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Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology All rights reserved
George E. Totten, editor www.asminternational.org
ASM Handbook®
Volume 18
Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
Prepared under the direction of the
ASM International Handbook Committee
Volume Editor
George E. Totten, Portland State University
Division Editors
Andrew W. Batchelor, Monash University
Hong Liang, Texas A&M University
Christina Y.H. Lim, National University of Singapore
Seh Chun Lim, Singapore University of Technology and Design
Bojan Podgornik, Institute of Metals and Technology
Thomas W. Scharf, University of North Texas
Emile van der Heide, University of Twente
ASM International Staff
Amy Nolan, Content Developer
Steve Lampman, Senior Content Developer
Victoria Burt, Content Developer
Susan Sellers, Content Development and Business Coordinator
Madrid Tramble, Manager, Production
Patty Conti, Production Coordinator
Diane Whitelaw, Production Coordinator
Karen Marken, Senior Managing Editor
Scott D. Henry, Senior Content Engineer
Editorial Assistance
Warren Haws
Ed Kubel
Heather Lampman
Lilla Ryan
Jo Hannah Leyda
Elizabeth Marquard
Bonnie Sanders
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ASM
INTERNATIONAL
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Copyright © 2017
by
ASM International®
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No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner.
First printing, December 2017
This Volume is a collective effort involving hundreds of technical specialists. It brings together a wealth of information from worldwide
sources to help scientists, engineers, and technicians solve current and long-range problems.
Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR
IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM,
ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by per-
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assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or information in
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defense against liability for such infringement.
Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ASM International
ASM Handbook
Includes bibliographical references and indexes
Contents: v.1. Properties and selection—irons, steels, and high-performance alloys—v.2. Properties and selection—nonferrous alloys and
special-purpose materials—[etc.]—v.23. Materials for medical devices
1. Metals—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Metal-work—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. ASM International. Handbook Committee. II.
Metals Handbook.
TA459.M43 1990 620.1°6 90-115
SAN: 204-7586
ISBN-13: 978-1-62708-141-2
ISBN-10: 1-62708-141-0
EISBN: 978-1-62708-142-9
ASM International®
Materials Park, OH 44073-0002
www.asminternational.org
Printed in the United States of America
Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology All rights reserved
George E. Totten, editor www.asminternational.org
Foreword
2016-2017 has been a time period in which ASM International has implemented its strategic plan for
“The ASM Renewal.” Key tenants of the renewal have been a focus on technical excellence, membership,
and strategic collaborations. Pursuit of these has been guided by a fundamental belief that ASM provides
maximum value to its members and society when working at the intersection of engineering/design, mate-
rials, and manufacturing. Further, ASM International is a society of members who have come together to
do great things that cannot be done individually.
The origins of ASM can be traced to 1913 and the formation of the Steel Treaters Club in Detroit.
Since that time, ASM has grown and now embraces a wide diversity of materials and processing technol-
ogies. However, the purpose of ASM, as stated in Section 4 of the ASM Constitution, is “ASM is formed
for the exclusive purpose of advancing and disseminating scientific, engineering, and technical knowl-
edge, particularly with respect to the manufacture, processing, characterization, selection, understanding,
use, and life-cycle of engineered materials, through education, research, and the compilation and dissem-
ination of information to serve technical and professional needs and interests and to benefit the general
public.”
The publication of ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology is the
embodiment of the core values and beliefs that our Society holds dear. Volume Editor George Totten,
seven Division Editors, and over 200 authors and reviewers worked to revise ASM Handbook, Volume
18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology from its original 1992 edition. Volume 18 is a resource
for engineers and technical personnel who are looking to find practical solutions to real-world tribological
problems.
In quoting Peter Blau, Volume Editor of the first edition, the content is to help in “‘selecting the right
tool for the right job.” Coverage includes the fundamental physical principles and materials properties
that are the basis of understanding and solving tribological problems.
Additionally, as in every ASM Handbook volume, Volume 18 provides readers with reference informa-
tion in the form of charts, graphs, tables, and key equations to help solve specific problems. In addition to
basic concepts, methods of lab testing and analysis, materials selection, and field diagnosis and monitor-
ing of friction and wear also are covered in Volume 18. The key focus of the Volume is improved mate-
rials performance through informed materials selection, lubrication use, and employment of surface
treatments and coatings.
Volume 18 embodies the most comprehensive, up-to-date, and competitive tribological reference infor-
mation available in the world today. With this valuable reference publication newly revised, ASM Inter-
national is the best option for materials scientists, engineers, and technicians focused on solving the most
pressing tribological issues. It is also emblematic of The ASM Renewal.
William E. Frazier “Pilgrim”
President
ASM International
William T. Mahoney
Chief Executive Officer
ASM International
iii
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
George E. Totten, editor
Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
All rights reserved
www.asminternational.org
Preface to the First Edition
Friction, lubrication, and wear (FL&W) technology impacts many
aspects of daily life, from the wear of one’s teeth to the design of intri-
cate, high-speed bearings for the space shuttle. Nearly everyone encoun-
ters an FL&W problem from time to time. Sometimes the solution to the
problem is simple and obvious—disassembling, cleaning, and relubricat-
ing a door hinge, for example. Sometimes, however, the problem itself is
difficult to define, the contact conditions in the system difficult to charac-
terize, and the solution elusive.
Approaches to problem-solving in the multidisciplinary field of tribol-
ogy (that is, the science and technology of FL&W) often present a wide
range of options and can include such diverse fields as mechanical
design, lubrication, contact mechanics, fluid dynamics, surface chemistry,
solid-state physics, and materials science and engineering. Practical expe-
rience is a very important resource for solving many types of FL&W pro-
blems, often replacing the application of rigorous tribology theory or
engineering equations. Selecting “the right tool for the right job” was
an inherent principle in planning the contents of this Volume.
It is unrealistic to expect that specific answers to all conceivable
FL&W problems will be found herein. Rather, this Handbook has been
designed as a resource for basic concepts, methods of laboratory testing
and analysis, materials selection, and field diagnosis of tribology pro-
blems. As Volume Chairman, I asked the Handbook contributors to keep
in mind the question: “What information would I like to have on my desk
to help me with friction, lubrication, or wear problems?” More than 100
specialized experts have risen to this challenge, and a wealth of useful
information resides in this book.
The sections on solid friction, lubricants and lubrication, and wear and
surface damage contain basic, tutorial information that helps introduce
the materials-oriented professional to established concepts in tribology.
The Handbook is also intended for use by individuals with a background
in mechanics or lubricant chemistry and little knowledge of materials.
For example, some readers may not be familiar with the measurement
and units of viscosity or the regimes of lubrication, and others may not
know the difference between brass and bronze. The “Glossary of Terms”
helps to clarify the use of terminology and jargon in this multidisciplin-
ary area. The discerning reader will find the language of FL&W technol-
ogy to be somewhat imprecise; consequently, careful attention to context
is advised when reading the different articles in the Volume.
The articles devoted to various laboratory techniques for conducting
FL&W analyses offer a choice of tools to the reader for measuring wear
iv
accurately, using these measurements to compute wear rates, understand-
ing and interpreting the results of surface imaging techniques, and
designing experiments such that the important test variables have been
isolated and controlled. Because many tribosystems contain a host of
thermal, mechanical, materials, and chemical influences, structured
approaches to analyzing complex tribosystems have also been provided.
The articles devoted to specific friction- or wear-critical components
are intended to exemplify design and materials selection strategies. A
number of typical tribological components or classes of components are
described, but it was obviously impossible to include all the types of
moving mechanical assemblies that may experience FL&W problems.
Enough diversity is provided, however, to give the reader a solid basis
for attacking other types of problems. The earlier sections dealing with
the basic principles of FL&W science and technology should also be use-
ful in this regard.
