in cold weather is poor, and it is neither fungus nor flame resistant.

Critical metal items must first be wrapped in a chemically neutral or greaseproof
barrier.

Rigid Or Flexible Polyurethane Foam (MIL-PRF-26514)

This material consists of both rigid and elastic types of foamed products obtained
through the proper blending of complex synthetic chemical compounds. By
proper combinations, reaction mixtures can be poured or pumped into various
shaped cavities. Volatilization of the blowing agent causes rapidly stiffening
resin to expand, completely filling the space. The material then sets rapidly to a
lightweight, cellular structure that has excellent cushioning properties. The
material is furnished in a form suitable for foaming in-place application or it may
be performed and supplied in rolls, sheets, or molded shapes. Strong rigid foams,
tough elastic foams, soft flexible foams, and spongy water absorbent foams can be
obtained by the different choices of ingredients. Foams with densities as low as
.5 pounds per cubic foot may be obtained. These foams can be adjusted to give a
high or low compression set, excellent or poor damping, and high or low
resilience. In other words, the material can be tailor made to meet the
requirement of any type of cushioning required. There is no dusting problem;
moisture content is negligible. The material is flame and fungus-resistant, and it
performs well in cold climates. For further details regarding procedures and
equipment used with polyurethane foam, see MIL-HDBK-775 and MIL-F-87075
respectively.

Latex Foam Sponge Rubbers

These materials are made by incorporating into the rubber an inflating agent
such as baking soda, that gives off a gas which expands the mass during the
vulcanization process. The rubber is made from slab rubber into sheets, strips,
molded or special shapes. These materials may be supplied in cored or uncored
types; soft, medium, firm, and extra firm, classes; and in flame resistant and
nonflame-resistant grades. The materials have a very high resilience, low
compression set, fair damping properties, high moisture content, and high
moisture absorption. They produce some dusting. If kept dry, the corrosive
effects are slight. Their low temperature performance is poor. The materials
have a high density and are expensive to use. The molded forms are often used
in conjunction with reusable containers and the initial cost is reduced by the
amount of reuse obtained.

Plastic Film, Heat Sealable, Flexible, Cellular (PPP-C-795)

This material is constructed of a composite of two or more sheets of plastic film,
one face having uniformly distributed closed cells (bubbles), the other a flat
surface. It is available in three classes: class 1-regular; class 2-antistatic, tinted;
and class 3-fire retardant. All are used as cushioning for packaging applications.

Material is furnished with various cell sizes (air bubbles). It is intended for use
within packages to protect items from damage due to shock, vibration,
concentrated forces, corrosion, contamination, and abrasion during handling and

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

shipment and is especially suitable for use as inserts within transparent bags.
The use of class 1 material, due to its transparency, permits inspection of the
contents without opening the pack. The flexibility of the material permits it to be
used as pads, bags, wraps, dunnage, or as a filler. Class 2 material protects
sensitive electronic devices from electrostatic discharge damage. When fire-
retardancy is required, class 3 material is selected.

Note: Many of the materials made under this specification are laminates of
chlorinated plastic and polyethylene. Chlorinated organic materials give off
vapors of hydrogen chloride which can combine with water to form highly
corrosive hydrochloric acid.

Unicellular Polyethylene Flexible Foam (PPP-C-1752)

This specification covers six types and four classes of cushioning material. Type
refers to the density range of the material. For example, type VII has a density of
.9 to 2.0 pounds per cubic foot while type V has a density range of 6.0 to 10.0 per
cubic foot. The class generally describes the form the material takes and may be
solid or laminated planks, sheets, cut shapes, rounds, or molded shapes. In
addition, type VII, class 4, materials are antistatic. Temperature performance
has a useful range of minus 65° to plus 165°F. Compression set is low and the
materials are noncorrosive, nonabrasive, and virtually dust free.

Open Cell Plastic Cushioning (PPP-C-1842)

This material is made of one sheet of plastic film or a composite of two or more
sheets of film, formed into a network of uniformly distributed open cells. The
cells may be a hexagonal or fluted shape, depending upon whether a facing or
reinforcing top film laminate is required. The hexagonal form is used when a
reinforcing top laminate is applied to the open face of the cells. The fluted form is
used when a facing is applied to the crowns of the formed cells. The resulting
material is lightweight, transparent, flexible, and heat sealable. There are three
types; Type I, hexagonal; Type II, fluted; and Type III, hexagonal, electrostatic
free. The two styles describe whether or not the material has a top laminate or
facing. All three types are available with or without a top laminate or facing and
are furnished in rolls or sheets. The material is noncorrosive, nonabrasive, has
low compression set, and performs well at low temperatures. The cushioning is
intended for use within packages as inserts within transparent bags, wraps,
dunnage, and filler.

Methods Of Cushioning

Cushioning is generally accomplished by one of the following methods:

• Floated item. The item is floated in cushion material and placed within a
unit container (fig 1-30). This is perhaps the method most commonly
used for cushioning small, lightweight, fragile items against shock,
vibration, and abrasion. Dryness and noncorrosiveness of cushioning
materials are most important since both the item and the cushioning
material will be inclosed in the unit container. Greaseproof barriers are
required if the item is preserved. Cushioning materials must be secured
about the item. Loose cushioning may result in either the displacement
of the material when the pack is subjected to shock, its disintegration
under repeated vibration, or the production of dust or loose particles
which will be entrapped within the pack. Since a container may be
dropped on any of its faces, edges, or corners, the cushioning material
must be designed to withstand the full impact of the entire weight of the
item in any direction.

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• Floated Pack. The item is packed in an interior container which in turn
is floated in cushioning materials (fig 1-30). This method is generally
used in connection with semifragile items of medium size and weight.
The item is initially packed (which may include cushioning or blocking) in
an interior container, then floated in cushioning and placed into an
exterior container. In this method, the noncorrosiveness and moisture
content of the cushioning materials are not critical since the materials
will not come in contact with the item. The use of absorbent cushioning
materials, when used in this method, should be governed as follows:

When both the interior and exterior containers are water-resistant, the
cushioning material may be simply placed between the two containers. When
either container is nonwater-resistant, the cushioning material must be placed in
the form of packs wrapped in a water resistant barrier material. An alternative
for the second case is to provide the interior container with a sealed water-
resistant wrap and the exterior container with a sealed liner. The cushioning
material is then placed between the two barriers.

Shock Mounts

The item is cushioned by means of shock mounts. This method is used to cushion
fragile items and sensitive instruments or mechanisms that can be damaged by
shock and vibration. The weight and size of the item may vary from light and
small to heavy and large. The shock mounts may consist of elastomeric springs
or rubber blocks. This method of cushioning may be accomplished in four main
ways.

The item may be suspended directly by means of elastomeric springs. The item
may be blocked in a cradle and the cradle suspended by means of elastomeric
springs. The item may be boxed in an intermediate container and the
intermediate container suspended by means of elastomeric springs. The item may
be boxed in an intermediate container and the intermediate suspended by means
of rubber shock mounts.

PACKING PROBLEMS

The basic reason for packing any item is to provide enough protection against the
hazards it is likely to encounter during shipment. This minimizes the chances
that damage will occur during the interval between the time the pack leaves the
shipper and when the item is placed in use by the receiving activity. It is, of
course, an impossibility to evaluate all the hazards that might be encountered in
transit, as there are too many variables which can affect the condition in which
an item may be found upon arrival at its destination. The guidelines to packing
presented herein have indicated the principles and practices that have been
found satisfactory in giving protection under average handling and storage
conditions. If the solution of a specific packing problem is not located in this
section, the following procedures are recommended for shipment from depots:

Domestic Shipments

If an item is being shipped domestically, pack the item in a manner which closely
duplicates the pack in which the item was received.

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Figure 1-30. Methods of cushioning.

