Document text
Build Your Own
Mini FM Transmitter
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other networks for everyone
by libi rose striegl (KROSES) & Lori Emerson (KFOLCB)
Build Your Own
Mini FM Transmitter
OTHER NETWORKS FOR EVERYONE #1
www.othernetworks.net
by libi rose striegl (KROSES) & Lori Emerson (KFOLCB)
a MEDIA ARCHAEOLOGY LAB//OTHER NETWORKS publication
table of contents
0.0 introduction
01 What are Other Networks and Why Do We Need
Them?
0.2 Micro-Broadcasting as an Other Network
0.3 Simplifying "the simplest radio broadcaster"
0.4 Sources
1.0 common electrical terms
2.0 unit symbols and abbreviations
3.0 circuit diagram
3.1 Circuit Diagram Symbols
4.0 materials
41 Components
4.2 Component Descriptions
4.3 Tools
4.4 Space Recommendations
5.0 skills rundown
5.1 Using Wire Cutters & Strippers
5.2 Breadboarding
5.3 Soldering
6.0 initial preparations
6.1 Making the coil
6.2 Preparing the copper board
70 assembly instructions
71 Breadboard Assembly
7.2 Soldered Assembly
7.3 Operating the Completed Radio Transmitter
74 Troubleshooting
8.0 acknowledgements
9.0 bios
23
25
32
37
40
54
55
0.0
introduction
0.1 What are Other Networks and Why Do We Need Them?
It is no longer debatable: the network we call "the
internet" is not the network we want nor the network we
deserve. Over the past thirty years or so, the Web has
unquestionably devolved into the only network most of us
know about and therefore it’s also one that most of us accept
will ruthlessly track, surveil, and, in Cory Doctorow's words,
increasingly become a place of "enshittification." The Web is
also now one of many networks--including Bluetooth, Wi-Fi,
and cellular--we have little to no sense of how it works. How
many everyday users know that the Web is only one of many
networks that make up an internet we call "the internet"? Or,
how many know that radio is integral to nearly every network
we use? How many even know how radio waves work?
“Other Networks," then, is a cluster of projects | have been
working on for some years, often in collaboration with the
irreplaceable libi striegl, to uncover, document, archive, and
experiment with networks that existed before the internet or
networks that currently exist outside of this internet. The goal
of these projects is not only to significantly expand the
historical record. The goal is also to make this knowledge
about other networks accessible so that we may begin to
reimagine what might be possible in the future. What
networks can we bring back to life? What networks can we
create? What networks are sustainable over the long term?
What networks can exist within a non-commercial,
cooperative context?
In this spirit of accessibility, especially for those with no
background whatsoever in electronics or radio, this pamphlet
is the first of many to come in a series we call "Other
Networks For Everyone." While there are many possible
iterations of other networks that are relatively easy to build,
we have become increasingly convinced that we haven't yet
begun to tap the potential of amateur radio. Since its
inception in the early 20th century, nearly all of the discourse
in and around amateur radio has been dominated by a
forbidding aura of expertise that seems intent on making
radio as mysterious and as inaccessible as possible. One
could easily say that a radio priesthood laid the groundwork
for what Byte magazine called in 1976 the "software
priesthood"--a movement in computing that encouraged
users to stop opening up their machines to understand how
they work and instead treat them as if they're simple,
household appliances that one need not understand.
0.2 Micro-Broadcasting as an Other Network
Coincidentally or not, at the same time as this "software
priesthood" emerged in the 1970s, a movement began in
Europe toward experimenting with micro-broadcasting.
Microbroadcasting' is often used interchangeably with
‘micro-radio, 'miniFM', and sometimes even ‘free radio’. These
are a collection of practices involving the use of a low power
transmitter (either as an aesthetic or political choice or out of
necessity) over a limited distance and thus reaching a limited
2
number of people. It is also considered a type of "community
media" because of its local and non-commercial nature.
Given the low power (as much as 100 watts but often as low
as 1 watt) and short distances involved (as much as five
kilometers from the transmitter but often much shorter),
microbroadcasting can be both unlicensed and legal.
However, regulations determining the legal status and power
of micro-broadcasting vary significantly over time and from
country to country; if national regulatory bodies prohibit
individuals from transmitting to their local community,
microbroadcasting may turn into pirate radio.
The fact that regulatory bodies determine whether and
how micro-broadcasting is legal means it is not a practice
determined strictly by the constraints of one's transmitter.
Rather, as Tetsuo Kogawa writes in "A Micro Radio Manifesto,"
"micro means diverse, multiple, and polymorphous. If micro
does not mean small in physical size, then even physically
bigger radio station [sic] could become micro. Micro radio is
an alternative to mass medium and global communications
that could cover the globe with the qualitatively same and
patterned information." Microbroadcasting is therefore
primarily a social practice aimed at providing diverse points
of view while also resisting the commodification of these
points of view and thus its origins can be traced to specific
forms of media activism rather than, for example, early
wireless radio experiments with low power over short
distances.
Based in Bologna, Italy, and lasting from 1976 to 1981, the
3
unlicensed radio station Radio Alice was likely the first
instance of microbroadcasting as defined above. Even
though it was referred to as "free radio" and pre-dated the
emergence of the term "microbroadcasting," its main
founders (students/activists Franco "Bifo" Berardi, Maurizio
Torrealta, Filippo Scdzzari, Paolo Ricci, and Carlo Rovelli)
essentially envisioned Radio Alice as a conscious micro radio
experiment that sought to distribute control of the airwaves
across many small transmitters as a way to flatten hierarchies
between sender and receiver, embrace localism, and use art
to unsettle if not unseat capitalism. As the editors of the
Toronto-based magazine The Red Menace described it in
1978, "Radio Alice broadcast news of the events as they
occurred, often by airing telephone calls from militants who
described events, called for assistance in a given sector, and
reported police movements. The station was twice raided
and closed down by police, but resumed broadcasting by
switching locations and resorting to a transmitter powered by
a car battery."
A few years later, in the early 1980s, Tetsuo Kogawa
introduced free radio to Japan, calling it "miniFM" as he led
the way to hand-building tiny FM transmitters that used less
than a hundred milliwatts and only had a half mile radius. The
term "micro-radio" or "micro-broadcasting" then emerged in
the U.S. in 1983 in the wake of the police beating African
American Dwayne Readus, who later changed his name to
Mbanna Kantako, in a public housing development in
Springfield, Illinois. Kantako first created the Tenants Rights
Association (TRA) and, to make sure the TRA could reach as
4
many residents of the development as possible, he also
created radio station WTRA using a one watt transmitter and
broadcast from his living room. In 1988, WTRA became Zoom
Black Magic Liberation Radio then Black Liberation Radio
followed by Human Rights Radio.