Later sections of the Handbook address specific types of materials and
how they react in friction and wear situations. Irons, alloy steels, Bab-
bitts, and copper alloys (brasses and bronzes) probably account for the
major tonnage of tribological materials in use today, but there are techno-
logically important situations where these workhorse materials may not
be appropriate. Readers with tribomaterials problems may find the sec-
tions on other materials choices, such as carbon-graphites, ceramics,
polymers, and intermetallic compounds, helpful in providing alternate
materials-based solutions. In addition, the section on surface treatments
and modifications should be valuable for attacking specialized friction
and wear problems. Again, the point is to find the right material for the
right job.
This Volume marks the first time that ASM International has compiled
a handbook of FL&W technology. The tribology research and develop-
ment community is quite small compared with other disciplines, and
the experts who agreed to author articles for this Volume are extremely
busy people. I am delighted that such an outstanding group of authors ral-
lied to the cause, one that ASM and the entire tribology community can
take pride in. I wish to thank all the contributors heartily for their much-
appreciated dedication to this complex and important project in applied
materials technology.
Peter J. Blau
Volume Chairman
Metals and Ceramics Division
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
George E. Totten, editor
Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
All rights reserved
www.asminternational.org
Preface to the Second Edition
Tribology is an interdisciplinary study of material properties, including
design, friction, wear, and lubrication of interacting surfaces in relative
motion. Friction is the resistance of materials to relative motion, and wear
is the loss of material due to that motion. Lubrication refers to the use of a
fluid or solid to minimize friction and wear. From this definition, it is evident
that tribological properties are fundamental to the wide-ranging materials,
processes, and technologies of interest to ASM International. This recogni-
tion led to the development of the first edition of ASM Handbook, Volume
18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology.
The first edition of Volume 18, which was published in 1992,
addressed the tribological properties of materials, including solid friction,
lubricants and lubrication, wear, laboratory characterization techniques,
systematic diagnosis of friction and wear tests, friction and wear of com-
ponents, materials for friction and wear applications, and surface treat-
ments and coatings for friction and wear control. Although this
comprehensive treatment has been an invaluable resource for 25 years,
there have been numerous material and technology developments that
were not reflected in the topical coverage of the first edition. In view of
the time that has elapsed since the publication of the first edition and
the necessity for updating the coverage, a decision was made to develop
the second edition.
The second edition of ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication,
and Wear Technology has undergone a significant expansion and revision of
coverage by a new group of global experts. There has been some reorgani-
zation of the topical coverage to better accommodate new material for inclu-
sion. The comprehensive, revised, and peer-reviewed coverage of the
second edition was targeted for a broad audience, including researchers,
engineers, technicians, students, and quality-control personnel.
This new comprehensive reference would not have been possible with-
out the vital contributions of our dedicated and conscientious editors,
article contributors, and staff. My most sincere thanks and appreciation
to all.
Dr. George E. Totten, FASM
Volume Editor
Portland State University
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
George E. Totten, editor
Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
All rights reserved
www.asminternational.org
Policy on Units of Measure
By a resolution of its Board of Trustees, ASM International has
adopted the practice of publishing data in both metric and customary
U.S. units of measure. In preparing this Handbook, the editors have
attempted to present data in metric units based primarily on Système
International d’Unités (SI), with secondary mention of the corresponding
values in customary U.S. units. The decision to use SI as the primary sys-
tem of units was based on the aforementioned resolution of the Board of
Trustees and the widespread use of metric units throughout the world.
For the most part, numerical engineering data in the text and in tables
are presented in SI-based units with the customary U.S. equivalents in
parentheses (text) or adjoining columns (tables). For example, pressure,
stress, and strength are shown both in SI units, which are pascals (Pa)
with a suitable prefix, and in customary U.S. units, which are pounds
per square inch (psi). To save space, large values of psi have been con-
verted to kips per square inch (ksi), where 1 ksi = 1000 psi. The metric
tonne (kg x 10°) has sometimes been shown in megagrams (Mg). Some
strictly scientific data are presented in SI units only.
To clarify some illustrations, only one set of units is presented on art-
work. References in the accompanying text to data in the illustrations are
presented in both SI-based and customary U.S. units. On graphs and
charts, grids corresponding to SI-based units usually appear along the left
and bottom edges. Where appropriate, corresponding customary U.S.
units appear along the top and right edges.
Data pertaining to a specification published by a specification-writing
group may be given in only the units used in that specification or in dual
units, depending on the nature of the data. For example, the typical yield
strength of steel sheet made to a specification written in customary U.S. units
vi
would be presented in dual units, but the sheet thickness specified in that
specification might be presented only in inches.
Data obtained according to standardized test methods for which the
standard recommends a particular system of units are presented in the
units of that system. Wherever feasible, equivalent units are also pre-
sented. Some statistical data may also be presented in only the original
units used in the analysis.
Conversions and rounding have been done in accordance with IEEE/
ASTM SI-10, with attention given to the number of significant digits in
the original data. For example, an annealing temperature of 1570 °F contains
three significant digits. In this case, the equivalent temperature would be
given as 855 °C; the exact conversion to 854.44 °C would not be appropri-
ate. For an invariant physical phenomenon that occurs at a precise tempera-
ture (such as the melting of pure silver), it would be appropriate to report the
temperature as 961.93 °C or 1763.5 °F. In some instances (especially in
tables and data compilations), temperature values in °C and °F are alterna-
tives rather than conversions.
The policy of units of measure in this Handbook contains several
exceptions to strict conformance to IEEE/ASTM SI-10; in each instance,
the exception has been made in an effort to improve the clarity of the
Handbook. The most notable exception is the use of g/cm? rather than
kg/m? as the unit of measure for density (mass per unit volume).
SI practice requires that only one virgule (diagonal) appear in units
formed by combination of several basic units. Therefore, all of the units
preceding the virgule are in the numerator and all units following the vir-
gule are in the denominator of the expression; no parentheses are required
to prevent ambiguity.
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
George E. Totten, editor
Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
All rights reserved
www.asminternational.org
List of Contributors and Reviewers
Phillip B. Abel
NASA Glenn Research Center
Rehan Ahmed
Heriot-Watt University
Oyelayo O. Ajayi
Argonne National Laboratory
Metin Akkök
Middle East Technical University
K. Anand
GE Power
H. Arabnejad
University of Tulsa
Masoud Atapour
Isfahan University of Technology
Ewa A. Bardasz
ZUAL Associates in Lubrication LLC
Andrew W. Batchelor
Monash University
V.M. Bedekar
The Timken Company
Michel Belin
Ecole Centrale de Lyon
Diana Berman
University of North Texas
Maria-Dolores Bermudez
Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena
Patrice Berthod
Institut Jean Lamour
Thierry Blanchet
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
P.J. Blau
Blau Tribology Consulting
Kirsten Bobzin
RWTH Aachen University
Carlos Borras
Universidad Industrial de Santander
Amparo Borrell
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia
Rob Bosman
University of Twente
Meherwan P. Boyce
The Boyce Consultancy Group LLC
Witold Brostow
University of North Texas
K.G. Budinski
Bud Labs
Michael Burkinshaw
Cummins Turbo Technologies
Sergio Tonini Button
Universidade Estadual de Campinas
Jerry Byers
Cimcool Fluid Technology (Retired)
Lorella Ceschini
University of Bologna
Margam Chandrasekaran
Wise Consultants and Services Pte. Ltd.
Lei Chen
Southwest Jiaotong University
Peter R.N. Childs
Imperial College London
Desmond Chong
Singapore Institute of Technology
Jian Huei Choo
Singapore Institute of Technology
Md. Asaduzzaman Chowdhury
Dhaka University of Engineering &
Technology
Huseyin Cimenoglu
Istanbul Technical University
K.D. Clarke
Colorado School of Mines
Rachel Colbert
Sandia National Laboratories
Francesca Maria Cura
Politecnico di Torino
Patti Cusatis
BASF
Horst Czichos
BHT Berlin, University of Applied
Sciences
Narendra B. Dahotre
University of North Texas
Wei Dai
Texas A&M University
vii
Greg Dalton
TribSys Inc.