Oversea Shi p ments

If shipment overseas is involved, and no previous history of a container in which
the item had been shipped to a similar destination is available, construct a pack
embodying as many as possible of the principles outlined in this section. This
pack should be prepared exactly as it would be shipped including complete
preservation and interior packing. It is then tested by subjecting it to the
applicable performance tests. The tests are based upon the size as well as the
gross weight of the container since both influence the amount of rough handling
the container will receive. Small, light packages are easier to move than the
larger and heavier packs, and consequently, they can be expected to receive a
greater amount of handling. Performance tests are required for the primary
purpose of determining the adequacy of all the operations entering into
preparation of a pack. At the conclusion of the tests, performance is based on the
condition of the container, its contents, the blocking and bracing, cushioning,
preservation, and other packing materials. The pack should be examined for any

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damage, noting in particular any obviously weak points which might need to be
strengthened. Usually the container, if constructed according to specifications,
will withstand the rough handling. If, however, the container is damaged, a
study should be made of the causes. Deficiencies in the blocking and bracing may
result in damage to the container, in which case these deficiencies should be
corrected. Other times the nature or shape of the item may cause the container
to fail. Then, the container should be reinforced. In any event, when deficiencies
become obvious, either in the containers, the contents, the blocking and bracing,
cushioning, preservation, etc. the pack should be appropriately modified and the
test repeated until no damage occurs which affects the utility of the pack.

PACKING SMALL, LIGHTWEIGHT ITEMS

As previously pointed out, cushioning materials are frequently employed to block
lightweight items. In some instances, however, cushioning materials such as
fiberboard, are primarily used for blocking. The effectiveness of fiberboard as
blocking and bracing depends upon its strength and its resistance to moisture
when not protected by suitable moisture barriers. The domestic class of
fiberboards will rapidly absorb moisture with a resulting loss of strength. The
weather-resistant class on the other hand, retains a greater proportion of its
strength in the presence of moisture. Fiberboard is most frequently employed as
blocking in fiberboard containers because the items packed in them are usually
small and lightweight and do not require heavier types of blocking. Also, the
container manufacturer can provide and fabricate pads, cells, trays, or partitions
of the same material a low cost.

Both solid and corrugated fiberboard are employed as blocking material, but the
corrugated is used more frequently because it has a greater cushioning value and
because of its lower cost. Occasionally, a pack will contain a comparatively large
void which will necessitate blocking to prevent shifting of the item. In such cases,
a fiberboard carton may be used for blocking the item in place. The carton used
for blocking should be closed and sealed, and must be strong enough to provide
adequate strength in all directions.

PACKING LARGE ITEMS

Large items require special attention to adequately secure them within the
container. Such items are anchored to the base of the container and blocked and
braced into a secured position on the base. A clearance of a least 1 inch is
provided between the end, side, and top panels and the item is seldom blocked
and braced to these panels. Thus, the container must have a rigid base and the
rest of it be must free to distort without placing stresses directly on the contents.

Anchoring to Base of Containers

Crates for large and heavy items should have sturdy bases to which the items can
be adequately secured. Many ingenious methods have been developed to hold
items to crate bases. For sill and skid type crates, it is essential that the load be
carried primarily by the outside skids or sills. This means that loads that cannot
be secured to the side sills or bases must be provided with load bearing members
that transmit the load to them.

1-53

Figure 1-31. Waterproofing of individual packages.

Blocking and Bracing a Large Item

After the item has been anchored to the base of the container to prevent its
movement in a vertical direction, it is blocked and braced to prevent its
movement in a horizontal direction. An item should be anchored only to the base,
hence all bracing and blocking should be so secured.

CLEARANCE BETWEEN ITEM AND CONTAINER

When an item is blocked, braced, anchored, or tied down to the inside of one face
of a container or to an auxiliary base which, in turn, is so secured, a clearance of
not less than 1 inch should be provided between the item and all members of the
faces of the container. A minimum clearance of 2 inches should be provided
around fragile parts of the item that might be damaged due to slight distortion of
the container. A minimum 2 inch clearance should be provided between items
within floating bag barriers and adjacent members of the container.

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WEATHERPROOFING THE PACK

At this point in the sequence of packing operations, it is assumed that a careful
study has been made of the item to be packed; a suitable container has been
selected; blocking, bracing, and cushioning have been designed; and the contents
are ready to be placed into the container. The next step is to provide, when
necessary, a protective barrier in the form of a case liner, crate liner, shroud,
wrap, or tarpaulin fabricated from one of several materials. The barriers are
intended to prevent deterioration of the item, and the preservation and packing
materials used to protect it, by excluding the entry of water, by limiting the
entrance of water vapor, or by diverting water from the materials which are
subject to water damage. In addition, barriers will afford protection from dust,
dirt, and other foreign matter. Barriers designed to prevent the entry of water
(waterproof barriers) will not be used when the interior packs have been
individually waterproofed as shown in figure 1-31, nor when the asphaltum in
the barrier material or sealants may prove injurious to the inclosed items. The
water-vaporproof protection afforded by caseliners differs from that afforded by a
Method 50 package in that water absorbing desiccant is not used with caseliners.

WEATHERPROOFING (CASE LINERS, WRAPS, AND SHROUDS)

Except as provided herein, weatherproof liners, wraps, shrouds or other suitable
means shall be provided in shipping containers as necessary to shield the
contents from the effects of water, water vapor, dust, dirt, and other harmful
matter. When a completely inclosed barrier is provided as in the case of liners
and wraps, all seams should be completely and continuously sealed to offer
protection equal to the barrier material itself. Barrier materials and sealants
constructed with asphaltum shall not be used in the presence of mothproofing
chemicals such as paradichlorobenzene and naphthalene. Barrier materials and
sealants constructed of asphaltum shall not be used to protect items subject to
stain or other damage caused by asphalt unless such items are initially protected
to exclude asphalt.

Types of Weatherproofing Barriers

The particular type of barrier to be used depends on the type of exterior container
or the intended use of the barrier (table 1-8). In selecting the type of barrier to be
used, consideration should be given to the following:

• Sealed case liners and sealed wraps are used to resist the passage of
water and water-vapor. Fabrication of case liners is covered below.

• Sealed case liners will not be used in the packing of material unless
specifically authorized.

• Crate liners and shrouds are used to shed water from the top and sides of
the item, allowing free circulation of air. Shrouds are fabricated from
waterproof barrier material conforming to PPP-B-1055, Class E or
heavier. The seams are sealed with water-resistant adhesive conforming
to MMM-A-260. Shrouds also may be made of material conforming to L-
P-378.

It is important that shrouds be secured to prevent damage or loosening by
storms. They should be weighted if necessary and arranged to avoid formation of
water pockets. Shrouds should never extend entirely to the base of a crate or to
the ground since the free circulation of air around the enclosed equipment is
thereby prevented.

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Table 1-8. Application of weatherproofing barrier materials for packing

Use

Barrier Materials

L-P-378

PPP-B-1055

MIL-B-121

MIL-B-131

MIL-B-

22191

Case Liner

Classes H-2, H-3(a),

Types I and II,

Classes 1 and 2

H-4, H-5, L-2(b),

Grade A, Class

W atervaporproof

and M-1 Waterproof

1 Waterproof

Sealed Wraps

Type I

Classes B-1, B-2, B-

Classes 1, 2, and

Types II or

and Plastic

Water-

3, C-1, C-2, C-2(a),

III

Bags

proof

E-1, and E-2
Waterproof

W atervaporproof

Waterproof

Crate Liner

Classes C-2(a), E-1,
E-2, E-2, H-5, L-
2(b), and M-1
Watershed

Shroud

Types I and

Classes E-2, H-5,

Watershed

and M-1 Watershed

Baling

Classes B-1, B-2, B-
3, and E-2
Watershed

Temporary

Type I

Class L-4 Water-

Tarpaulin

Watershed

shed Class P-1

Case Liners, Overwraps, and Plastic Bags

Flexible waterproof or watervaporproof case liners, overwrap sheets, and plastic
bag liners should be fabricated and closed in accordance with MIL-L-10547.

They shall be furnished in the following types: Type I, high-top case liner (fig
1-32); Type II, double-top pad liner (fig 1-33); Type III, overwrap sheet, and Type
IV, plastic bag. Type II liners may be used when a level, rigid surface exists or
when the depth of the case liner exceeds 36 inches. Type III overwrap sheets are
barriers used around intermediate boxes. Type IV plastic bag liners are used in
the same manner as Type I and II case liners.