0.3 Simplifying "the simplest radio broadcaster"
As we learned more about micro-broadcasting and the
untapped potential of amateur radio, we eventually realized
that, if we wanted to begin the slow, arduous work of getting
others involved in probing the limits and possibilities of radio,
we needed to get licenses ourselves. We then spent several
months attending an online class aimed at increasing the
number of women and people of color with amateur radio
licenses--a class which we appreciated but which we found
was still unwittingly geared to those with an engineering
background. After receiving our licenses in January 2023, we
resolved to teach classes and workshops for anyone outside
of engineering in a way that explained electronics and radio
from the ground up and that, ideally, made it easier to get
licensed.
Fortuitously, we had the opportunity to test run a radio
workshop in May 2023 when Darren Wershler invited us to
help teach a graduate seminar at Concordia University
(Montreal, Canada) on maintenance, repair, and sustainability.
The class met on Zoom for a week to discuss readings and
we then met in person for a week to work on projects related
to the theme of the class. libi and | volunteered to lead a
project to give students the opportunity to build mini FM
5
transmitters by following Tetsuo Kogawa's instructions for "the
simplest radio transmitter." What we discovered, however, was
that the instructions were far from simple, especially for those
who had no experience with electronics. Some of the
problems that students encountered: the instructions did not
include a schematic so much as they included a diagram
that contradicted itself in places; the original circuit was for a
transistor that is not readily available outside of Japan and
the instructions for an alternative transistor were confusing;
there were inconsistent values on resistors and capacitors
and no clear instruction on how to determine appropriate
substitutions; and, finally, it was not clear that the copper
plates in the design needed to be insulated from each other,
causing a short in the circuit.
Once libi and | returned home, we spent the next six
months crafting a new set of instructions for building a mini
FM transmitter that builds on Kogawa's instructions and is
even more clear, thorough, and accessible. libi did most of
the writing, photographing, layout, and design and my role
was to let libi know every time anything in the instructions
was unclear and to suggest different wording. It was a
painstakingly slow and incredibly rewarding collaborative
process for us both. We hope this pamphlet encourages
many others to feel emboldened to experiment with this
powerful example of an other network that is for everyone.
—Lori Emerson, December 2023
0.4 Sources
David J. Hess and Robert Gottlieb, Localist Movements in
a Global Economy: Sustainability, Justice, and Urban
Development in the United States (MIT Press, 2009); Tetsuo
Kogawa, "A Micro Radio Manifesto," Polymorphous Space
website (2002, 2006); Marco Briziarelli, "Tripping Down the
(Media) Rabbit Hole: Radio Alice and the Insurgent
Socialization of Airwaves," Journal of Radio & Audio Media,
23:2 (October 2016); "Radio Alice: Radio in Action in Italy, The
Red Menace 2:2 (Spring 1978); Tetsuo Kogawa, "Toward
Polymorphous Radio," Daina Augaitis and Dan Lander Eds.,
Radio Rethink : Art Sound and Transmission (Walter Phillips
Gallery, 1994); Lawrence Soley, Free Radio: Electronic Civil
Disobedience (Routledge, 2018); Steven O. Shields and
Robert Ogles, “Black Liberation Radio: A Case Study of Free
Radio Micro-broadcasting,” Howard Journal of
Communications 5 (1995); Andy Opel, Micro Radio and the
FCC: Media Activism and the Struggle over Broadcast Policy
(Praeger, 2004); Christina Dunbar-Hester, "Spectral Utopias:
Community Radio in the United States, 1970 to Present,"
Historia Actual Online, 54:1 (2021); Christina Dunbar-Hester,
Low Power to the People: Pirates, Protest and Politics in FM
Radio Activism (MIT Press, 2014)
1.0
common electrical terms
Active Component:
An active component is any component which does not
meet the definition of a passive component; it may supply,
amplify, or control current within the circuit.
Alternating Current:
Abbreviated to AC, alternating current is the type of current
that comes out of a wall socket. The flow of alternating current
periodically reverses direction and changes its strength
continuously over time. It is capable of being transmitted over
great distances without dissipating, which is the primary reason
for its use in the electrical grid. Many electronic devices
convert alternating current into direct current for use.
Ampere:
Ampere, commonly shortened to amp, is the unit used for
measuring electrical current.
Antenna:
A device for sending and receiving electromagnetic waves.
An antenna of some form is necessary for any radio reception
or transmission.
Anode/Cathode:
The anode is the positive terminal in a battery or power
supply that electrons flow away from when a device is in use,
while the cathode is the negative terminal where electrons flow
towards, completing the circuit.
8
Breadboard/Breadboarding:
A breadboard, sometimes called a solderless breadboard,
is a re-usable tool for building circuits. It is useful for
constructing and testing circuits without permanently fixing
components together.
Capacitance:
Capacitance is the capability of a material object or device
to store electrical charge. The unit used to measure
capacitance is the farad.
Conductance/Conductivity:
Conductivity represents a material's ability to conduct
electrical current. It is measured in siemens per meter.
Direct Current:
Abbreviated to DC, direct current is the type of current that
comes out of a battery, a rechargeable power bank, a solar
panel, a USB wall plug, etc. The flow of direct current is always
in the same direction and at the same strength, which is why
many electronic devices convert power from AC to DC for use.
Electrical Charge:
The physical property of matter that causes it to experience
a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. Electrical
charge can be positive, negative or neutral, generally
determined by the balance of protons and electrons at an
atomic level. Positive charges repel positive charges, negative
charges repel negative charges, and positive and negative
charges attract each other. Neutrally charged matter does not
experience force in an electromagnetic field.
9
Electrical Circuit:
Generally shortened to circuit, an electrical circuit is a
network of electrical components in a closed loop wherein
current has a return path to the power source. In a circuit like
the one we build here, where electrical power is supplied by a
battery, the current travels out from the positive side, through
the components in the circuit, and back to the battery via the
negative side.
Electrical Component:
An electrical component is a general term for any part of an
electrical circuit. Components are often described as "through-
hole" or "surface mount", which refers to their construction and
to the way they are attached to a printed circuit board (PCB).