Patrick De Baets
Ghent University
Heidi de Villiers-Lovelock
The Welding Institute
Senad Dizdar
Höganäs AB
Kuniaki Dohda
Northwestern University
Gary Doll
The University of Akron
Michael T. Dugger
Sandia National Laboratories
Matevz Dular
University of Ljubljana
Pierre DuPont
UMONS, Faculté Polytechnique de Mons
Noam Eliaz
Tel-Aviv University
Robert Errichello
Geartech
Izhak Etsion
Technion - Israel Institute of Technology
Ryan D. Evans
The Timken Company
Dieter Fauconnier
Ghent University
Carlos M.C.G. Fernandes
INEGI, Universidade do Porto
H.R. Fischer
TNO Technical Sciences
Gareth Fish
The Lubrizol Corporation
G. Fisher
InnoTech Alberta
Marc Fivel
Université Grenoble Alpes
M. Hosseini Fouladi
Taylor’s University
Jean-Pierre Franc
Université Grenoble Alpes
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
George E. Totten, editor
Klaus Friedrich
Technische Universitat Kaiserslautern
Allen J. Fuller, Jr.
Amsted Rail Company, Inc.
Tatsuya Funazuka
Toyama University
Anders Gaard
Karlstad University
Isaac Garbar
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
Ignacio Garcia
El Centro Nacional de Investigaciones
Metalurgicas
Arash Ghabchi
The Boeing Co.
M. Ghassem
Universiti Kebangsaan
David Goncalves
Instituto de Ciência e Inovação em
Engenharia Mecanica e Engenharia Industrial
Thomas Gradt
Federal Institute for Materials Research and
Testing (BAM)
A. Ya. Grigoriev
National Academy of Science of Belarus
Janez Grum
University of Ljubljana
Paul Giimpel
Hochschule Konstanz University of Applied
Sciences
Nikhil Gupta
New York University
C.H. Hager, Jr.
The Timken Company
Haley E. Hagg Lobland
University of North Texas
W.M. Hannon
The Timken Company
Liang Hao
Xidian University
Jens Hardell
Lulea University of Technology
Jason C. Harper
Sandia National Laboratories
Jeffrey Hawk
National Energy Technology
Laboratory (DOE)
Hooshang Heshmat
Mohawk Innovative Technology, Inc.
Harish Hirani
IIT Delhi
Central Mechanical Engineering
Research Institute
Ken Hope
Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP
Lothar Hörl
Stuttgart University
Bo Hu
North American Höganäs, Inc.
Kalevi Huhtala
Tampere University of Technology
Ian Hutchings
University of Cambridge
Peter Idowu
The Pennsylvania State University
Mark J. Jackson
Bonded Abrasive Group
Martin Jech
AC2T Research GmbH
Jack Jeswiet
Queen’s University
Liang Jiang
Southwest Jiaotong University
Zhengyi Jiang
University of Wollongong
Xin Jin
Technische Universitat Braunschweig
P.M. Johns-Rahnejat
Loughborough University
David W. Johnson
University of Dayton
Sameehan S. Joshi
University of North Texas
Mitjan Kalin
University of Ljubljana
Guldem Kartal Sireli
Istanbul Technical University
Koji Kato
Nihon University
Toshiharu Kazama
Muroran Institute of Technology
Francis E. Kennedy, Jr.
Dartmouth College
Harman Khare
University of Pennsylvania
Neelima Khare
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Hyunok Kim
EWI Forming Center
Tim Königstein
RWTH Aachen University
Alekcander V. Kovalev
Belarus National Academy of Sciences
Suresh C. Kuiry
Bruker Corporation
Vili
Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
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Steven Lampman
ASM International
Thomas Larsen
The Trelleborg Group
Alain Le Bot
Ecole Centrale de Lyon
Claudia Lenauer
AC2T Research GmbH
Dongyang Li
University of Alberta
Hong Liang
Texas A&M University
Christina Y.H. Lim
National University of Singapore
Seh Chun Lim
Singapore University of Technology
and Design
Jianguo Lin
Imperial College London
Mari Lindgren
Outotec Research Center
Shuhai Liu
China University of Petroleum
Cinta Lorenzo-Martin
Argonne National Laboratory
James Lowrie
North Carolina State University
Piet M. Lugt
University of Twente
Numpon Mahayotsanun
Khon Kaen University
Joydeep Maity
National Institute of Technology Durgapur
Lasse Makkonen
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland
Darina Manova
Leibniz Institute of Surface Modification
Allan Matthews
The University of Manchester
Efstathios Meletis
The University of Texas at Arlington
Thomas Merkle
Schmalenberger GmbH & Co.
Donna Meyer
The University of Rhode Island
Dubravko Miljkovic
Hrvatska Elektroprivreda
Kazuhisa Miyoshi
NASA (Retired)
Jon-Erik Mogonye
Army Research Laboratory
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
George E. Totten, editor
M. Mohammadpour
Loughborough University
Sankar K. Mohan
Magna Powertrain USA, Inc.
Goutam Mohapatra
John Deere India Private Ltd.
Nikolai K. Myshkin
Belarus National Academy of Sciences
Shuhei Nagata
Hitachi Ltd.
Yoshitaka Nakanishi
Kumamoto University
S. Narayana Namasivayam
Taylor’s University
Gracious Ngaile
North Carolina State University
George K. Nikas
KADMOS Engineering Ltd.
M.J. Mohd Nor
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
Mikael Olsson
Dalarna University
Mehmet Ote
RWTH Aachen University
Marcello Papini
Ryerson University
Howard W. Penrose
MotorDoc LLC
Jose M. Perez
University of North Texas
Bojan Podgornik
Institute of Metals and Technology
Braham Prakash
Lulea University of Technology
Tomasz Pronobis
Berlin Institute of Technology
Pandora Psyllaki
Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus
Linmao Qian
Southwest Jiaotong University
Bart Raeymaekers
The University of Utah
R. Rahmani
Loughborough University
H. Rahnejat
Loughborough University
Bernard Rolfe
Deakin University
E. Rolinski
Advanced Heat Treat Corp.
A. Röttger
Ruhr-Universitat Bochum
Manish Roy
Defence Metallurgical Research
Laboratory
Natasha Sacks
University of the Witwatersrand
Pradip Saha
The Boeing Company
Satyam S. Sahay
John Deere India Private Ltd.
M. Abdul Samad
King Fahd University of Petroleum &
Minerals
T.W. Scharf
The University of North Texas
Dirk Jan Schipper
University of Twente
Steven R. Schmid
University of Notre Dame
Tony L. Schmitz
University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Craig J. Schroeder
Element Materials Technology
J. Senatorski
Institute of Precision Mechanics
P.H. Shipway
University of Nottingham
Zakwan Skaf
Cranfield University
J.B.A.F. Smeulders
Quaker Chemical Corp.
Don Smolenski
Evonik Oil Additives
Igor Smurov
Ecole Nationale d’Ingenieurs de
Saint Etienne
Soheil Solhjoo
University of Groningen
Gwidon Stachowiak
Curtin University
Karsten Stahl
Technical University of Munich
Malcolm Stanford
NASA
Tobias Steiner
Robert Bosch GmbH
Jacob Sukumaran
Ghent University
Ebru Emine Demirci Sukuroglu
Giimiishane Universitesi
ix
Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
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M. Suliga
Częstochowa University of
Technology
Hernán Svoboda
University of Buenos Aires
Jan Szczepaniak
Industrial Institute of Agricultural
Engineering
J. Tacikowski
Institute of Precision Mechanics
W. Theisen
Ruhr-Universitat Bochum
Yu Tian
Tsinghua University
Viktor Tittel
Slovak University of Technology
Stefania Toschi
University of Bologna
Simon C. Tung
Tung Innovation Technology
Consulting Inc.
Eckart Uhlmann
Berlin Institute of Technology
Emile van der Heide
University of Twente
W. Merlijn van Spengen
Delft University of Technology
Falco Systems BV
C.J. Van Tyne
Colorado School of Mines
Paula Vettel
Novvi, LLC
Xiaohui Wang
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Frank Wardle
UPM Ltd.