They are available also in six grades as follows: Grade A, watervaporproof;

Grade B, waterproof, all temperatures; Grade C, waterproof, asphalt laminated
kraft; Grade D, waterproof and greaseproof; Grade E, waterproof, greaseproof,
transparent, all temperatures, and Grade F, waterproof, transparent, all
temperatures.

Table 1-9 shows the barrier material to use depending on the type and grade of
case liner, overwrap, or bag liner required and whether they are to be used for
subsistence or nonsubsistence items.

Case liners should be made large enough so that the weight of the load will be
borne entirely by the container, not by the liner. There should be no tension in
the walls or joints of the liner after it has been closed around the contents.

Experience has shown that under some conditions, especially when the contents
do not fill the case liner completely, waterproof case liners do more harm than
good by trapping and holding water rather than preventing its entry. It is not
essential that there be openings in the sealed liner for this to happen. If the liner
material has low resistance to watervapor transfer (a common occurrence) water
can enter in the form of vapor and condense on items within the liner. At the end

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of an extended outdoor exposure period, sealed case liners have been opened and
found partially filled with water. When packed items need protection against
water, it is preferable to incorporate the protection in the individual unit
packages in lieu of using case liners.

Linings for Drums, Kegs, Barrels, and Bags. Linings should be provided for
drums, kegs, barrels, or bags when their contents require protection not
otherwise provided by the containers against sifting, contamination, or free
water. The lining material should conform to PPP-B-1055 or MIL-B-22191.
Fabrication and closure seams should be heat sealed or sealed with adhesive
conforming to MMM-A-260, as applicable.

Waterproof and Watervaporproof Wraps

Waterproof and watervaporproof wraps shall be fabricated and sealed in
accordance with MIL-L-10547.

Unsealed Waterproof Wraps

Unsealed waterproof wraps should be applied to shed water while permitting
breathing and circulation of air.

Table 1-9. Barrier materials for case liners, overwraps, and plastic bag liners

Use

Liners, overwraps.

Specification

Barrier materials

and bag liner

Grade

Types

Classification

Subsistence item

I, II, III

PP-B-1055

L-P-378

Nonsubsistence

I, III

MIL-B-131

Classes 1, 2 and 3

item

I, II, III

PPP-B-1055

Classes E-1, E-2, H-

I, II

MIL-B-121

1 thru H-5, L-2, M-1

MIL-B-22191

Types I and II,
grade A, class 1
Type II

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Figure 1-32. Using and closing of high top caseliner.

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

FOLD DOWN

Figure 1-33. Double top pad closure caseliner.

TESTING OF PACKS

Purpose of Testing

The purpose of testing is to prove the adequacy of packaging design and the
workmanship of fabrication. Testing may be performed in the research and
development phase or by tests at the operational level. Since containers in the
storage and shipment cycle are subjected to various and constantly changing
storage and shipping hazards, it is difficult to develop complete data for their
design by merely observing the containers in service. Examinations of failures
will reveal the weaknesses and suggest the specific principles of design to
overcome such failures. Since service tests are not performed under controlled
conditions, laboratory tests are necessary to simulate field hazards. Each test is
designed to reproduce one or more of the stresses encountered in the field.
During the test cycles the sequence of failures can be observed, classified, and the

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weaknesses from which the failures result determined. By means of such tests
any number of containers can, in turn, be subjected to exactly the same actions,
thus providing the data necessary to produce balanced construction and
workmanship. On the following pages are described a number of methods that
have been devised for subjecting containers to hazards similar to those
encountered in the field. Both laboratory and field testing are necessary since
there are certain conditions inherent in each method of testing that cannot be
duplicated in the other.

Types of Tests

Development and testing of packs and containers should be started as soon as
possible after initiation of item development. Some of the tests most commonly
used in proving design adequacy include the vibration, rough handling, and cyclic
exposure tests (fig 1-34). One or more of these tests are usually applicable to the
design of military packs. In many cases the technical activity having design
responsibility, has intervals tests and procedures that are applicable to a specific
design problem. The documents most generally used for test guidance are MIL-
STD-1186. ASTM D 4169, Performance Testing of Shipping Containers and
Systems, and ASTM D 5276, Drop Test of Loaded Containers by Free-Fall, should
be referenced.

Testing (MIL-STD-2073-l)

After an item has been packed in accordance with one of the MIL-STD-2073-1
methods, tests are conducted to determine the effectiveness of the pack. The
types of tests conducted will depend on the particular method used. The tests
called for in MIL-STD-2073-1 are not all-inclusive, however, and additional or
different tests are sometimes required. The types of tests specified in MIL-STD-
2073-1 for proving the adequacy of unit protection are the leakage test, rough
handling tests, cyclic exposure tests, and the heat-seal seam tests.

Testing (MIL-STD-1186)

When packs prepared for shipment in accordance with the detailed requirements
of MIL-STD-1186 are tested for any rough handling required, there should be no
settlement or shifting of contents. Further, the testing should cause no damage
to the contents and should not loosen, break, or displace the anchoring, blocking,
or bracing. The testing should not render the interior containers, wraps, liners,
barriers, or cushioning ineffectual in providing continued and adequate
protection to the contents.

Types of Rough Handling Tests

The various types of rough handling tests include: free-fall drop test; cornerwise
drop test; pendulum impact test; incline-impact test; edgewise drop test;
vibration test; and others. The particular tests employed usually depend upon
the size and shape of the package. Completed packages as prepared for shipment
are given a rough handling test when specified. When a rough handling test is
required, it precedes applicable tests specified to detect leaks and inadequate
seals or closures and preservative retention.

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

INCLINE -lAAPACT TEST

DROP TEST

SMRT 1 1 18A.

Figure 1-34. Examples of container test.

Inspection and tests for leaks in barrier materials, seals and closures, and
preservative retention, when required, are performed on the contained unit
pack(s) following the rough handling test to determine existence or extent of
detrimental effects. Unless a particular test is specified, selection of the
applicable rough handling test should be in accordance with ASTM D 5639,
Selection of Corrugated Fiberboard Materials and Box Construction Based on
Performance Requirements.

Small Containers

Only free-fall drop tests and vibration tests shall apply to small containers; both
or either vibration test shall be conducted at the option of the contractor. Small
containers are those having a gross weight of 110 pounds or less. Any container
with skids is tested as a large container. Any container holding an item that has
a net weight of more than 100 pounds and which is fastened to a base within or to
the base of the container will be tested as a large container.

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Large Containers

All rough handling tests, except for free-fall tests, shall apply to large containers;
both or either vibration test shall be conducted at the option of the contractor.
However, tipover tests will apply only when additionally specified. Either impact
test shall be conducted at the option of the contractor. Large shipping containers
are those measuring more than 60 inches on any one edge or diameter, or those
which when loaded, have gross weights in excess of 150 pounds or those which
have skids.

Free-fall drop test (fig 1-35)

The pack may be tested in accordance with ASTM D 5276. A drop tester is any
suitable apparatus which will allow an absolutely free, unobstructed fall of the
container at the orientation and the direction required. A lifting device that will
not damage the container will be used and a level steel or cement surface to
absorb all shock without displacement will be provided. The height from which
the specimen should be dropped is dependent upon the weight, size, kind of
container, and level of pack. This test is meant to simulate the fall of an item
dropped by a person from a height they would normally use to lift and carry an
item of that size.

The container should be dropped from the designated height onto a steel,
concrete or stone surface of sufficient mass to absorb the shock without deflection
in such a manner that the designated surface of the container absorbs the full
force of the fall (fig 1-35). This test should be repeated until the designated
number of drops have been made. (The height refers to the distance from the
steel, concrete, or stone surface to the nearest surface of the container when
suspended prior to the fall.) The fall shall be a free fall, in that no ropes or other
suspending media are attached to the container during the fall. If the container
is of the drum type, the top and bottom of the drum should be marked so that the
circle of the top and bottom is quartered, and the test should be applied to each
quartered section.