Through-hole components have legs or leads; they are
attached to a PCB by putting those legs or leads through the
metal-ringed holes and soldering them in from the other side.
Surface mount components are placed on metal pads on the
PCB and soldered down from the same side, often by heating
the solder using an oven instead of a soldering iron.
Electrical Conductor:
A conductor is an object or type of material that allows the
flow of electrical current in one or more directions. Metals are
common conductors, such as the copper or aluminum used to
make most wires. Water, unless it is absolutely free of any
impurities like dissolved salts or metals, is also a conductor.
Because organisms have bodies that are largely water-based,
the bodies of plants and animals (humans included) conduct
electricity to some extent. This is why it is important to protect
10
yourself from direct contact with anything carrying high voltage,
like power lines or wall power outlets.
Electrical Current:
An electrical current is a flow of charged particles moving
through electrical conductors or space. In the case of a circuit
like the one we build here, the electrical conductors are the
metals that make up the wires and other components. The
charged particles are electrons. The unit used to measure the
current is the ampere (generally shortened to "amp").
Electrical Insulator:
An electrical insulator is a material in which electrical
current does not flow freely. Insulators can be described as
having very high resistance. Common insulators include
ceramics, rubbers, plastics, paper, and glass. The deployment
of these materials depends on many factors, including how
much heat may be generated as a by-product of an electrical
circuit. For example, while paper was once used as an insulator
for electrical wiring in houses, paper is highly combustible and
so while it resists electrical current it does not resist fire and
can combust because of the heat generated as electricity
flows through wires.
Electrical Energy:
Electrical energy is electrical potential put to use. It
describes the forces that act on electrically-charged particles
and the subsequent movement of those particles, often though
not always in the form of electrons moving through wires.
Electrical energy may be converted from electrical potential
(voltage) into heat, physical motion, sound, light, radiation, etc.
11
Electromagnetism:
Electromagnetism combines two fundamental forces:
electricity and magnetism. Electricity involves tiny particles
called electrons carrying electrical charge, which in turn
powers devices, lights, and motors. Magnetism is the force that
makes magnets attract or repel each other due to their
magnetic fields. When electrons move while carrying electrical
charges, they create magnetic fields. This connection between
electricity and magnetism is what we call electromagnetism.
Electromagnetic Field:
An electromagnetic field is an invisible area around either
electrical charges or magnets. Within that area, electrically
charged particles or magnets can affect other objects without
touching them. Whenever electrically charged particles move
or whenever magnets are in action, a field is created. This field
is responsible both for making magnets attract or repel each
other and for transferring electrical energy. The transfer of
electrical energy is particularly important because it allows us
to use electricity to power devices.
Electromagnetic Wave:
An electromagnetic wave is a type of energy that travels
through space. As such, electromagnetic waves can move
without wires or other conductive materials. These waves are
made up of two key parts: electrical and magnetic fields.
When these fields interact and change, they create waves
which can be used to carry energy that can be encoded as
information. These waves exist naturally, for example as light
from the sun. They can also be generated for various
12
purposes including radio waves used for communication,
microwave ovens, and X-rays.
Electromotive Force:
Electromotive force (emf) is the energy that is transferred to
a circuit, measured in volts. Emf can be produced through
conversion from one type of energy to another, i.e. from
chemical energy to electrical energy as with batteries, from
mechanical energy to electrical energy as with wind turbines,
or from light to electrical energy as with solar panels.
Electron:
An electron is a type of elementary particle, and these
particles make up everything around us. Electrons carry an
electrical charge. When these charges move around inside
conductive materials such as metals, they allow us to create
and harness electricity. When these charges stay in place, they
form the outer layer of atoms.
Energy:
Energy is any property that could produce a change when
transferred to a physical system. We can often recognize the
expenditure of energy in physical movement, heat, and/or light.
While here we are generally talking about electrical energy
generated by chemical reactions inside of batteries and radiant
energy from electromagnetic circuits, there are many other
forms including kinetic, potential, elastic, etc. All living
organisms constantly take in and release energy. The unit used
for measuring energy is the joule.
Force:
In physics, a force is an influence that can cause any object
to change its velocity unless it is counteracted by other forces.
In this definition of force, objects may be large like a vehicle or
a planet or they may be invisible like a molecule or an atom.
Ground/Earth:
Ground or earth for our purposes refers to the common
return path for electrical current back to the power supply. All
of the components in a circuit have some connection to that
return path, either directly or through another component.
Ground can also mean the point at which voltages in a circuit
are measured, or a direct electrical connection to the planet
Earth. For example, if you plug something into a wall outlet
using a 3-prong plug, if the house is properly wired that third
prong will have a direct electrical connection to the Earth. This
helps to prevent shock and electrical shorting. If you use a 2-
prong plug, you have only connected to the common electrical
return path for the house.
Joule:
The joule is the unit for measuring energy. A joule can be
calculated in many ways because energy is a broad concept.
For electrical energy, a joule is the amount of work required to
produce one watt of power for one second.
Leg/Lead:
Leg and Lead are colloquial terms used interchangeably to
indicate the wires or thin metal strips that are part of many
electrical components and are used to connect those
14
components to each other or to circuit boards in the process of
circuit building. These are more formally known as "terminals".
Load:
Load is the colloquial term for power consumption of a
particular circuit or component, measured in amps and volts. If
a component consumes either more volts or more amps than a
power supply is capable of providing to a circuit, the
component may not function properly or at all, or may damage
itself, the other components in the circuit, or the power supply.
Ohm:
The ohm is the unit of electrical resistance. One ohm is the
electrical resistance between two points on a conductive
material when one volt of power is applied to those points and
a current of one ampere is produced in the conductive
material.
Open Circuit:
An open circuit is an incomplete electrical circuit, with no
pathway between the terminals of the power source. An
electrical project that does not work at all is often found to
have an open circuit due to improper connections between
components or wires that are not secured properly.
Pad:
Pad is a colloquial term used to indicate a flat metal surface
on a PCB, or a pool of solder on a larger metal surface, and
that serves as a place to attach electrical components. These
are more formally known as "terminals".
Passive Component:
A passive component is a part in a circuit that consumes
energy but does not produce it.
PCB:
Short for printed circuit board, a PCB is a layered substrate
of copper and insulating materials used to connect electronic
components to one another in a controlled manner. Rather than
directly connecting components to each other, the PCB has
metal-ringed holes and/or metal pads; these are connected
internally by lines of copper that transmit current from one
component to the next per the requirements of the circuit.