Dongbin Wei
University of Technology Sydney
Wolfgang Wietheger
RWTH Aachen University
T. Wolfe
InnoTech Alberta
Victor W. Wong
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Robert J.K. Wood
University of Southampton
Mathias Woydt
BAM, Federal Institute for Materials
Research and Testing
L. Francis Xavier
Karpagam University
Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology All rights reserved
George E. Totten, editor www.asminternational.org
Wenzhen Xia Xiangqiong Zeng Lidong Zhao
University of Wollongong Chinese Academy of Sciences RWTH Aachen University
Huaping Xiao Zhiwei Zhang Craig Zimmerman
China University of Petroleum Romax Technology Bluewater Thermal Solutions
William G. Yelton Hongmei Zhao Fatima Živić
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ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
George E. Totten, editor
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Officers and Trustees of ASM International (2016-2017)
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Element
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University of North Texas
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National Transportation Safety Board
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Chairs of the ASM Handbook Committee
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990-1992) (Member 1982-1992)
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(1992-1994) (Member 1984-1985)
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Jaimie S. Tiley
U.S. Air Force Research Lab
George E. Totten
G.E. Totten & Associates LLC
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Spectrum Forensics LLC
Junsheng Wang
Kaiser Aluminum - Trentwood
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Kettering University
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Ebatco
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Missouri University of Science
and Technology
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ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
George E. Totten, editor
Contents
Introduction
Introduction to Tribology and Trobological Parameters
Horst Czichos, BHT Berlin, University of Applied Sciences
Mathias Woydt, BAM, Federal Institute for Materials
Research and Testing
Structural Parameters .... 0.2... 0. ce eee eee
Operational Parameters
Contact Parameters
Friction Parameters
Wear: Parameters: yiia maitea e sae heed Rik EEP Mia a
Material Parameters and Selection .................0.0.
Appendix: Principles of General System Theory
Tribological Testing and Presentation of Data
Horst Czichos, BHT Berlin, University of Applied Sciences
Mathias Woydt, BAM, Federal Institute for Materials
Research and Testing
Machinery or Component-Level Tests
Laboratory and Specimen Testing.....................
Laboratory Friction and Wear Tests
Investigation of Worn Surfaces ................00000.
Presentation of Friction and Wear Data
Transition Diagrams
Tribomaps
Wear Data and Reliability
Solid Friction
Basic Theory of Solid Friction
Emile van der Heide and Dirk Jan Schipper, University of
Twente (The Netherlands)
Friction in History ... 2.0.0... 0... cece eee eee
Friction as a System Characteristic
Surface Topography
Composition
Subsurface Microstructure
Rolling Friction
Laboratory Testing Methods for Solid Friction
K.G. Budinski, Bud Labs... 0.0 ee
Historical Development of Friction Testing
Techniques
Friction Models... sutas ee eee eee ee eee ee ine
Friction Testing Techniques
Friction Nomenclature... . 2.0... 0... 00...
Standard Friction Tests... 0.0... 0.0.0.0. 0000000000008
Performing a Valid Test
Test Parameters
Reporting System Losses
Friction Databases .. 1... 0... 0... ee eee
Measurement of Surface Forces and Adhesion
Revised by W. Merlijn van Spengen, Delft University of
Technology and Falco Systems BV and H.R. Fischer, TVO
Technical Sciences, The Netherlands... ....0.0.00 00000 e ue
Basic Concepts
44
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Contact between Rough Surfaces
Measuring Surface Forces
Atomic Force Microscopy
Surface Force Apparatus
Microscale Adhesion and Adhesion-Measurement
Methods Using MEMS Technologies
Measuring Adhesion
State of the Art
Frictional Heating in Dry and Lubricated Contacts
Jacob Sukumaran, Patrick De Baets, and Dieter Fauconnier,
Ghent University
Frictional Heating in Dry Contacts.................0..
Frictional Heating Measurements (Dry Contact)
Numerical Techniques (Dry Contact Heating)
Viscous Heating in Full-Film Lubrication...............
Viscous Heating Temperature Measurements
Numerical Analysis of Viscous Heating
Conclusions and Challenges
Environmental and Application Factors in Solid Friction
Friction in Soft Tribology
Friction in Metal Forming
Friction at High Temperatures
Lubricants and Lubrication
Fundamentals of Lubrication
Suresh C. Kuiry, Bruker Corporation .... 0.0.00 0 00004
Surface Characteristics and Lubrication
Lubrication Regimes
Boundary Lubrication
Hydrodynamic Lubrication
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
Mixed Lubrication... 1... 0.0.0.0... cee ee eee
Hydrostatic Lubrication
Lubricant Materials... 1... 0... 0. cee ee eee
Properties of Lubricants
Tribological Evaluation of Lubricants
Properties of Liquid Lubricants
Wei Dai and Hong Liang, Texas A&M University
Components of Lubricating Oils
Chemical Structures of Additives.....................
Physical Properties of Liquid Lubricants
Viscosity
Other Properties
Performance Characteristics of Lubricants
Lubricant Classification... 2.2... 0.0... 0.000.000
Health, Safety, and Environment
Methods of Lubricant Application ....................
Lubricant Additives and Their Functions
Revised by Ewa A. Bardasz, ZUAL Associates in
Lubrication LLC
Lubricant Types and Additives
Dispersants
Detergents
Antiwear and Extreme-Pressure Agents
Friction Modifiers/Antisquawk Agents
Oxidation Inhibitors
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
George E. Totten, editor
Rust and Corrosion Inhibitors... .......... 0.000000 ee
Emulsifiers and Demulsifiers
Pour-Point Depressants
Foam Inhibitors S poeder eea ioe SOE ee ee
Viscosity Improvers
Other Additives
Engine Lubricants Overview and Development Trends
Simon C. Tung, Tung Innovation Technology Consulting Inc.
Victor W. Wong, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Effects of Engine Lubricants and Additives
Lubricant-Base Oil Composition. ... o... ssas asana anaa
Lubricant Additives .... 0... 0.00. eee eee eee
Improving Emerging Powertrain Systems
Formulation Development and Performance Tests
New Automotive Engine Oil Formulations
Heavy-Duty Engine-Oil Specification Development
Global OEM Specification Development
Lubricants for Rolling-Element Bearings
Revised by Piet M. Lugt, SKF Research & Technology
Development and University of Twente
Liquid Lubricants
Fluid Lubrication for Rolling Bearings
Mineral Oils
Viscosity of Lubricants
Types and Properties of Nonpetroleum Oils
Grease Lubrication
Polymeric Lubricants
Solid Lubricants
Ionic Liquids as Lubricants or Lubricant Additives
Huaping Xiao and Shuhai Liu, China University of Petroleum....
Structure and Properties..... 2.2.0.0... 0.00.0. 000000005
Applications
Challenges
Summary and Outlook
Nomenclature
Grease
Rob Bosman, University of Twente
Grease Formulation. ......... a E EE eee eee eee
Lubricating Mechanism
Grease Degradation....... 0.0.0... na i ei eee
Grease Characterization
Grease-Life Testing
Grease in Practice
Solid Lubricants
Michael T. Dugger, Sandia National Laboratories ..........
Historical Overview
Characteristics and Fundamental Aspects................
Material Categories
Surface Preparation
Deposition Methods
Qualification Metrics
Polyalphaolefin Lubricant Applications
Ken Hope, Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP.........
Passenger Car Motor Oils
Heavy-Duty Engine Oils
Transmission Fluids
Gear Oils
GASES iiss a as dag ate Pa aaa ON ee Ho A gow ao eS
Compressor Oils
Hydraulic Fluids
Food-Grade Lubricants
Lubrication Strategies for Extreme Environments
Gary Doll, The University of Akron
Gas Lubrication
Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
All rights reserved
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Introduction and Basic Theory of Wear
S.C. Lim, Singapore University of Technology and Design
Andrew W. Batchelor, Monash University
C.Y.H. Lim, National University of Singapore
Wear Measurement
Revised by Linmao Qian, Lei Chen, and Liang Jiang, Southwest
Jiaotong University
Wear Measurement at the Macro/Microscale
Wear Measurement at the Nanoscale
Wear Maps
S.C. Lim, Singapore University of Technology and Design ....