Tipover Test (fig 1-34)

The loaded container is placed on its bottom and slowly tipped until it falls freely
(by its own weight) on its side to a smooth level, concrete slab or similarly
unyielding surface. Structural damage to the exterior shipping container which
would result in either spilling of contents or failure of the container in
subsequent handling is cause for rejection. This test is meant to simulate the
impacts of accidentally tipping over a container. It is intended that the tipover
test be used only on containers that are susceptible to accidental tipovers.

Edgewise Drop Test (fig 1-36)

The loaded container should be supported at on end of its base on a sill or block 6
inches in height and at right angles to the skids. The opposite end of the
container should be allowed to fall freely from the specified height onto a steel,
concrete, or stone surface of sufficient mass to absorb the shock without
deflection. The test should be applied twice to each end of the container. If the
size of the container and the location of the center of gravity are such that the
drop tests cannot be made from the prescribed height, the height of the sill will be
increased.

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Figure 1-35. Free fall drop test.

1-63

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

STEEL, STONE OR
CONCRETE SURFACE

SMPT 182D

DESIGNATED HEIGHT

QUICK RELEASE MECHANISM

TIMBER OR
SUPPORT

600LB. PACK

POINTS OF
IMPACT

Figure 1-36. Edgewise-drop test.

Cornerwise-Drop Test (Fig 1-37)

The container should be supported at one corner of its base on a block 6” in
height. A 12” block should be placed under the other corner of the same end of
the container. The lowest point of the opposite end of the container should then
be raised to the specified height for the weight and allowed to fall freely onto a
steel, stone, or concert surface of sufficient mass to absorb the shock without
deflection.

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FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

1 N

HOIST

/i ,

■/

TIMBER
OR SUPPORT

STEEL, STONE OR
CONCRETE SURFACE

- POINT OF IMPACT

SMPT 1800

Figure 1-37. Cornerwise-drop test.

Impact Tests

Packs having a gross weight exceeding 150 pounds or any dimension exceeding
60 inches, closed for shipment, may be subjected to one of the following guided
impact tests. A single impact should be applied to each of two opposite ends. The
tests are performed to simulate railroad jumping or other accidental impacts,
evaluating the adequacy of the blocking, bracing and tie downs used to secure a
load on or a in a rail car.

Incline-impact Test (fig 1-34)

This test in accordance with ASTM D 5277 simulates the abuses encountered by
packs in freight cars or trucks when the vehicles are subjected to the sudden
starts and stops.

The pack, mounted on a movable platform dolly which rides on a plane inclined
20 degrees from the horizontal, is released from a known distance up the incline
an permitted to strike against a fixed backstop at the bottom of the plane. The
magnitude of impact shock is varied by using different release points.

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SUPERIMPOSED-LOAD TEST (FIG 1-34)

The procedure is applicable for determining the ability of shipping containers to
resist loads such as imposed on the bottom container of a stack of similar
container in storage, or on a container supporting top dunnage and superimposed
lading. Test is applicable for determining the ability of shipping containers to
resist loads superimposed on their tops as imposed by piling without top dunnage
many small, heavy packs on a container.

Stackability, with dunnage tests, are conducted by placing a prescribed load on
the top of the container in a manner simulating the effect of similar containers
being stacked on top, and the load shall be allowed to remain in place for 1 hour.
A check shall be made of any changes or breaks in the container, such as
apparent buckling or failure of members in the sides or ends. Observations
should be made to determine if the distortions are enough to damage or dislodge
the interior packing or contents.

The uniformly distributed, without dunnage superimposed load test is conducted
by placing weights not greater than 10 x 10 inches in outside length and width,
on top of the container in a symmetrical pattern approximating uniform load and
allowed to remain in place for 1 hour. Measurements of distortions shall be made
immediately before the load is removed. Checks should be made of any changes
or breaks in the container, such as apparent buckling of failure of members in the
top, sides or ends.

Vibration Test (fig 1-34)

The forces and motions typical of railroad cars, motor trucks, and air
transportation can result in vibration which frequently produces deterioration or
partial crushing of unit or interior packing which reduces resistance to other
shocks, such as impact from dropping, jolting, or bumping. Testing can disclose
weakness in assembly of the packed item. The pack may be vibration tested in
accordance with ASTM D 3580.

Vibration (Repetitive Shock) Test

Test is used to indicate whether or not a package and its contents will withstand
transportation shocks and vibration without damage when the shipment is not
securely tied down to the floor of the vehicle. The package is placed on, but not
fastened to, a platform supported on a mechanism that will maintain the surface
essentially horizontal as it vibrates the platform. The amplitude of the vibration
will be 1 inch total. The frequency will be variable within as approximate range
from 3 to 5 Hz. Fences, barricades, or blocking can be attached to the platform to
keep the package in position without unnecessarily restricting the vertical or
rational movement of the package. Unless failure occurs, total time of vibration
will be 2 hours if the package is tested in one position; 3 hours if tested in more
than one position.

Vibration (Sinusoidal Motion) Test

Test in accordance with ASTM D 4169 is used to determine the adequacy of
packages that contain items susceptible to damage from vibration encountered
during shipping and are tied down to the floor of the carrier. The package is
attached securely to a platform supported on a mechanism that will maintain the
surface essentially horizontal as it vibrates the platform vertically. Controls are
provided to vary the frequency form 2 to 500 Hz as specified. If the package
might be shipped in more than one position, the package will be tested in each
position.

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Simulated Contents

Simulated contents of the same dimensions, weight, center of gravity, and
physical properties as the actual contents may be substituted in the tests
described above. A shock-recording instrument of an acceptable type should be
appropriately installed within the shipping containers. This provision is
intended to avoid unnecessary damage or complete destruction of valuable
commodities.

Interpretation of Results

All materials and components shall be free from damage or evidence of
displacement which affects the utility of the pack. When specified, functional
tests should be conducted on the items or equipment to determine freedom from
operational malfunction.

MARKING OF PACKS

Marking permits ready identification of military supplies and equipment for
shipment and storage. No matter how well an item is made or packed, it is
valueless if it cannot be identified upon reaching its destination.

ASTM D 996, Standard Terminology of Packaging and Distribution
Environments, defined marking as "the applications of numbers, letters, labels,
tags, symbols, or colors to provide identification and to expedite handling during
shipment and storage".

Marking Standard

The publication that provides the requirements for the uniform marking of
military supplies and equipment is Military Standard 129, Marking for Shipment
and Storage. This publication is approved for use by all Department and
Agencies of the Department of Defense. It accommodates the requirements for
coded and in the clear data and the forms required by DOD 4500.25-1-M, Military
Standard Requisitioning and Issue Procedures (MILSTRIP); DOD 4000.25-2-M
Military Standard Transaction Reporting and Accounting Procedures
(MILSTRAP); and DOD 4500. 32-R, Military Standard Transaction and Movement
Procedures (MILSTAMP).

All required marking and any additional special marking which may be required
depending upon the item and container being shipped (fig 1-39) can be found in
MIL-STD-129.

ECONOMY IN PACKING

Standardization

Economy in packing is the responsibility of everyone concerned with military
supply. The Secretary of Defense has established policies on packaging that must
be followed. These policies emphasize that the military services standardize their
preservation, packaging, and packing. For example, the services, by using
packaging standards, assure the same requirements for the same type of items,
thus reducing the number of materials, methods, and procedures - whether these
requirements are performed by the contractor or by the depot.

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Figure 1-39. Shipping container identification, address,
and special markings.

False Economy

Defense material must be protected against all hazards at the lowest possible
cost, with the tare weight and cube kept to a minimum. Any attempt, however,
to relax standards to anything less than adequate, is false economy. To associate
the size and price of an item with the cost of packing is also false economy. Items
of small size or low monetary value are often essential to the proper function of a
million dollar assembly. To use more material or more expensive material than
is essential is also false economy.

Reducing Tare Weight and Cube

One important way to reduce overpacking is through the use of pilot packs
carefully engineered and tested for a particular item. The redesigning of
established packs and the use of standardized processing forms may result in
substantial savings. Wherever the selection of the container is optional, study
the comparative initial cost, the labor handling and storage costs, and any
possible reduction in tare weight and cube. Probably no area is more fruitful in
realizing savings than in the reduction of tare weight and cube.