Pigtail:
Pigtail is a colloquial term for a plug or other electrical
component that has a short length of wire already connected
to it so that it's ready to connect directly to a project without
any preparation.
Polarity/Polarization:
Polarity in electricity refers to the direction in which
electrical current flows through a circuit or component. In a
battery, charged particles exit through the positive/+ side and
re-enter through the negative/- side. In a polarized component,
current is only able to flow in one direction; attempting to apply
current in the incorrect direction could result in damage to the
component.
Positive/Negative:
Positive refers to the terminal where current is flowing out
from the power source, negative refers to the terminal where
16
current is returning to the power source. Most of the
components in a circuit will be connected to both the positive
and negative terminals either directly or via the connections
made with other components. Polarized components will
always be connected so that their positive terminal is directed
towards the positive terminal of a power supply and their
negative terminal is directed towards the negative terminal of a
power supply. If components are not properly connected and
the current cannot pass from the power source's positive
terminal through the circuit and back to the negative terminal,
the circuit is either "shorted" or "open" and will not function.
Potential:
In physics, potential energy is energy held by an object
because of its position relative to other objects, stresses within
itself, its electrical charge, or other factors. That energy can
then be released in various forms. For example, a battery holds
chemical potential energy that can be released as electricity or
heat, a balloon that has been rubbed on carpet holds electrical
potential energy (static) that can be released as light, heat, and
electricity, and a ball resting at the top of a hill holds kinetic
potential energy that can be released as motion.
Power:
Power is the amount of energy transferred or converted per
unit of time (measured in joules per second). Electrical power is
the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an
electrical circuit. The unit for this measurement is the watt.
Prototype:
A prototype is a temporary or experimental construction of
a circuit, machine, piece of software, etc. Prototypes can range
from very rough to quite polished, but they are always a work in
progress rather than a final version.
Resistance/Resistivity:
Resistance is the measure of a material's ability to resist an
electrical current. A low-resistance material is generally a good
conductor; a high resistance material could be a good
insulator. Resistance is measured in ohms.
Semiconductor:
Semiconductors are materials like silicon or germanium
whose conductivity is neither extremely resistive (like insulators
such as glass) nor extremely conductive (like conductors such
as copper or aluminum), and whose conductivity can be altered
and controlled through chemical and physical adjustments.
They are used in transistors and diodes, and depending on
their properties they can be used to amplify and control power
(like transistors), emit light (like LEDs or light emitting diodes),
absorb or emit heat, etc. Semiconductor materials do occur
naturally; however, most of the ones used in electronics are
manufactured through various industrial processes.
Short Circuit:
A short circuit is an electrical circuit where the current
travels along an unintended path with no or very low electrical
impedance. Shorting can result in excessive current flowing
through the circuit. The consequences can be minor, like a
circuit not working at all or a component failing; or major, like
18
overheating, fire, and electrical shock. An example of a short
circuit is when tree branches touch power transmission lines,
allowing current to travel to the ground and often causing
arcing, fires and power outages.
Siemens:
A siemens is a unit of electrical conductance, expressed as
a ratio. One siemens is equal to one ampere per volt.
SI Units:
The international system of units, or Systeme International,
is the modernized metric system. SI is a standardized system of
units of measurement centered around seven basic units; it is
also a system of recognized prefixes, abbreviations, and
derived units. The seven units are the second for time, the
meter for length, the kilogram for mass or weight, the ampere
for electrical current, the kelvin for temperature, the mole for
the amount of substance, and the candela for intensity of light.
SI was initially established in 1960 by the General Conference
on Weights and Measures and that body is responsible for
continued updates and clarifications. It is used by most
countries and in most scientific, technological and engineering
fields. Most units expressed in this text are SI units; non-Sl units
will be noted.
Terminal:
A terminal in electronics is the point at which a conductor or
component comes to an end and may be connected to
another conductor or component as needed. Pad, leg, and lead
are some colloquial terms for types of terminal.
19
Volt:
A volt is the unit of electrical potential. One volt is equal to
the difference in electrical potential between two points on a
conductor when the current is at a constant of one ampere and
the dissipated power is one watt.
Wait:
The watt is the unit for measuring electrical power. It
indicates an electrical energy transfer rate of one joule per
second.
Work:
In physics, work refers to the effort or energy transferred
when a force acts on an object and causes that object to move.
That energy transfer is quantified in joules. It can indicate large
energy transfers like the work of lifting a heavy box or pushing
a car, or small energy transfers like the work of an electrical
charge moving through a conductive material.
20
2.0
unit symbols and
abbreviations
A:
Ampere or amp. The unit used to measure electrical
current.
AWG:
American Wire Gauge. À scale used to denote the diameter
of wire in the United States. Can be confusing as the larger in
diameter a wire is, the smaller the AWG number. Commonly
encountered in, for example, ear piercing gauges. Outside the
United States, international standard simply measures diameter
in millimeters. AWG is not an SI unit.
Q:
Ohm, the unit used to measure electrical resistance. KQ
indicates kilo Ohm, meaning that a resistor labeled as 10 kQ is
equal to 10,000 Q.
F:
Farad, the unit used to measure electrical capacitance. This
symbol is often seen paired with additional symbols, like mF, uF,
nF and pF, which indicate the metric prefixes for numbers
smaller than 1.
m: milli, or thousandth. mF indicates millifarad, or 0.001
farad (3 decimal places to the left of 1).
21
H: micro, or millionth. yF indicates microfarad, or
0.000001 farad (6 decimal places to the left of 1).
n: nano, or billionth. nF indicates nanofarad, or
0.000000001 farad (9 decimal places left of 1).
p: pico, or trillionth. pF indicates picofarad, or
0.000000000001 farad (12 decimal places left of 1).
V:
Volt, the unit used to measure electrical potential.
Commonly used to talk about a battery's "size", or how much
energy it holds; for example, 1.5v batteries are commonly used
in remote controls and 12v batteries are commonly used in
Cars.
W:
Watt, the unit used to indicate the rate of energy transfer.
Commonly used to talk about a light bulb's energy usage or a
solar panel's power rating; for example a 40 watt bulb or a 400
watt solar panel.