Presentation of Wear Data................ 0000000005
Development of Wear Maps
Essential Components of Wear Maps
Constructing a Wear Map
How to Use a Wear Map
Concluding Summary
Wear by Particles or Fluids
Abrasive Wear
Dongyang Li, University of Alberta
Mechanism sie ea orc cee Mies ee eed dees trae sac es adored a
Testing and Analysis
Metallic Materials... 2... 0... ee eee eee eee
Ceramic Materials, weine munia a aoina eee eee
Polymeric Materials
Factors that Influence Abrasive Wear
Polishing Wear
Koji Kato, Nihon University
Patterns of Microcontacts in Polishing
Abrasive Wear Modes. ........... 2... eee eee eee
Smoothing by Plastic Flow at Grooves and Dents
Smoothing by Tribochemical Reactions and Wear
Polishing Wear Control—Applications and Prospects
Summary and Conclusion
Solid Particle Erosion
Revised by Robert J.K. Wood, University of
Southampton
Erosion
Erosion of PMCs, MMCs, and CMCs
Erosion of Coatings
Erosion-Corrosion
Modeling
Cavitation Erosion
Marc Fivel and Jean-Pierre Franc, Université Grenoble Alpes
Mechanism of Cavitation Erosion
Laboratory Testing Methods
Pitting and Incubation Period
Mass Loss and Advanced Periods of Erosion
Materials Selection and Surface Protection to
Prevent Cavitation Erosion..............02-02 000 ee
Material Response to Cavitation Impact Loads
Fluid-Structure Interaction
Toward a Finite-Element-Method Numerical Prediction of
Cavitation Erosion Damage
Concluding Remarks
Liquid Impingement Erosion
Revised and updated by Robert J.K. Wood,
University of Southampton
Occurrences in Practice
xiv
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
George E. Totten, editor
Mechanisms of Liquid Impact Erosion
Time Dependence of Erosion Rate
Factors Affecting Erosion Severity
Test Methods for Erosion Studies
Means for Combatting Erosion
Concluding Remarks
Wear by Rolling, Sliding, or Impact
Sliding and Adhesive Wear
Revised by P.J. Blau, Blau Tribology Consulting
Material-Removal Processes during Sliding
Contact
The Nature of Sliding Surfaces
Material-Dependent Bonding and Third-Body Layers in
Sliding Wear
Wear Equations, Design Criteria, and Materials
DELECHON a arina aa att a bee E le aay ORE ibs wes eat
Sliding Wear of Metals, Ceramics, and Polymers
Hybrid Sliding Systems
Design to Avoid Adhesive Wear
Fretting Wear
Revised by P.H. Shipway, University of Nottingham
Fretting Wear In Mechanical Components
Mechanisms of Fretting Wear
Fretting Loops, Maps, and Regimes
Role of Fretting Conditions
Role of Environmental Conditions
Role of Material Properties
Modeling of Fretting
Prevention of Fretting Damage
Rolling-Contact Wear
Physical Signs of Rolling-Contact Wear
Rolling-Contact Fatigue Testing
Mechanisms of Rolling-Contact Wear
Impact Wear
Experimental Background
Model for Compound Impact
Linear Impact Wear
Impact Wear of Machine Contacts
Solution Methods for Measurable Wear.................
Plotting a Wear Curve.... 2... 0... eee cee eee
Chemically Assisted and Environmentally Controlled Wear
Tribocorrosion
Revised by Andrew W. Batchelor, Monash Universtiy and
Steven Lampman, ASM International
Oxidative Wear
Corrosive Wear
Measurement of Corrosive-Wear Damage
Corrosive Wear with Abrasion. ................00 000 e
Two-Body Corrosive Abrasive Wear................000.
Corrosive Wear Factors during Grinding
Slurry Particle Impingement Tests
Grinding Tribocorrosion Tests
Tribocorrosion with Impact Wear
Mitigating Corrosive Wear
Adhesion, Friction, and Wear in Low-Pressure and
Vacuum Environments
Kazuhisa Miyoshi, NASA (Retired)
Phillip B. Abel, NASA Glenn Research Center
Adhesion Behavior in Low-Pressure and
Vacuum Environments............. 0020s e eee eee
Adhesion and Friction of Clean Surfaces and Surfaces
Contaminated by Environment
Effects of Low-Oxygen Pressures and
Vacuum Environments on Adhesion and Friction
XV
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Effects of Defined Exposure to Oxygen on Friction
Wear and Transfer of Materials in Vacuum Environments. . . .
Alloying Element Effects on Friction, Wear, and Transfer. . . .
Ceramic Fracture, Wear, and Transfer
Concluding Remarks
Biotribology of Medical Implants
Andrew W. Batchelor, Monash University
Margam Chandrasekaran, Wise Consultants and
Services Pie's Fd. 560-3 65 hee Beastie ate nd Ys ene Seda et a
Relevance of Constituents to the Tribological/Wear
Behavior of Implants
Response to Wear Debris from Implant Materials and
Acceleration of Wear by Adverse Operating Conditions .. .
Tribological Pairs in the Human Body
Corrosion and Erosion due to the Internal Environment
Testing Methods
Tribology and Wear of Irons and Steels..................
Wear of Cast Irons
General Wear Characteristics
Abrasion-Resistant Cast Irons... .......0. 0.00000 ee eee
Brake Drum and Disk Wear............0. 000000 eens
Piston Rings and Cylinder Liners
Grinding Balls
Wear Resistance of Steels
Wear Testing and Evaluation
Abrasive Wear
Wear in Specific Applications
Wear Resistance of Austenitic Manganese Steels
Surface Heat Treatments
Phosphate Coatings
Wear-Resistant Coatings and Ion Implantation
Hardness Evaluation
Wear of Stainless Steels
Mari Lindgren, Outotec Research Center
Classification of Stainless Steels
Classification of Wear... . 0.0. ee eee
Alloy Selection for Various Wear Conditions
Abrasion
Surface Fatigue
Tribology and Wear of Bearing Steels
Revised by C.H. Hager, Jr., W.M. Hannon, and V.M. Bedekar,
The Timken Company
Composition of Bearing Steels
Concentrated Contacts
Tribology and Wear of Tool Steels
Metallurgical Aspects of Tool Steel Wear
Lubrication of Tool Steels
Surface Treatments
Properties of High-Speed Tool Steels
Tool Steel for Dies and Molds
372
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
George E. Totten, editor
Abrasive Wear and Grindability of Powder Metallurgy
Steels
Tribology and Wear of Nonferrous Alloys and
Nonmetallic Materials .....................0000000-
Friction and Wear of Sliding Bearing Materials..............
Properties of Bearing Materials
Bearing Material Systems
Bearing AWOys's oo eee cence ee Soe ie pal Sele aren grea ane
Casting Processes
Powder Metallurgy Processes.......... 0.0... 0000 0000.
Roll Bonding Processes... 2.0.0... 0. eee eee ee eee
Electroplating Processes
Bearing Materials Selection..................0.0000.
Friction and Wear of Cobalt-Base Alloys
Rehan Ahmed, Heriot-Watt University
Heidi de Villiers-Lovelock, The Welding Institute...........
Introduction s se oF dl aie aby eo ee wb ees Dag hoe ed Diese goa eerie
Tribological Behavior of Cobalt-Base Alloys.............
Friction and Wear of Titanium Alloys.....................
Surface Modification Treatments
Physical Vapor Deposition...................0000004
Thermochemical Conversion Surface Treatments
Solid Lubrication
Friction and Wear of Aluminum Alloys and Composites
Lorella Ceschini and Stefania Toschi
University of Bologna
Designation of Aluminum Alloys...................0.
Effects of Main Alloying Elements....................
Microstructure of Cast and Wrought Aluminum Alloys......
Strengthening Mechanisms of Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum-Base Composites
Tribology of Aluminum Alloys
Tribology of Metal-Matrix Composites
Friction and Wear of Cemented Carbides
Revised by Xiaohui Wang, Chinese Academy of Sciences .....
Raw Materials. 2 osecs 65/824 parean deer ANE AEN Ra
Manufacturing Methods.....................0200000-
Properties
Wear Properties of Cemented Carbides.................