Potential Areas for Economy

There are two areas of great saving potential. One is repair parts and general
stores items which account for the greatest shipping volume through high
turnover. The other is items of large cubic volume on which shipping charges are
high, such as pontoons, fuel tanks, electronic equipment, and machine tools.
Figure 1-40 shows an example where savings in weight and cube, together with
reduction in top heaviness, were achieved by remounting the item on its side.
The length of the crate framing members and diagonals was reduced, and the
basic strength of the crate was increased by having the angles of the diagonals
nearer to the ideal 45 degree.

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NEW METHOD

WT. 1426 LBS CUBE 200.0

SAVINGS IN WEIGHT AND CUBE

WT. 60 LBS CUBE 22.9

PROBLEMS SOLVED BY LAYING
ITEM ON ITS SIDE

OLD METHOD

WT. 1486 LBS CUBE 222.9

PROBLEMS

SAFETY HAZARD BECAUSE THE
CRATE IS TOP-HEAVY.

WEAK CONSTRUCTION DUE TO
THE EXTREME LENGTH
OF THE SIDE AND END
FRAMING MEMBERS
DIFFICULT TO HANDLE AND LOAD
DUE TO HEIGHT.

SMPT 488

Figure 1-40. Savings achieved through crating of an item.

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Use the most economical container that will adequately handle the load. For
example, do not use a Style 2 wooden box having a load limit of 1000 pounds,
when a Style 4 box with a load limit of 400 pounds will give all the protection
needed. Do not use a wooden box when a lighter container is adequate for the
pack.

Develop an active training program for packing supervisors and personnel to
alert them to the constant need for the reduction of weight and cube. Figure 1-41
shows how saving in weight, cube, and materials resulted from a simple redesign
of the pack.

Make available a greater selection of light weight containers on the packing lines.
Operators will not be as likely to use heavier containers when fiberboard or other
lightweight containers are available and can do just as well.

Consolidate multipack shipments into low cost containers to eliminate the
shipping weight of smaller individual containers. The wood, wirebound, and
triple wall fiberboard pallet boxes are all light in weight, are economical and
suitable for consolidating materials for domestic and air shipments.

Other Economy Areas

There are several other areas in which economies can be achieved.

Manpower

Any reduction in manpower cost will have a definite bearing on the economy of
packing. One way to reduce manpower cost is to recognize that the well trained
packer is the economical packer. This means using the right man on the right
job.

Mechanization

Savings of considerable importance can be derived from the proper use of
mechanization. Powerized conveyor belts, mechanized handling systems, and
automatic packing machinery, all help to reduce handling and speed up
operations.

Reuse of Materials

Another field in which savings can be effected is through the salvage and reuse of
materials. Lumber, cushioning, blocking and bracing materials, containers, and
metal fasteners can be reused with a little careful planning (fig 1-42).

Parcel Post

One other area for achieving savings is the more efficient use of parcel post.
Frequently, parcel post reduces the need for documentation, allows a lowering of
the level of protection, cuts down on marking requirements, and permits faster
delivery. Remember, to obtain the maximum value for each Defense dollar, one
must be awake to every new idea that may lead to the reduction in packing costs.

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OLD METHOD

NEW METHOD

.r -

OLD METHOD

WT, 151 LBS
CUBE 3.2
METHOD III

NEW METHOD

WT. 132 LBS
CUBE 2.3
METHOD 111

SAVINGS
WT. 19 LBS
CUBE .9

SMPT 490

Figure 1-41. Savings achieved by redesigning a container.

PARCEL POST REQUIREMENTS

General Supplies

Military requirements for parcel post shipments must conform to the Postal
Service Manual and the various Armed Service regulations.

Nonmailable Matter

Nonmailable matter includes all matter which is by law, regulation, or treaty
stipulation, prohibited from being sent in the mail or which cannot be forwarded
to its destination because of illegible, incorrect, or insufficient address.

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SPECIAL CONTAINERS

Figure 1-42. Reusing packaging materials means economy.

Harmful Matter

With certain exceptions, any articles, compositions, or materials, which may kill
or injure another or injure the mail or other property, are nonmailable. This
includes but is not limited to—

• All kinds of poisons, including controlled substances.

• All poisonous animals, except scorpions, all poisonous insects, all
poisonous reptiles, and all kinds of snakes, turtles and spiders.

• All disease germs and scabs.

• All explosives, flammable material, internal machines, and mechanical,
chemical, or other device or compositions which may ignite or explode.

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General Examples Of Harmful Matter

Harmful matter includes, among other things, that which is likely to destroy,
deface, or otherwise damage the contents of the mailbags or harm the person of
anyone engaged in the Postal Service, such as caustic poisons (acids and alkalis),
oxidizing materials, or highly flammable solids; or which is likely under
conditions incident to transportation to cause fires through friction, through
absorption of moisture, through spontaneous chemical changes or as a result of
retained heat from manufacturing or processing; explosives or containers
previously used for shipping high explosives having a liquid ingredient (such as
dynamite), ammunition; fireworks; highly flammable liquids or substances;
radioactive materials; matches; or articles emitting a bad odor.

Harmful Matter Requirements

Harmful items should not be shipped parcel post without prior approval of the
Postal Service. Whenever there is doubt about the mailability of a particular
item, a request for a ruling should be made to the local postmaster. Mailability
rulings may also be obtained from a nearby mail classification center or from the
Office of Mail Classification, US Postal Service, Washington, DC 20260.

Types of Shipping Containers

General

Postal regulations require containers strong enough to retain and protect their
contents from the weight of other mail.

Common Containers Used

The following containers, with applicable specification are most commonly used,
depending on size, weight, and nature of the article(s): Cotton Mailing Bags (A-
A-2714); Burlap Cotton and Waterproof Laminated Textile Shipping Bags (A-A-
881); Folding Boxes (PPP-B-566); Fiberboard Boxes (ASTM D5118); Sacks,
Shipping, Paper, Cushion (A- A- 1588) and Cans, Fiber, Spirally- wound (MIL-
C-3955).

Mailbags

Mailbags may be used as containers for consolidated shipments of unbreakable or
nonfragile items going to the same location, provided projections are cushioned to
prevent rupture of the bag during shipment. Use of one of the three available
sizes of mailbag should be based on volume of material going to individual
customers.

Used Containers

Used containers in good rigid condition with all flaps intact are acceptable. If a
container of desired size cannot be found, a large one may be cut down to meet
the needs.

Size and Weight of Container

The shipping containers must be of the proper size to accommodate the item(s)
being shipped. Sufficient space for cushioning material should be allowed at the
time of container selection, avoiding both the underpacking and overpacking of
the item and remaining within the weight limitations. The size and weight of
packages mailed at most post offices is limited to 108 inches, length and girth
combined, and 70 pounds.

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Measurement

Compute the size of a parcel as follows (see Figure 1-43):

• Measure the longest side.

• Measure the distance around the parcel at its thickest part (girth).

• Add both measurements.

Some military post offices overseas have more restrictive size and weight
requirements. The weight of an addressed piece of parcel post must be 16 ounces
or more.

Reusable Containers

The use of reusable containers may be determined by considering the following
factors:

• When the military characteristics of the item are such that a reusable
type container is necessary. When the container can serve a dual purpose
of shipping container and case while the item is in use. When the item is
designated as recoverable-repairable item.

• The cost of a reusable container is offset by multiple use as compared to
the cost of single trip, disposable containers.

• When the cost of the item and/or its critical characteristics, or the need
for periodic inspection or exercising justifies the use of a reusable
container.

Reusable drums with protruding closure devices, such as locking rings, shall be
cushioned to prevent injury to postal employees, equipment or other mail.

Outside Wrapping and Closure

When a box itself is an adequate shipping container, paper wraps should be
omitted. If a paper wrap is used as an outside cover for boxes, the paper should
have at least 60 pounds basis weight. Closure and reinforcement should be made
by the use of tape.