22
3.0
circuit diagram
23
3.1 Circuit Diagram Symbols
T Antenna
HH Battery
~} Capacitor (where two symbols are indicated,
t+ either symbol may be used)
F- Capacitor, polarized; the small plus symbol
> indicates the direction of polarity
À Capacitor, variable
+
NN Coil or Inductor
Ground
œ Input
t+ Resistor
AW-
) Transistor (NPN)
24
4.0
materials
4.1 Components
1 radio coil (appx. 40cm length 24 AWG [.5mm]
enameled copper wire)
1 antenna (1.5'/50cm length speaker wire or other
insulated wire, between 22 and 16 AWG)
1 audio input (3.5mm TRS plug pigtail; preferably mono)
1 9V battery connector
1 piece copper clad board
(between 2" x 3"/5cm x 7cm and 4" x 6"/10cm x 14cm ) OR
1 breadboard & jumper wires
* 1 BC337 transistor
(BC337 is a common transistor and can be bought
individually or found in most transistor kits; however, if you
are unable to find a BC337 transistor, you can use
references such as alltransistors.com to search for
equivalents.)
110 kQ resistor
(see color band guide referenced in the “Component
Descriptions” section to identify these resistors)
1 22 kQ resistor
1 470 Q resistor
2 10nF ceramic capacitors
(usually marked with "103")
1 uF ceramic capacitor
(usually marked with "100")
1 1uF electrolytic capacitor
1~10-20pF variable capacitor
25
4.2 Component Descriptions
Antenna
An antenna can be as simple as a length of wire and as
complex as a multi-story radio tower. For
our purposes, we'll be using a short
length of wire. It acts as the interface
between electromagnetic waves (radio
waves) moving in space and electrical
currents moving in circuits. In
transmission, a radio transmitter generates an electrical current
and supplies it to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna
radiates the energy from that current in the form of
electromagnetic waves. In reception, an antenna intercepts a
radio wave in space and uses some of that wave's power to
produce an electrical current at its terminals, and a radio
receiver connected to that antenna can then amplify that
current as sound or other signal.
Audio Input
An audio input or audio jack is any connector meant to
connect to an audio device. In this case
we will be using the plug end with a Tip-
Ring-Sleeve (TRS) connector. TRS
connectors come in various sizes, with
the 3.5 mm and 6.35 mm (1/4 inch)
versions being the most common.
26
Battery Connector
À battery connector is a component that establishes an
electrical connection between a battery
and an electrical circuit. It typically
consists of terminals or contacts that
allow the flow of electrical current from
the battery to the device, enabling the
device to be powered or charged by the
energy stored in the battery. They are available for all types and
sizes of battery - we will be using one designed for standard 9
volt batteries.
Capacitor
A capacitor stores electrical energy in an electrical field by
accumulating electrical charges on two closely-set conductive
surfaces that are insulated from each other by some non-
conductive material. The conductive surfaces are called
electrode plates and the non-conductive insulator is called the
dielectric. We will be using three types of capacitor: ceramic,
electrolytic, and variable.
A ceramic capacitor is a non-polarized capacitor with a
ceramic dielectric. They are the most
common. The number marked on the
surface denotes capacitance, generally in
a common code but sometimes in a code
particular to the manufacturer. The
common code chart can be found online,
and manufacturer specific coding will usually be included in the
box if you purchase a kit.
27
An electrolytic capacitor is a polarized capacitor. The
positive side or anode is made of a metal
that forms an insulating oxide layer
through a process called anodization. This
oxide layer acts as the dielectric of the
capacitor. A solid, liquid, or gel electrolyte
covers this oxide layer, serving as the
negative side or cathode of the capacitor. The capacitance of
an electrolytic capacitor is printed on the side, often followed
by 'v' and then another number. The number after 'v' indicates
the capacitor's voltage tolerance.
A variable capacitor is a non-polarized capacitor whose
capacitance can be changed, either
mechanically or electronically. They are
sometimes referred to as "tuning
€. capacitors" because they're often used to
tune radios. These capacitors are not as
easy to come by as the others, and
generally need to be purchased individually. They come in a
capacitive range, and are generally color-coded by the
manufacturer.
Coil
A coil or inductor stores electrical energy in a magnetic
field when electrical current flows through
it. It is typically made of insulated wire
© wound into a coil shape or wound around
a core of some kind. You will be given
instructions to make a simple coil.
28
Resistor
A resistor is a 2-terminal non-polarized component that
introduces electrical resistance into a
circuit through its material construction.
Resistors can be static, maintaining a
basically stable resistance regardless of
external conditions; or variable, with
resistance that can be physically
adjusted or that varies depending on environmental conditions
such as light, heat, humidity, etc.. Light sensors, temperature
sensors, volume knobs, light dimmers, etc. are all examples of
variable resistors.
Static resistors are identified based on how many ohms of
resistance they provide, and they are marked according to a
standardized system of 4, 5 or 6 colored bands. Most static
resistor packs have an identification table included in the
package, and there are many online resources for identifying
resistors, including this one from the electronics supplier
DigiKey: www.digikey.com/en/resources/conversion-calculators/
conversion-calculator-resistor-color-code.
Transistor
A transistor is an active electrical component used to
amplify or switch electrical current.
Transistors are composed of
semiconductor material and have at least
three terminals. The terminals are known
as the base/gate, emitter/source, and
collector/drain. When a small electrical
29
current is applied to a transistor's base/gate terminal it will
either emit a much stronger electrical current from one of its
other terminals (amplification) OR it will allow a stronger
electrical current to pass from the collector/drain terminal to
the emitter/source terminal (switching).
There are two basic types of transistor (Bipolar Junction
Transfer [BJT] and Field Effect Transfer [FET]), and a number of
subtypes. The one we are using is a BUT transistor, and its
subtype is NPN (Negative-Positive-Negative, indicating the
polarity of its terminals).
Wire
A flexible strand of metal. We make reference to several
types of wire: Jumper wire, solid core, and stranded core.
A jumper wire is a means for quickly and temporarily
moving electrical current from one
place to another. In breadboarding,
it's a length of wire fitted with either a
plug or a receptacle on each end
and it connects different parts of the
breadboard electrically. You may have used a set of jumper
wires or cables to restart a car after the battery died.
Solid core wire indicates a wire that is insulated (usually in a
sheath of plastic or rubber) with only a single strand of metal
inside the insulation.
Stranded core indicates a wire that is similarly insulated and
contains many very fine strands of metal within the insulation.