Friction and Wear of Ceramics
Mitjan Kalin, University of Ljubljana
Types of Structural Ceramics....................000-
Properties of Structural Ceramics
Friction and Wear of Ceramics...................000-
Superlow Friction of SiN; and SIC
Wear-Protective Hydrated Tribochemical Layers
The Electrochemical Mechanism of pH and the Electric
Charge at the Surfaces in Water
Tribological Applications of Structural Ceramics
and Composites... see 0... . eee eee eee
Friction and Wear of Carbon-Containing Composites
Diana Berman, Witold Brostow, Haley E. Hagg Lobland, and
Jose M. Perez, University of North Texas
Neelima Khare, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India
Importance of Friction and Wear and the Role of
Lubricants in Composites.... 0.0.0.0... 0.00000 00008
Allotropes of Carbon...... 0.0... 0... cee eee ee ee eee
Composites with Carbon Black
Composites with Graphite
Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites
Composites with Graphene
Diamond-Containing Composites
Effects of Irradiation on Friction and Wear
Concluding Remarks... 1... 0.0.0.0... 000. eee
533
533
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Friction and Wear of Polymers and Polymer Composites
Nikolai K. Myshkin and Alekcander V. Kovalev, Metal-Polymer
Research Institute of Belarus National Academy of Sciences .. .
Polymers in Tribological Applications..................
Fundamentals of Polymer Friction and Wear.............
Wear Modes of Polymers
Polymer Composites... 2.0.0.0... ee eee eee eee eee
Polymers for Gears... 2... eee ee eee
Tribotesting of Polymers and Polymer
Composites: cites id has ORL A Ra Moe ees Fi
Surface Treatments and Coatings for Friction and
Wear Control sae giaa edn bets aoe og eyes ee eee see
Carbon-Base (Diamondlike and Diamond) Coatings
Ryan D. Evans, The Timken Company... 1.1.0... 00000000.
Deposition Methods for Diamondlike Carbon Coatings... .. .
Deposition Methods for Diamond.....................
Substrate Preparation... . 2... 0.0.0.0... ee eee
Deposition Process Quality Control
Coating Composition and Structure.................00.
Mechanical Properties. .... 0.0.0.0... 0.000.000 ee eae
Tribological Properties
Applications of Carbon-Base Coatings
Transition Metal Dichalcogenide-Based (MoS2, WS.) Coatings
T.W. Scharf, The University of North Texas...............
Unbonded MoS, and WS, Coatings
Bonded MoS, and WS, Coatings
Vapor-Deposited Pure and Composite MoS» and
WS5- Coatings’... 4 ete 8 eink: Sate eee Noe ah oan
Other Forms of TMD Lubrication.....................
Carbide- and Boride-Based Thick Coatings for Abrasive
Wear-Protection Applications
W. Theisen and A. Röttger, Ruhr-Universitat Bochum........
Wear-Resistant Materials... 2... ...... 0.0.0.0. 000008
Metallic Matrices and Hard Alloys.................04.
Metal-Matrix Composites
Cemented Carbides.... 0... 0.0.00... cee eee eee
Processing of Thick Wear-Resistant Coatings
Coatings and Surface Treatments for Friction and Wear Control
Revised by Kirsten Bobzin, Mehmet Ote, Tim Konigstein,
Lidong Zhao, and Wolfgang Wietheger
RWTH Aachen University—Surface Engineering Institute IOT....
Basics of Tribology....... 0.0... eee eee eee eee
Basics of Thermal Spray...............00 00000 eee
Coating Manufacture... 2.2.0.0... .. 0.2 eee eee eee ee
Coating Analysis
Thermal Spray Processes... n... 0... 0.0000. c eee eee
Coating Materials wi ease iy en tE eect eee aA a, E E oe
Applications ossee gat na e EEr kek ae ee ESES
Electroplated Coatings for Friction, Lubrication, and
Wear Technology
William G. Yelton and Jason C. Harper,
Sandia National Laboratories... 1... 0000. cee eee
Electroplating Fundamentals
The Plating System... 1.0... 0.0... eee eee ee eee
Plating Methods
General Coating Types
Materials Available for Electroplating..................
Common Issues with Electroplating
Carburizing
Allen J. Fuller, Jr., Amsted Rail Company, Inc............-
Suitable Grades of Steel
Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology All rights reserved
George E. Totten, editor www.asminternational.org
Types: Of Wear aron 3 secs E a er ees ee ee 635 Modeling Approaches........... 0... eee eee eee eee 717
Characteristics of Carburized Steels that Affect Wear Effects and Degree of Benefits....................0-. 718
RESIStaN CE» aseo RG BAR seek So Reto e Na ae ares 635
Processing Considerations ...................0-00000- 636 Tool and Die Wear..........ccccc ccc cece cece eee eens 723
Carburization of Titantum............. 0.20.00 eee eee 637
Tribology of Nitrided and Nitrocarburized Steels Fundamentals of Tribology in Metal Forming
J. Senatorski and J. Tacikowski, Institute of Precision Mechanics Steven R. Schmid, University of Notre Dame
E. Rolirtski, Advanced Heat Treat Corp. Jack Jeswiet, Queen’ s University... 0... ce eee 725
Steven Lampman, ASM International .. 0.1.0.0... 0c eee 638 Dry Forming sises ors aks eye cca een aed eek bn ees 725
Surface Layer Microstructures ............0. 0000 eee 639 Lubricated Forming sperati sokie cc cece eee 726
Process Metbodsu tasare i ders Ti ime A eee eee eee 641 Surface Flattening and Roughening.................... 727
Surface Layer Optimization. ......... 0.0.00. .0 ee eee 644 Lubrication Theory... o... ourer raaua eee eee 728
Wear Behavior of Nitrided Layers ................004- 645 Advanced Tribology Models ..........0.0000 00 eee euee 729
Wear Resistance of Selected Steels................004. 647 Heat Transfer Model.........-2 ccc aa LaLa a 730
Rolling-Contact Fatigue. à... soosis ierre 647 e A Ge E N N AG Bl
Staimless:Steel.... 00. sae ee te E ace eee ee aon 649 COnCHISTONS Secession kh 733
Wear and Galling Resistance of Borided (Boronized) Metal Surfaces Fundamentals of Tribology in Machining
Craig Zimmerman, Bluewater Thermal Solutions ........... 653 Tony L. Schmitz, University of North Carolina at Charlotte. ... 735
Basics of Boronizing...... 2.6.0.6... ee ee eee eee eee 653 Machining Parameter Relationships ................... 735
Boride Surface Characteristics ............0. 0000 eee 653 TOolMcifes ed ce cd ete de Nye De eed Te 740
Wear Resistance and Coefficient of Friction of Cutting Fluids eo n aa ees 743
Boride Layers... 2.60... eee ee eee ee eee 656 Process Dynamics and Vibrations..................005 744
Galling Resistance of Borided Surfaces................. 658 Lubrication and Wear in Rolling
Boronizing Plus PVD Overlay Coating................. 659 Dongbin Wei, University of Technology Sydney
Laser Surface Engineering for Tribology Wenzhen Xia and Zhengyi Jiang, University of Wollongong
Sameehan S. Joshi and Narendra B. Dahotre, University Liang Hao, Xidian University... 000 cee 748
OF NOTIN TEXAS. gien Tasio alacant Me ant EEEE WAAN eR ES 661 The Rolling Process .... 2.0.0... 0. ee eee eee eee 748
Surface Performance of Structural Materials ............. 661 Lubrication in Rolling. ... 00.0.0. eee 750
Strategies and Methods to Improve Surface 5 eae hp ee et EEE aT anea 761
Properties Gre a eee Re ere Rete AE Bea eh eg a etre Fer Se en N, 662 Lubrication and Wear in Drawing Operations
Laser Materials Interaction ...................-0-000- 664 Gracious Ngaile and James Lowrie, North Carolina State
Laser Surface Engineering........ 0.0.0.0. eevee eee 664 AEP eh Cts ee fons hs eae ss tence 768