Closure and reinforcement is accomplished by using gummed and pressure-
sensitive tapes, adhesive, strapping, and staples for boxes and bags. Various
friction closures, screw caps and locking devices for cans and similar containers.
General purpose transparent mending tape and masking tape shall not be used
for closure or reinforcement, but may be used to augment adhesive closure on
envelopes or to cover staples on bags. Pressure sensitive filament reinforced tape
or reinforced paper tape is recommended for closure and reinforcement. Except
for pressure sensitive filament tape, tapes used for closure and reinforcement
shall be not less than 2 inches wide.

When strapping is used for closure and reinforcement, it should encircle the
length an girth of the package at least once. Twine and cord should not be used.
Loose strapping is not acceptable because it presents a hazard to employees and
equipment and does not reinforce the container.

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Figure 1-43. Post office measurement requirements.

Marking of Parcels and U.S. Mailbags

Parcels shall be marked to show the consignor; consignee; Transportation Control
Number (TCN); and required delivery date, project code, and mark for, when
specified.

Marking of U.S. mailbags shipped both domestically and overseas should be
tagged in the space located on the locking device to prevent possible opening in
transit. Suggested wording of the tag is "OFFICIAL MAIL FOR
ORGANIZATION OF ADDRESS. DO NOT OPEN IN TRANSIT."

In addition to the postage tag located on the locking device of the mailing bag, an
additional tag will be attached. The tag will notify the local postal authorities
that the bag is to be delivered intact to its destination and will contain the
complete address to which the bag is destined and the return address.

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CHAPTER 2

FIBERBOARD AND PAPERBOARD CONTAINERS

FIBERBOARD BOXES

Description of Fiberboard Boxes

A fiberboard box is a container made of one or more pieces of corrugated or
solid fiberboard. The pieces are creased, slotted, joined, and folded according
to standard styles described in ASTM D 5118, ASTM D 1974 and illustrated
in figures 2-6, 2-7, 2-8, and 2-9.

Use of Fiberboard Boxes

The quantity of fiberboard boxes used in military shipments are increasing
steadily and rapidly. A fiberboard box weighs considerably less than a
wooden box of the same capacity. This difference in weight is a factor when
large shipments are involved, as any saving of weight is reflected in lower
shipping cost and easier handling. The main requirements for a shipping
container are light weight, low cost, ability to withstand rough handling, and
ability to protect the contents against loss or damage. Motor trucks,
airplanes, container cars, skid platforms, lift trucks, platform slings, and
palletized loads have been important factors in reducing transportation and
handling hazards, thus expanding the use of lightweight fiberboard boxes.

Advantages in the Use of Fiberboard Boxes. Fiberboard boxes are adaptable
to a great variety of packaging and packing conditions. They offer the
following advantages:

• They are made of materials of exactly the specified strength and
water resistance.

• They are prefabricated.

• They are made in several styles to suit different shapes and sizes of
items.

• They are shipped and stored in the fiat, and hence save shipping and
storage space.

• They are easy to assemble and handle.

• They are light in weight and relatively strong.

• They are neat in appearance and easy to mark.

• When packed, they occupy less space than most other containers of
the same inside dimensions.

Classification of Fiberboard Boxes

Fiberboard boxes, for domestic and oversea shipments, have been
consolidated under ASTM D 5118 and ASTM D 1974. Fiberboard material
must conform to ASTM D 4727. Boxes may be procured or fabricated in the
following types and classes:

• Types (see fig 2-1)

o Type CF Boxes - Type CF boxes are fabricated from
corrugated fiberboard (CF) stock. Corrugated fiberboard has

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two varieties: Single-wall (SW) and double-wall (DW)

construction.

o Type SF Boxes - Type SF boxes are fabricated from solid
fiberboard (SF).

• Classes

o Domestic class boxes are made to meet the requirements of
table 1, ASTM D 4727 for bursting strength and the weight of
the facing materials. (See figure 2-1, table 2-1.)

• Corrugated fiberboard, class weather-resistant (WR), and
waterproof and water vapor resistant (WWVR) - The WR and
WWVR boxes, both single and double wall, will meet the bursting
strength and thickness for the grade and variety as described in
table 2, ASTM D 4727. (See figure 2-1, table 2-2).

Grades of fiberboard

Different strengths of fiberboard are indicated as grades. Grades of
fiberboard for class domestic are types CF and SF. Type CF is differentiated
by PSI (pounds per square inch) of bursting strength (tables 2-1 through 2-4).

Weather-resistant grades of fiberboard are identified by a letter-number
combination such as V2, V3, W5, and W6 which represent different bursting
strengths. The numeral in each combination represents the grade of material
and the letter in each combination represents a kind of fiberboard (V- or W-
board). V-board is a heavy-duty, highly weather-resistant board, and W-
board is a lower strength, highly weather-resistant board (see table 2-2).

Type CF (corrugated fiberboard) can be obtained in grades 3, 5, 6, 11, 13, and
15, with compliance symbols of V3c, W5c, W6c, Vile, V13c, and V15c. The
small “c” indicates corrugated fiberboard.

TYPE CF TYPE SF

CLASS CLASS

SMPT 449F

Figure 2-1. Classification of fiberboard boxes.

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Type SF (solid fiberboard) can be obtained in grades 125, 175, 200, 275, 350,
500 and 600 with compliance symbols of V2s, V3s, V4s, W5s, and W6s, as
shown in figure 2-1, tables 2-3 and 2-4, which are taken from ASTM D 4727.
The small “s” indicates solid fiberboard.

Waterproof and water vapor resistant (WWVR) grades of fiberboard are
identified by a letter-number combination followed by the letter "WWVR".
Waterproof and water vapor resistant boxes are fabricated from type CF
(corrugated fiberboard) and can be obtained in grades V3c, W5c, V15c, and
W6c (each followed by “WWVR) in the single wall variety and grades Vll and
V13 (each followed by “WWVR”) in the double-wall variety.

Table 2-1. Type CF (Corrugated Fiberboard), Domestic

Variety

Grade

Combined Weight
Facings Only, min

Bursting Strength, Dry,
min^

lb/1000 ft^ (g.m^)

psi (kPa)

125

52(254)

125(862)

150

66(322)

150(1034)

175

75(366)

175(1207)

200

84(410)

200(1379)

275

138(674)

275(1896)

350

180(879)

350(2413)

200

92(449)

200(1379)

275

110(537)

275(1896)

350

126(615)

350(2413)

500

222(1084)

500(3447)

600

270(1318)

600(4137)

Puncture

in. oz/inches

of tear (J)

1100

264(1289)

1100 (33)

^ Only one burst of the initial six may fall beneath the minimum required. Domestic board
failing to pass this test will be accepted if, in a retest consisting of 24 bursts (12 from each side of
the board), not more than 4 bursts fall below the minimum value required.

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Table 2-2 Type CF (Corrugated Fiberboard), Weather-Resistant, and Water and Water Vapor
Resistant Classes (WWVR)

Thickness,

in. (mm)^

Bursting Strength, psi (kPa), min

avg

Variety

Grade^-^^

Corrugating

Medium

Outer Facings

Dry

Wet°

V3c

0.010(0.254)

0.023(0.584)

400(2758)

150(1034)

W5c

0.010(0.254)

0.016(0.406)

275(1896)

100(689)

W6c

0.010(0.254)

175(1207)

50(345)

Vile

0.010(0.254)

0.023(0.584)

600(4137)

300(2068)

V13C

0.010(0.254)

0.016(0.406)

400(2758)

200(1379)

V15c

0.010(0.254)

300(2068)

100(689)

^ Includes WWVR grades.

^ A - r%, or unlimited plus tolerance shall be permitted.

For doublewall fiberboard, the inner facing shall be the same thickness as the outer facing.
° After 24 h immersion (see 9.2.1)

Table 2-3 Type SF (Solid Fiberboard): Class Domestic, All Grades

Grade

Combined Weight of Plies Before
Lamination, lb/1000 ft^tg/m^), min

Bursting Strength, psi (kPa),min^

125

114(557)

125(862)

175

149(727)

175(1207)

200

190(928)

200(1379)

275

237(1157)

275(1896)

350

283(1382)

350(2413)

500

330(1611)

500(3347)

600

360(1758)

600(4137)

^ Only one burst of the initial six may fall beneath the minimum required. Domestic board failing to pass
this test will be accepted if, in a retest consisting of 24 bursts (12 from each side of the board), not more
than 4 bursts fall below the minimum value required.