30
4.3 Tools
* Small coping saw OR strong kitchen shears OR craft knife
(soldered version only)
e Eye protection (required for soldered version,
recommended for breadboard version)
e Gorilla glue OR double-sided tape OR another adhesive
suitable for metal (soldered version only)
e FM Radio (preferably with a knob-style tuning dial, but
can be of any vintage)
* Sandpaper, fine-grit (required for breadboard version,
optional for soldered version)
e Small screwdriver, Phillips or Pozi
* Soldering iron & solder (soldered version only)
e Tweezers OR needle nose pliers
e Wire cutter/strippers
e Standard pencil with eraser
e Magnifying glass (optional, for seeing markings on small
parts)
4.4 Space Recommendations
e Flat surface with enough room to lay out all components
and tools
e Adequate light
e Comfortable seating
e If soldering, good ventilation! At least an open window or
an air filter (preferrably both)
e Access to electricity
5.0
skills rundown
5.1 Using Wire Cutters & Strippers
Wire strippers are used to pull the insulating material off the
outside of plastic-coated wires.
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If you look at yours, you'll notice a cutting edge close to the
hinge, notched places marked with wire sizes in the middle
(these make holes when the cutters are closed), and a gripping
surface at the end.
To use, clip your wire piece a bit longer than needed, use
the cutting edge to score the plastic insulation in the place
where you would like to remove it, and then pull the wire
through the appropriate-sized notch to slide the plastic sleeve
off the end of the wire.
32
5.2 Breadboarding
A breadboard is a quick-connect method for prototyping
circuits. We will give a brief rundown here, but there are
instructional videos and texts available online if you need
further guidance.
A breadboard allows for circuit prototyping and building
without the need to solder the components together. Using a
breadboard is a great way to test a circuit prior to soldering, or
to build a circuit that you don't plan to keep.
Breadboards are made of plastic with lots of little holes on
one side and a layer of adhesive foam on the other, along with
a hidden layer of conductive metal strips. The one pictured
below is a standard orientation for breadboards. However, there
are some different styles; double check the documentation for
yours if it doesn't look like the one we have shown on the next
page.
Oriented with the top or work surface facing up, you can
see the board is divided into three areas, each of which is a
separate piece of plastic. The two smaller areas, referred to as
"rails", have two columns of holes and are labeled with a red "+"
symbol and a blue "-" symbol as well as a red line along one
column of holes and a blue line along the other column of
holes. The rails are generally used to supply power to the
breadboard, so the red and blue markings indicate positive
and negative power connections.
The rails are located on either side of a larger central area
with a distinct channel down the middle and a grid of holes that
33
is labeled with letters for the columns and numbers for the
rows. The central piece doesn't have a consistent name, so we'll
call it the terminal grid.
The underside is usually covered by a foam adhesive pad
which holds the plastic pieces together, secures the conductive
metal strips inside the plastic, and insulates the metal strips
top/work surface underside, insulator removed
from whatever surface the board may be placed on. The board
pictured above has had the foam pad removed so that the
metal strips are visible.
You can see on the picture of the underside that the rail
pieces each have two long metal strips; these metal strips run
beneath the columns of holes that are labeled with red or blue
lines on the work surface. The terminal grid has two columns of
horizontally oriented metal strips that run under the rows of
holes on the work surface.
34
The metal strips have prongs that extend up into the holes
on the front side of the board so that when a jumper wire or
lead from an electrical component is pushed into the hole, it
clips into the metal strip below and forms a reasonably secure
connection, as shown below.
Pushing a lead from one component and a lead from another
component into holes in the same row connects those
components electrically because they are both clipped in to
the same piece of metal inside the board.
The most common method for moving electricity around a
breadboard is by using jumper wires like the one pictured here.
For example, if you want to
electrically connect multiple rows on
the breadboard, you need to use a
jumper wire. You can make your own
out of solid-core wire with the ends
stripped off, or you can purchase pre-made sets.
35
5.3 Soldering
Solder is a metal alloy (a composite of multiple metals) that
has a relatively low melting point. It is used as a sort of glue to
bond together metal parts with a higher melting point. The
solder and the parts being connected are heated together
using a soldering iron, oven or torch; for our purpose you'll be
using a soldering iron. The heat from the iron melts the solder
which in turn fills the space between the parts. When the solder
re-solidifies and the parts cool, the bond is fairly durable
(though it can be broken or re-melted). The act of using solder
in this way is referred to as soldering; any bond between
pieces of metal created by soldering is referred to as a solder
joint. When you are building electrical circuits, the solder joint
allows electrical current to pass from one component to
another. Soldering is also used for non-electrical purposes like
plumbing and jewelry making.
As soldering involves tools that can reach dangerously high
temperatures, we strongly advise at least watching video-based
tutorials or, ideally, getting in-person instruction. That said, we
recognize that in-person instruction can be hard to come by
and varies widely depending on where you live. Places to look
for in-person instruction include but are not limited to: public
libraries, maker or hacker spaces, ham radio clubs, and others.
If in-person instruction is definitely not an option the
electronics company Adafruit has a thorough guide to
electronics soldering, including both written and video
instructions, at learn.adafruit.com/adafruit-guide-excellent-
soldering.
36
6.0
initial preparations
6.1 Making the coil
(This is necessary for both breadboard and soldered
assembly)
Materials: Pencil, copper wire
1. Cut a roughly 4"/10cm length of 24
AWG/.5mm enamel-coated copper wire.
2. Wind the wire around the eraser end
of a pencil 4 times. The grooves in the
metal part of the pencil can be used to
hold the wire in place and provide basic
spacing for the turns of the coil.
3. Take the coil off the pencil to use.
Because a pencil eraser is roughly 5mm
in diameter, the coil is also roughly 5mm
in diameter.
4. Use fine-grit sandpaper to sand the
legs of the coil up to where the turns
begin, to remove the thin enamel coating
© on the wire.
37
6.2 Preparing the copper board
(Skip this if you're building on a breadboard!)
1. Wearing eye protection, cut
a 1 cm/.5" strip off one end of
your copper board. You can
do this with a coping saw, by
scoring deeply with a craft
knife and snapping the board
using pliers, or with tin snips/
heavy-duty scissors. Heads up - the board is not easy to
cut! Be patient and be careful to avoid cutting yourself.
2. Take the strip and split it
into 5 roughly even pieces, so
you end up with six pieces
that look something like this.