Laser Surface Heating and Melting.................--. 665 Variables that Affect the Drawing Process............... 768
Laser-Assisted Coatings............ 00-00. e eee eee 667 Lubrication in Wire Drawing... ..........00.0000 00 ee 710
Laser Assisted In-Situ Interstitial Coatings .............. 669 Lubrication in Bar Drawing. .... 00.00.00. cece eee ee 775
Laser-Assisted Metallic Coatings .................000- 671 Lubrication in Tube Drawing. .........0..00.0 0000000 777
Laser-Assisted High Entropy Alloy Coatings............. 673 Lubrication of the Outer Surface ........0.... 000000005 779
Laser-Assisted Amorphous Metallic Coatings ............ 673 Lubrication of the Inner Surface..........0..0..0000005 7719
Laser-Assisted Ceramic Coatings ..................--- 674 Die Wear in Drawing Operations..............0..005. 780
Laser-Assisted Bioceramic Coatings................004- 676 Tribology of Extrusion
Laser-Assisted Thin Film Coatings.................... 676 Pradip Saha, The Boeing Company
Laser-Based Surface-Design Strategies ................. 677 Steven Schmid, University of Notre Dame ...........0044. 784
Laser-Based Hybrid Strategies for Surface Tepes oP E tewtnes petaotna ce aek rs 784
Modification... 1... 2... eee EE E eee 681 Mechanics of Extrusion... . 2.0.0.0... cece eee eee 785
Computational Modeling. ..... 6.6.6... 0... e eee eee. 681 Thermodynamics in Extrusion ..............0.e00 eee 787
Wear of Hardfacing Alloys Defects ae me a debra she hed Ba meee ae ado Saeed 787
Revised by G. Fisher and T. Wolfe, InnoTech Alberta........ 688 Extrusion Tooling and Die Design ...............0.05. 789
Hardfacing Materials... 2.2.1.0... eee eee eee 688 Friction and Lubrication of Extrusion Processes........... 792
Overlay Deposition... 6.6... 66 e ee eee eee 692 Wear in Extrusion... 2.2.2... .. eee eee ee 794
SelecttOm nes sad aaea tin elses wee bbls aes Aw aTa a 694 Lubrication and Wear in Forging
Friction Stir Processing and Surfacing K.D. Clarke and C.J. Van Tyne, Colorado School of Mines. ... 798
Oyelayo O. Ajayi and Cinta Lorenzo-Martin, Argonne Methods to Measure Lubricant Effectiveness
National Laboratory .. 0.0.0. ce ee 696 ATW CAL ook ace oe eed ee ee cls ieee eee eee Poke Ms 798
Friction Stir Processing... ........ 00... e eee eee eee 696 Cold Forging: 3:4 es ee ee Adee tet a te 799
Critical Aspects of Friction Stir Processing .............. 697 HOt Foreing ense star eira ara Se ech, 8 Ged aE be 801
Hybrid Processing with Friction Stir Processing........... 700 Factors Affecting Abrasive Wear..............0000055 803
Surface Engineering by Friction Stir Processing........... 701 Improving Resistance to Abrasive Wear .............4.. 805
Residiial. Stresses...) fk 5 Pe He Gee ES aE le eas 702 Lubrication and Wear in Sheet Forming
Tribological Performance........... 0.00. e eee ee eee 702 Kuniaki Dohda, Northwestern University
Friction Surfacing... 1... 2... ee ee eee 703 Numpon Mahayotsanun, Khon Kaen University
Surface Texturing Tatsuya Funazuka, Toyama University .. 1.0.0.0. .00 004 eee 808
Bojan Podgornik, Institute of Metals and Technology........ 706 Deep: Drawing ac. Ses a he ea ee ne dene be Eee ee ak 808
Surface-Texturing Techniques ......... 0.6... e eee eee 706 Bending An bret etdate aed «ne Rouse da ad feud eR 809
Characterization of Textured Surfaces.................4. 709 Shearing: jet. oree ea wet a a deters A 809
Tribological Behavior of Textured Surfaces.............. 710 Galling and Wear Mechanism .............0..000000. 810
Texturing and Coatings... .. 6.6... 0.6... eee, 715 bübicant s.k Rit ayes eeyies o ad clutter bed es 812
Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
All rights reserved
www.asminternational.org
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
George E. Totten, editor
Friction and Wear of Machine Components............... 817 Friction, Lubrication, and Wear of Internal Combustion Engine Parts
Victor W. Wong, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Friction and Wear of Sliding Bearings Simon C. Tung, Tung Innovation Technology Consulting Inc. .. 899
Harish Hirani, IIT Delhi and Central Mechanical Engineering Engine Types. aa woe acai cee Biase ana a ote oe ek 899
Research Institute, India... 0.00 ee 819 Friction and Wear Control...........00 ce eee eeeeeuue 900
Introduction sser 7h elite ae Shee eda ee a ee hk Ge 819 Breakdown of Friction by Component Mea fon kaa at eta ye Ses 901
Types of Sliding Bearings... .............. 0000. eee, 819 Friction Reduction by Surface Textures or Coatings........ 905
Contact Configurations with Lubrication................ 820 Engine Component Materials.........0....0 00000 cee 905
Friction and Heat Generation................ 00000005 821 Surface Hardening of Iron and Steels .................. 907
WE o A as VEERE ans: ot gece ai CEE KED gl aM tee clone 821 Advanced Surface Engineering...................00045 907
Hydrodynamic Sliding Journal Bearings ................ 823 Engine-Component Wear... ... 2... 0.00000 eee 910
Design of Journal Bearings ...............--.00--05- 825 Example—Inlet Valve and Seat Wear.................. 912
PU bei ants ees. 35 Mo sek oe Seed bese rw 8k we saline Sus hee Seed. @ ores 827 SUMMA. savin eae aay a Lt e abe ats die A toe 912
Thick-Film Lubrication... 2.0.0.0... 0.000000 eee eee eee 829 Tribology of Power Train Systems
Thin-Film Lubrication... 2.0.0.0... cee eee eee 829 H. Rahnejat, R. Rahmani, M. Mohammadpour, and
Boundary Lubrication... . 2.6... 0.0.0... eee eee eee 830 P.M. Johns-Rahnejat Loughborough University,
Specific Film Thickness (Lambda Ratio). |... a...n aaan 832 ONCE Kingdom iess, eyit ate Reon ace Carew eesti 916
Effect of Material Elasticity... .... 0.2... 0... ..00 eae 833 Introduction... ooon aaaea a eee cnet nee nee 916
Friction and Wear of Rolling-Element Bearings Contact Configuration... 0.0.0... 0... eee eee eee 916
Revised by Pierre DuPont, UMONS, Faculté Polytechnique Contact Mechanics—Footprint Shape and
de Mons and Steven Lampman, ASM International........ 836 Elastic Deformation... ........0. 0.0 cece eee eens 917
Types of Rolling-Element Bearings ..............0000. 837 Gente ais gh Pia Doe hae tee a 918
Ball Bearings en 052 hte eg ace ate Meade aie Ae Lean A we as al 837 Regimes of Lubrication... ........ 00.000. 0 eee eee 919
Roller Bearings ©... 1.6... eee ee eee 838 Lubricant Rheology ......... 0... 0.00. eee eee eee 921
Bearing Materials... . 2.2... eee eee eee eee 840 Predicting Lubricant Film Thickness................... 923
Lubrication Requirements ........... 0.0000 aee 843 Surface Topography .... 0.0... ccc ccc ee ee nee 923
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication. ....... 0.66.0... +0045 843 Friction and Power Loss .......... 000 cee eee eee eee 924
Grease Lubrication... 2.0... eee eee 845 Piston-Cylinder Conjunctions.............. 000000 eee 926
Oil Lubrication Feeding Systems ................0000, 846 Engine Bearings........ 0.0... 0c eee eee ee ee eee 928
Rolling-Contact Fatigue... 0... 0... . eee eee eee 847 Cam-Tappet Contact... 0... 0.0.00 ccc eee eee 930
Bearing Life-Adjustment Factors .................00-. 848 Transmission and Differential Gearing Systems ........... 931
Basic Load Ratings... .... 0... 0.00.00 eee eee eee 849 Wear of Steam Turbine and Gas Turbine Components