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Table 2-4 Type SF, Class Weather-Resistant, All Grades

Grade

Thickness, in. (mm)^

Bursting Strength, psi (kPa)

V2s

0.090(2.29)

550(3792)

500(3447)

V3s

0.090(2.29)

400(2758)

150(1034)

V4s

0.080(2.29)

400(2758)

150(1034)

W5s

0.075(1.91)

275(1896)

100(689)

W6s

0.060(1.52)

175(1207)

50(345)

^ A” 10% tolerance shall be permitted.

Capabilities of Fiberboard Boxes

The three principal factors affecting the carrying capacity of corrugated and
solid fiberboard boxes are resistance to compression, strength at the score
lines, and resistance to puncture. A fourth factor that should be taken into
consideration is the ability of fiberboard to resist the weakening effect of
moisture. The importance of the first three factors varies according to the
commodity for which a particular box is designed, and the type of interior
packing employed.

Resistance to compression, for example, is a relatively minor factor when the
contents support the walls of the container or when the interior packing
furnishes the necessary support. When these factors are not present, the
shipper must make certain that the container has sufficient resistance to
compression to prevent it from caving in when it is placed in the bottom tier
of a pile of similar boxes. Corrugated and solid fiberboard boxes may be used
to ship articles that are not readily susceptible to damage resulting from
ordinary distortion of the container. The manner in which a commodity is
packed governs to a great extent its condition on arrival at destination.
Therefore, the selection of the proper style, class, and grade of fiberboard box
should be carefully considered to ensure the commodity against the hazards
of storage, shipment, and handling.

The items normally packed in fiberboard boxes are type 1 or type 2 loads.
Type 3 loads should be converted to type 1 or type 2 loads by proper interior
packing.

Uses and Limitations of Class Domestic Fiberboard Boxes

The uses of fiberboard boxes are essentially as indicated above. Many
variations of special die-cut inserts, scored pads, and partitions can be
fabricated to give additional protection to the item. The columns for
corrugated and solid fiberboard (CF and SF) show the minimum bursting
strength of the fiberboard in pounds per square inch which determines the
grades.

Uses and Limitations of Class Weather-resistant and WWVR Fiberboard Boxes

V-board was developed primarily for the fabrication of exterior containers for
oversea shipment. W-board was developed primarily for the fabrication of
interior containers which are packed in exterior containers for oversea
shipment. At oversea points, the exterior pack is sometimes removed and the
W-board boxes become the exterior containers. When W-board boxes are
used as exterior containers, their weight and dimensional limitations should

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not be exceeded. Although both V- and W-boards are highly water resistant,
boxes made from these materials will permit the entrance of water through
the corners and joints. When packed items are of such a nature as to be
damaged by water, waterproofing is provided by the use of individual wraps
of material conforming to PPP-B-1055; by the use of case liners conforming to
MIL-L- 10547; or by the use of waterproof, pressure-sensitive tape conforming
to ASTM D 5486, applied as shown in figure 2-2 after proper closure of the
box. In accordance with ASTM D 5118, tables 2-5 and 2-6 are used to
determine the weight and size limitation when class weather-resistant
fiberboard boxes are required. Compliance symbols are given in the first
column.

Figure 2-2. Sealing Method B.

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Table 2-5 Size and Weight Limitations for Types CF^ and SF^ Domestic Fiberboard Boxes

Type CF Variety

Type SF

Max Weight of Boxes
and Contents

Max Inside
Dimensions

Length + Width +
Depth

SW4

DW^

Grade

(kg)

in.

125

(9.1)

150

(13.6)

175

(18.1)

200

(29.5)

275

(40.8)

350

120

(54.4)

100

500

140

(63.5)

110

600

160

(72.6)

120

^ Explanation of abbreviations in Table 1

CF - Corrugated Fiberboard
SF - Solid Fiberboard
SW - Singlewall Fiberboard
DW - Doublewall Fiberboard

Table 2-6 Size and Weight Limitations for Class Weather-Resistant (WR) and WaterWapor
Resistant (WWVR) Fiberboard Boxes Used as Exterior Containers^

NOTE - The gross weight and size limit expressed in the circular or rectangular boxmaker's certificate
shall conform to the requirements of the Uniform Freight Classification or National Motor Freight
Classification Rules, as applicable, and may not necessarily be the same as those stipulated in Table 2.

Grade^ (Compliance
Symbol)

Max Weight of Boxes and Contents

Max Inside Dimensions Length + Width
+ Depth

(kg)

in.

(mm)

V2s

120

(54.4)

100

(2540)

V3s, V4s, and V3c

(40.8)

(2286)

W5s and W5c

(39.5)

(1905)

W6s and W6c

(13.6)

(762)

Vile

160C

(72.6)

120

(3048)

V13c

120

(54.4)

100

(2540)

V15c

(40.8)

(2286)

^ Not applicable to interior boxes

^ Reference Specification D 5118/5118M for specific details of construction

^ Maximum weight may be increased to 225 lb (102 kg) provided the manufacturer's body joint is fastened
with metal fasteners spaced not more than 1 in. (25 mm) apart (see 8.1.8)

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Materials

Corrugated Fiberboard

Corrugated fiberboard is fabricated of fiat sheets of paperboard (called
facings) glued to the crowns of a corrugated sheet of the same material.
Strength requirements are obtained by varying caliper, number, and quality
of the component facings and the corrugated medium. Corrugated fiberboard
has low resistance to puncture but affords a high degree of resilience and
cushioning. Single-wall (SW, also called double-faced), corrugated fiberboard
consists of two outer paperboard facings laminated to a corrugated sheet
between them (fig 2-3). Double-wall (DW) corrugated fiberboard consists of
three fiat facings and two corrugated sheets, a center facing, a corrugated
sheet, and a facing (fig 2-3). It is this combination of fiat and corrugated
sheets that gives corrugated fiberboard its qualities of strength and
resilience. Corrugated fiberboard is constructed with different kinds and
arrangements of flutes. The "A" flute, with 36 plus or minus 3 flutes per
linear foot, is generally used where cushioning of contents is desired. The "B"
flute, with 50 plus or minus 3 flutes per linear foot, is used where the
contents that support the box are of low fragility. The "C" flute, with 42 plus
or minus 3 flutes per linear foot, can be made to serve either propose. The
"E" flute is 94 flutes per foot, plus or minus 4 flutes (fig 2-4). The "A" flute is
the largest of the three and its strength is realized in stacking applications.
Its ability to withstand impact as well as its resistance to fiat crushing is the
lowest of the four flute sizes due to the lesser number of flutes per linear
span. The smallest standard flute size, "E", is the weakest in terms of
stacking strength, but it performs very well under puncture and fiat crush
stress. The "C" flute, which is the middle size flute, will perform moderately
well in all three areas— stacking, puncture, and fiat crush. It is used where
maximum strength in any one area is not required, but where weakness in no
area can be tolerated.

SMPT 448B

Figure 2-3. Types and varieties of fiberboard.

2-8

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

SIVI F=“T

Figure 2-4. Corrugated fiberboard flutes.

Domestic Fiberboard Boxes

Variety SW fiberboard used to fabricate type CF boxes will be A, B, C, or E
flute at the option of the supplier. Variety DW fiberboard used to fabricate
type CF boxes will be any combination of A, B, C, or E flutes, except they
shall not be BB, EE, or BE flute. Type CF boxes, fabricated from variety SW
or DW fiberboard shall have the flutes running perpendicular to the scores of
the box openings. When specified, the flutes for variety SW or DW fiberboard
will run horizontal to the scores of the box openings for boxes of a size that
the top and bottom openings are on the smallest panels.

Weather-Resistant And WWVR Fiberboard Boxes

Variety SW fiberboard used to fabricate type CF boxes will be either A, B, or
C flute as specified. Conventional slotted type CF boxes shall have the flutes
run perpendicular to the scores of the box openings. When specified, the
flutes for these boxes shall run horizontal to the scores of the box openings for
boxes of a size and style that the top and bottom openings are on the smallest
panel. For Styles DBLCC and IC boxes (fig 2-7), they shall have the flutes
run the depth of the box perpendicular to the opening.