3. Affix the smaller pieces to
the larger one as shown here,
using the heat-resistant
adhesive of your choice (we
used gorilla glue in the board
shown here, but other options
work just as well).
38
4. Create small solder pads on
each of the smaller pieces of
copper board by heating up the
surface and applying solder
until it forms a little pool. This
will help to speed up soldering
work later.
5. Using the same method as
the previous step, create small
solder pads on the larger
copper board in the locations
shown in the image to the left.
39
7.0
assembly instructions
7.1 Breadboard Assembly
1. Attach the 9-volt battery connector to
the board. These connectors often have
stranded core wires. Twist the ends as
tightly as possible before pushing them
into the breadboard to ensure a good
connection.
The wires will usually be insulated in
black and red. Red indicates a "positive"
lead and black indicates a "negative"
lead. Push the black wire into a hole on
the blue/negative rail on one end of the
breadboard. Push the red wire into the a
hole on the red/positive vertical rail
immediately next to it. This configuration is not required, but it is
a convention intended to help to keep track of the direction of
current, in case you are working with more than one person or
need to return to the board at a later time.
2. On the opposite end of the board from
where you attached the battery
connector, connect the two negative rails
with a jumper wire. Push one end of the
wire into a hole on one blue vertical rail
and the other end of the wire into a hole
40
on the blue vertical rail on the other side of the board. This
means that both rails share the same part of the electrical
current.
] 3. The transistor we are using has 3 legs:
| a Base, an Emitter, and a Collector. If you
| look at the transistor in this circuit with
the flat side facing towards you, it has
the Base (B) in the center, the Collector
(C) on the left and the Emitter (E) on the
right.Place the transistor so each of the legs are in a separate
row, and the C leg is close to the positive rail. Leave room for
another component to go between the C and E legs.
4. Place the 1uF ceramic capacitor (often
+. | marked "100") between the C and E legs
| of the transistor. Push each of the
| capacitor's legs into holes in the same
rows as the C and E legs of the
transistor.
5. Place the coil you prepared earlier so
<: that one leg is in the same row as the C
A leg of the transistor and the other is in a
; separate row. The C leg of the transistor
“| is now connected to the coil electrically,
because both are touching the same
piece of metal under the surface of the breadboard.
4
] 6. Use one of the 10nF ceramic
capacitors (usually marked "103") to
connect the coil end not connected to
| the transistor to the negative rail.
7. Use a jumper wire to connect the same
row as in the previous step to the
positive rail.
8. Use the 22 kQ resistor to connect the
row the same row as in the previous step
to the row with the B leg of the transistor
by inserting one leg of the capacitor in
the same row as the B leg of the
transistor and the other leg of the
capacitor in the negative rail. (Note: this image shows the
opposite angle from the previous image.)
9. Use the other 10nF ceramic capacitor
to connect the row with the B leg of the
transistor to the negative rail, by inserting
one leg of the capacitor in the same row
| as the B leg of the transistor and the
other leg of the capacitor in the negative
rail.
42
10. Use the 10 kQ resistor to connect the
row with the B leg of the transistor to the
negative rail, by inserting one leg of the
resistor in the same row as the B leg of
the transistor and the other leg of the
resistor in the negative rail.
11. Carefully place the variable capacitor
in the space between resistors, with one
leg in the same row as the C leg of the
transistor and the other leg in a row with
no other components.
12. Use a jumper wire to connect the row
with only one leg of the variable
capacitor in it to the negative rail by
inserting one end of the jumper wire in
the same row as the variable capacitor
and the other end of the jumper wire in
the negative rail.
13. Use the 470 Q resistor to connect the
E leg of the transistor to the negative rail,
by inserting one leg of the resistor in the
ise same row as the E leg of the transistor
“| and the other leg of the resistor in the
negative rail. (Note: this image shows the
>
opposite angle from the previous image.)
43
14. Insert the positive (longer) leg of the
electrolytic capacitor in the same row as
the B leg of the transistor. Insert the
negative (shorter) leg in a row with no
other components.
15. The mono audio jack will likely have
stranded wires like the battery
connector. Twist the strands in the same
j “| way. Insert the positive wire (usually
À insulated with red plastic - if it isn't, it will
be the only insulated wire) in the same
row as the negative leg of the electrolytic capacitor. Insert the
negative wire of the audio jack (generally bare copper, not
insulated) in the negative rail.
16. The antenna can be made of any type
of wire, as long as it will fit in the holes in
the breadboard. We've used a piece of
stereo wire, but you could use a long
jumper cable or other wire you have
í available. As always, if the wire is
stranded make sure to twist the strands tightly. Insert the
antenna wire in the same row as the E leg of the transistor.
44
17. The circuit should be fully assembled! Attach a 9v battery,
and skip to "Operating the Completed Radio Transmitter" for
your next steps!
45
7.2 Soldered Assembly
1.Begin with the copper-clad
board you already prepared. You
shouldn't need more solder than
what is already pooled on the
board. You will build the circuit by
re-heating the solder and adding
components to it.
Going forward, the larger copper board is referred to as the
"ground plate”, and it will be connected to the negative terminal
of the battery. The smaller pieces of copper board affixed to
the surface of the ground plate are referred to as "insulated
pads"; they are the connection points for components that lead
to the positive terminal of the battery.
2. The transistor we are using has
3 legs: a Base, an Emitter, and a
Collector. If you look at the
transistor in this circuit with the
flat side facing towards you, it has
the Base (B) in the center, the
Collector (C) on the left and the
Emitter (E) on the right. Orient the transistor so that it matches
the image here, with the B lead to the left, the C lead to the top
right, and the E lead to the bottom right. Affix the transistor to
the insulated pads by touching the leads to the solder pads
and re-heating the solder with the soldering iron until it melts.
46
3. Next, attach the 1uF ceramic
capacitor (usually marked with
"100") so it connects the C and E
leads of the transistor. Use the
same method as before of
reheating each pool of solder
while touching the component
4. Using the same soldering
method, affix one lead of the 470
Q resistor to the same insulated
pad as the E lead of the transistor.
Connect the other lead of the
470 Q resistor to the ground plate
using the solder pad in the
5. Use the wire strippers to
remove a small amount of
{| insulating plastic from one end of
the antenna wire, exposing the
| copper strands. Continuing to use
the same method, solder the
j exposed copper to the same
insulated a as the E lead of the transistor and leads of the
IF ceramic capacitor and 470 Q resistor.