Standard Bearing Geometries..................00000. 853 K. Anand, GE Power .. 0... ccc ccc eee eens 935
Other Factors in Load Rating..............0..02-0005 854 Overview of Wear and Friction Issues in
Rolling Bearing Friction... 2.2.0.0... 0... 0.0.00 0000. 857 Gas TULDINES ache hac caged Suk er ated Oe Sel a hie 935
Weare re tas a aa eth Jar Mira ae lated alcove, Eea a a Raai 858 Overview of Wear and Friction Issues in
Wear- Control: n nice: sauce alter eca eae oacece eas TEG 859 Steam Turbines ne cae He kek i whoo eee aa 935
Bearing Damage Modes ........... 0.000.000 00 eae 860 Wear Mechanisms and Mitigation in Gas and
Gas-Lubricated Bearings Steam Turbines. ......0.. 0.000 ccc usores orere rererere 937
Revised by Frank Wardle, UPM Ltd. .........-- 0000005. 865 Wear and Friction of Sealing Systems.................. 939
Applications. 6.0... ee eee ees 865 Coatings and Design Considerations................... 942
Advantages and Disadvantages..............-....000, 865 Suggestions for Future Work ........... 00000 943
Basic Fluid-Film Characteristics..............00000005 866 Friction, Lubrication, and Wear of Pump and
Aerostatic Bearings... 2... ... e a a ee 867 Compressor Components
Precision Aerodynamic Bearings ................-.... 873 Toshiharu Kazama, Muroran Institute of Technology ........ 945
Compliant Aerodynamic Bearings..................0-, 875 Component Wear in Positive Displacement Pumps......... 945
Materials for Gas-Lubricated Bearings ................. 878 Component Wear in Turbo-Machinery ...............0. 949
Surface Coatings... 0.0.0... ta ae a a E E A E ei 878 Wear of Vacuum Pump Components .................-. 951
Notation es ae ioana og Beene hide ok RA E A i Mate 878 Friction, Lubrication, and Wear of Compressors........... 951
Friction, Lubrication, and Wear of Gears and Friction and Wear of Seals
Wind-Turbine Components George K. Nikas, KADMOS Engineering Lid. ............. 957
Revised by Robert Errichello, Geartech...........0000005 882 Stalicd SOAIS ane hac eit te oe beg Sede ork Sone ea 957
Gear Tooth Lubrication-Related Failure Dynatic: Seals i.: ee ai e E Se eetigy Sakata R as 958
MODES eaaeo be aac crises poe RAAN een TAE CAES 882 Seal Wear and Damage—Causes and Solutions........... 963
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication. |... sssaaa 888 Guidelines to Reduce Seal Friction and Wear ............ 966
Lubricant :Selectionie sese eerie ace oa el Sa See Pee es 892 Further Reading... 0.0... cc eee eens 967
Oil-Lubricant Applications............ 0.00.00 eee eee 892 Friction and Wear of Automotive and Aircraft Brakes
Selection of Gear Lubricant Viscosity................0. 892 Revised by Bo Hu, North American Höganäs, Inc........... 969
Application of Gear Lubricants ................0-.04. 893 Brake Friction Materials and Assembly................. 970
Wind Turbine Failure Modes... 1.0.0... -0 00 eee eee 894 Brake Friction and Wear Characteristics ................ 972
Gear Life versus... te 895 Brake Lining Wear... 0... 0.0 eee eee 974
Standardized Gear Tests .... 2... 0.0.0.0 cee eee eee eae 895 Automotive Brake Drum and Disk Wear.............00- 975
Gear Steels and Heat Treatment..................-..- 896 Brake Frictional Performance..............0.000 eee ee 977
Surface Roughness and Topography ...............+4-. 896 Brake Noise and Vibration..................00000008 979
Superfinishing .. 6.6... . a eee eee eee 897 Brake Testing and Evaluations....................00. 980
Nomenclature... 0... aiea eee ee ee eee eee 897 Toxicity of Brake Formulation and Regulations........... 982
ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
George E. Totten, editor
Wear and Tribology in Agricultural Machinery
Goutam Mohapatra and Satyam S. Sahay, John Deere
Asia Technology Innovation Center, John Deere
India Private Ltd y oae e a a a cee 984
Operating Environment—Agriculture Practices,
Interactions, and Component Wear.................. 984
Operating Environment and Materials Parameters—
Influence on Wear... 0.0... 0 cee eee eee 986
Soil Condition ses aae tee aed re ie Boece eee eld ek 986
Operational Parameters .......... 0.0.0.0... 0c eee eee 988
Component Design... .... 0... 0.0.0... 989
Selection of Implements .......................000- 990
Wear Mitigation in Agriculture Equipment .............. 991
Effect of Coatings on Wear of Implements .............. 994
Wear Testing and Quantification .................0.000. 996
Modeling and Simulations in Agriculture Implement Design... 997
SUMMALY§ a apadi hie Wee Ses alae te SE A a Dovel le de heels S 999
Condition Monitoring .......................2..000. 1003
Introduction to Condition Monitoring
Zakwan Skaf, Cranfield University ...........0 00000005 1005
Condition-Monitoring Techniques.................... 1005
Evolution of Maintenance ................ 000000008 1006
Integrated Vehicle Health Management................ 1007
Condition Monitoring in Industrial Sectors ............. 1008
SUMMALY. y seia a od es SAS Be ee ated Ay ae ease 1009
Wear Particle Analysis
Noam Eliaz, Tel-Aviv University... 0.0.0.0. eee eee 1010
The Bathtub Curve... ... 0.0.0... 0000.0 eee 1010
Condition Monitoring .......... 0.0.00... 0.0002 1011
In-Service Lubricant Analysis ..................00-. 1011
Wear Particle Characteristics ..................-00005 1012
Wear Particle Analysis Techniques................... 1013
Types of Wear Particles ....... 0... 0.0.0... .0000000. 1018
xix
Copyright © 2017 ASM International®
All rights reserved
www.asminternational.org
Applications of Wear Particle Analysis................ 1022
Case: Stadie. r 2 fed oak desta goth aaaies fe ae acids bis de Sanne AS BET 1025
Vibroacoustic Monitoring Using Signal-Processing Techniques
M. Hosseini Fouladi and S. Narayana Namasivayam,
Taylor’ s University, Malaysia
M. Ghassem, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
M.J. Mohd Nor, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia
Melaka, Malaysia ..... 0.00. 1032
Signal Processing seeds ekg ess ee esate RA rele ewes 1032
Some Real-World Applications of Vibroacoustic
AMAL S18! co ig os lope tingie Se aes ake oo Sieh ca ucac as oT Donate Secon 1038
Electrical and Motor-Current Signature Analysis
Revised by Howard W. Penrose, MotorDoc LLC .......... 1040
Principle of Operation................ 0.000000 eee 1040
Evaluation of Broken Rotor Bars.................00. 1040
Evaluation of Broken Shaft....................00.. 1041
Bearing Fault Detection.............. 0... ...00000, 1042
Wind Generator and Gearbox Investigation............. 1043
SUMMA oh chk hes Hapee ete dee ening oe ang ets one seaweed amend 1043
Radionuclide Methods
Martin Jech and Claudia Lenauer, AC2T research GmbH.... 1045
Working Principles... 2.2... . ee eee eee 1045
PACUV ALON oeri resa aani E E sec TAAN Sis ees RT AEE 1048
Measuring Radioactivity ............ 0.000.000.0000, 1049
Wear Measurement Setups (Direct, Indirect)............ 1050
Calculating Wear from Activity..................0.0. 1051
How to Interpret Wear Results..................00.0. 1051
Examples of Using Radioactive Isotopes for Wear
Measurement so sipoo ae eee eee Oe eee a 1052
Practical Application... 0.0... 0.0... 0.0.0 1052
Reference Information..........................000- 1057
Glossary of Terms ..... e eaen ea EAE a a AE 1059
ndeki er got a n Beach EE E eae EEE ce E E 1091