Solid Fiberboard, Type SF

Solid fiberboard consists of two or more flat plies of paperboard laminated
together with an adhesive applied over the entire area of contact between the
sheets (fig 2-3). The combined material is solid, hard, and rigid, and boxes
fabricated from it resist puncture to a high degree but offer little cushioning
to their contents. They do, however, offer greater resistance to rough
handling and wear, and are better adapted for use in shipping heavier and
less fragile items than those shipped in corrugated fiberboard boxes. If the
weight of the box and contents does not exceed 40 pounds, the fiberboard will
not be less than two-ply. If the weight exceeds 40 pounds, the fiberboard will
be not less than three-ply.

Tapes

Among the tapes most commonly used for closing and sealing fiberboard
boxes are-

2-9

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

• ASTM D 5486, a pressure-sensitive water-resistant, paper-backed
tape, normally used to close interior containers. ASTM D 5486 is also
a pressure-sensitive waterproof tape, used to close and waterproof
interior and exterior fiberboard boxes.

• A-A-1492, A-A-1671, a reinforced, paper-gummed tape, used for
sealing fiberboard containers for domestic shipment and storage.

Adhesive

Adhesive used for closing fiberboard boxes will conform to MMM-A-250.

Metal fastenings

Metal fastening for securing the manufacturer's joint and closing class
weather-resistant and WWVR fiberboard boxes, will be commercially
preformed staples or staples from commercial steel stitching wire. The
staples will be treated with a commercially applied coating of zinc or copper
wash to resist corrosion. ASTM D 5118 and ASTM D 1974 specifies the sizes
of staples to use.

Reinforcing materials

Flat steel strapping ASTM D 3953; nonmetallic strapping, ASTM D 3950; or
pressure-sensitive, filament-reinforced tape ASTM D 5530 are used to
reinforce packed and closed fiberboard boxes. Another document to reference
is ASTM D 4675, Standard Guide for Selection and Use of Flat Strapping
Materials.

Fabrication of the Boxes

Cutting, scoring, and slotting. Special machines are used to cut, score, and
slot the fiberboard material so that it can be made into a box.

Body joint (manufacture's joint)

Domestic boxes, types CF and SF. The body joint (manufacture's joint) of
domestic, corrugated fiberboard boxes will be either overlapped or butted, as
specified (fig 2-5). The type SF joint shall be overlapped.

Overlapped Joint (Joint Tab)

The joint shall be made with fiberboard joint tab overlap not less than 1 1/4
in. (32 mm) wide with the length of the overlap equal to the inside depth of
the box. The joint tab may be an extension of either the end or side panel of
the box. When specified the joint tab may extend into the flap area and be
secured. The joint tab shall be fastened either inside or outside the adjoining
panel and the top and bottom edges of the front tab shall be no more than
3/16 in. (5 mm) below the top or above the bottom scoreline of this panel. The
overlapped joint of type CF boxes shall be fastened with adhesive. The
toxicity requirement may be waived when packing items other than food.
When adhesive is used it shall be applied so as to cover the full area between
the joint tab and the adjoining panel. The adhesive shall substantially
extend to all edges of the overlap. The overlapped joint of type SF boxes shall
be fastened with metal fasteners. Metal fasteners for the type CF and type
SF boxes having a depth dimension of 18 in. (457 mm) or less shall be spaced
not more than 3 in. (76 mm) apart center to center.

2-10

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

I.APPCD AHO OLUCLD' JCM

Figure 2-5. Body joints for fiberboard boxes.

Metal fasteners for the type SF box having a depth dimension greater than
18 in. (457 mm) shall be spaced not more than 2 2 in. (64 mm) apart center to
center. The distance between the ends of the joint and the nearer end of the
nearest fastener shall not exceed 1 in. (25 mm). Metal fasteners may be
applied diagonally, vertically or horizontally at the option of the supplier.

Weather-resistant and WWVR Boxes, Type CF and SF

The lap joint shall be used on weather-resistant and WWVR grade boxes (fig
2-5). The lap joint will overlap either inside or outside the box not less than 1
1/2 inches, and will be secured with steel staple or steel stitching wire. The
staples or stitches will be spaces not more than 2 inches apart, and the
distance between the outer stitches and the end of the joint will not exceed 1
inch. An additional tie-stitch will be used about 1/4 to 3/4 inch from each end
of the joint.

In lieu of a tie-stitch joint, boxes may be stapled or stitched with the same
number of fasteners (including tie-stitches) equally spaced in a single row.
When specified, the body joints of grades W5c, W6c, and V3c fiberboard boxes
may be secured by the use of adhesive conforming to MMM-A-250.

Butted Joint (Type CF Only)

The butted joint shall be made by fitting the edges of the panels to be joined
closely together and securing them with gummed tape. Tape used to secure
the body joint of boxes having gross weight, of 40 lb (18 kg) or less (grade 125
to 175) shall be that normally used by the industry for this purpose.

2-11

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

Tape used to secure the joints of boxes having a gross weight of more than 40
lb (18 kg). (Grades over 175) shall be reinforced with sisal, cloth, glass, rayon
or double strand nylon fibers. The tape shall be not less than 2 in. (51 mm) in
width for boxes having a gross weight of 65 lb (30 kg) or less (grade 200 and
below) and not less than 3 in (76 mm) in width for boxes having a gross
weight over 65 lb (30 kg) (grade above 200). The tape shall be centered on
the joint and extend its full length, or within 3/8 in (10 mm) or full length be
centered on the joint and shall adhere over not less than 90% to the entire
area of contact with the fiberboard.

Styles of Fiberboard Boxes

The styles covered in figures 2-6, 2-7, and 2-8 are the basic styles of domestic,
weather-resistant, and WWVR fiberboard boxes.

RSC, Regular Slotted Box (figure 2-6)

In this design, all the flaps (inner and outer) are of equal length. The outer
flaps meet in the center when closed. This style is the most commonly used.

SFF, Special Full Flap Slotted Box (figure 2-6)

In this design the inner flaps meet in the center of the box. A one-fourth inch
gap is permitted.

FOL, Full Overlap Slotted Box (figure 2-6)

In this design, the length of the outer flaps shall be not less than the inside
width of the box minus 1 inch. This design results in a container with at
least two thicknesses of fiberboard covering the entire top and bottom
surfaces.

OSC, Overlap Slotted Box (figure 2-6)

In this box, when closed, the inner flaps must not overlap, and the outer flaps
will overlap the distance specified in the order or invitation for bids. The
inner flaps will be of the same length as the outer flaps, except when the
relation of width to length would cause the inner flaps to overlap. In such a
case, the inner flaps will be cut to meet in the center of the box.

CSSC, Center Special Slotted Box (figure 2-7)

This box is designed so that the inner and outer flaps meet in the center
giving a double thickness for top and bottom.

CSOSC, Center Special Overlap Slotted Box (figure 2-7)

This box is designed the same as the CSSC except the outer flaps are the
same length as the inner flaps and may overlap. No flap cutting is required.

HSCC, Half Slotted Box With Cover (figure 2-7)

This box consists of a box body and a cover. The body is formed from
fiberboard, scored, slotted, and stitched to form a tube having four flaps of
equal length, approximately half the width of the box, on the bottom only.
Unless otherwise specified the cover shall be a Type I. When specified the
cover shall be a Type II. The depth of the cover is 3 in. unless otherwise
specified.

2-12

FM 38-701/MCO P4030.21D/NAVSUP PUB 503/AFPAM(I) 24-209/DLAI 4145.2

DBLCC, Double Cover Box (figure 2-7)

This box consists of a body tube and two covers. Unless otherwise specified
Type I covers, three inches deep, are to be used.

IC, Interlocking Double Cover Box (figure 2-7)

This box consists of a body table with top and bottom flanges and two
interlocking covers. The body shall be SW or DW fiberboard, scored, slotted,
and stitched to form a tube having double scored short flanges which form a
lock with the flanges of the cover (fig 2-10). The top and bot
…[truncated]

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