47
6. With the same soldering
method, affix one leg of the
variable capacitor to the top right
insulated pad that already
connects to the C lead of the
transistor and one lead of the 1uF
ceramic capacitor. Connect the other leg of the variable
capacitor to the ground plate using the solder pad in the top
right corner of the board.
7. Using the same soldering
technique, attach one end of the
coil to the top right insulated pad
that also connects to one lead of
the variable capacitor, the C lead
of the transistor, and one lead of
the 1uF ceramic capacitor.
Connect the other end of the coil to the insulated pad at the
center top of the board.
8. Use the wire strippers to
remove some insulation on the
wires attached to the battery
connector. Using the same
soldering method, attach the
| positive lead of the battery
connector to the same center top insulated pad as the end of
the coil. Affix the negative lead of the battery connector to the
ground plate with the topmost solder pad.
48
9. With the same soldering
technique, affix one lead of one of
the 10nF ceramic capacitors
(usually marked "103") to the same
center top insulated pad as the
positive lead of the battery
connector. Affix the other lead of
the 10nF ceramic capacitor to the ground plate using the
solder pad just below where you attached the negative lead of
the battery connector in the previous step.
10. Solder one lead of the 22 kQ
resistor to the same center top
insulated pad as the coil, 10nF
ceramic capacitor, and battery
connector in the previous 3
steps. Attach the other lead of
the 22 kQ resistor to the same
11. Use the same soldering
technique to connect the positive
lead (longer leg) of the
YA electrolytic capacitor to same
center insulated pad as the B
lead of the transistor and one
lead of the 22 kQ
resistor. Connect the electrolytic capacitor's negative lead to
the insulated pad to the left.
49
12. Use the wire strippers to
expose the audio jack wires.
Connect the positive wire of the
audio jack (usually insulated with
red plastic) to the same left
insulated pad as the negative leg
of the electrolytic capacitor.
Connect the negative wire of the
mn \| audio jack (either bare copper or
insulated with black plastic) to the ground plate using the
solder pad to the left of that insulated pad.
13. Use the same soldering
method to connect one lead of
the 10 kQ resistor to the same
center insulated pad as the
“Hf | positive lead of the electrolytic
\ \ capacitor, the B lead of the
N \ | transistor, and the lead of the 22
kQ resistor. Attach the other lead of that resistor to the ground
plate using one of the solder pads below that insulated pad.
14. Attach one lead of the
remaining 10nF ceramic
| capacitors to the same insulated
S] | pad as in the previous step.
AZ (Il | Attach the other lead of that
à AU capacitor to the ground plate
3 AY
using the remaining solder pad.
50
15. The circuit should be fully assembled! Attach a 9v battery
and continue on to "Operating the Completed Radio
Transmitter" for your next steps!
51
7.3 Operating the Completed Radio Transmitter
Once you've built your radio transmitter, operate it by following
these steps:
1. Connect a 9 volt battery to the battery connector and
connect an audio source (such as a phone or computer) to the
audio connector.
2. Turn your audio source to the highest volume and play
something you will recognize.
3. You can find the audio you chose in step 2 in two ways:
3.1. Turn on an FM radio receiver, and slowly scan through
the stations until you find the audio. While this process of
scanning works best with a radio that has a knob for tuning,
a digitally-tuned radio will also work. With this method you
leave the transmission frequency of your radio transmitter
as-is and you adjust the reception frequency of the receiver.
3.2. Set your radio receiver to an empty channel at the low
end of the FM spectrum (871-90.9, generally) and use a
small screwdriver to carefully turn the screw head inside the
variable capacitor on your transmitter. With this method you
adjust the transmission frequency of your radio transmitter.
4. Once you've found your audio, play around with both
methods to find the best sound! You can experiment with how
far apart the transmitter and receiver can be, what causes
interference, what increases your signal strength, etc.
52
7.4 Troubleshooting
1. If you are having trouble picking up your radio frequency, or it
seems to not be working, try the following things:
2. Go through the steps of your assembly method and double-
check that each component is connected in the correct place
and orientation.
3. If you assembled your circuit on a breadboard, lightly sand
the leads on each component. There may be transparent
insulation on the leads that is preventing electricity from
moving through the circuit.
4. If you assembled your circuit by soldering, carefully reheat
each of the solder joints to make sure that solder has
connected each of the components.
5. Make sure that all batteries have a full charge.
6. Check that your radio is receiving other frequencies by
scanning for local radio stations.
53
8.0
acknowledgements
This text is an expansion of work done by Tetsuo Kogawa.
The instructions expand on his Simplest FM Transmitter
(anarchytranslocal.jp/radio/micro/howtosimplestTX.html) and
the circuit diagram is based on a layout for the BC337
transistor-based circuit (translocal.jp/radio/micro/
simplestTX_layout_for__BC337.pdf).
We would also like to thank Alex Custodio, Michael lantorno,
Darren Wershler, Lee Wilkins, and members of the May 2023
graduate class on maintenance, repair, and sustainability at
Concordia University (Montreal, Canada) for all they did to
inspire us to produce this text.
Finally, this pamphlet would not have been possible without
the infrastructure of the Media Archaeology Lab (MAL) and the
resources that go into supporting the lab; as such, we would
like to thank the University of Colorado Boulder’s College of
Media, Communication, and Information, the College of Arts &
Sciences, the Media Studies Department, and the English
Department for their continued support; we would also like to
thank Brad Feld, Vint Cerf, and Google for their ongoing,
generous support of the lab as well. Long live the MAL!
54
9.0
bios
libi striegl is Managing Director of the Media Archaeology
Lab. She is an artist and researcher interested in collaborative
engagement, performative chaos, archival impermanence and
DIY/DIT defamiliarization. Her work includes the workshop series
Voluntary Deconvenience, the DinaCon installation SolFM, and
the satirical techno-collaborative Sharing Turtle.
Lori Emerson is Associate Professor of Media Studies and
Director of the Intermedia Arts, Writing, and Performance
Program at the University of Colorado Boulder. She is also
Director of the Media Archaeology Lab. Emerson is author of
the forthcoming Other Networks (Anthology Editions, 2024), co-
author of THE LAB BOOK: Situated Practices in Media Studies
(University of Minnesota Press, 2021), author of Reading Writing
Interfaces: From the Digital to the Bookbound (University of
Minnesota Press June, 2014), and editor of numerous
collections.
55
emell\/|/\|_
www.othernetworks.net