Engineer Field Manual Vol II Pt III Construction and Utilities

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1932 

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WAR DEPARTMENT 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

Volume II 

MILITARY ENGINEERING 

(TENTATIVE) 

PAST THREE 

CONSTRUCTION AND UTILITIES 



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ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



Volume II 
MILITARY ENGINEERING 

(TENTATIVE) 

PART THREE 
CONSTRUCTION AND UTILITIES 



Prepared under the direction of the 
CHIEF OF ENGINEERS 




UNITED STATES 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

WASHINGTON : 1932 



For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. 



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WAR DEPARTMENT, 
Washington, June SO, 19S2. 
Part Three, Construction and Utilities, Engineer Field Manual, 
Volume II, Military Engineering (Tentative), is published for 
the information and guidance of all concerned. 

[A. Q. 062.11 (7-19-30).) 

By order of the Secretary of War: 

DOUGLAS MacARTHUR, 

General, 
Chief of Staff. 
Official: 

C. H. BRIDGES, 
Major General, 

The AdjutarH General. 



LIST OF FIELD MANUALS 

A MANUAL FOB COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS. (M. C. L. U.) 

Vol. I. Operations.— A guide for commanders and staffs for tactical operations of 
large units. 
II. Administration.— A. guide for the administration of large units in a theater 
of operations. 

STAFF OFFICERS' FIELD MANUAL. (S. O. F. M.) 
Staff principles and functions applicable to the staffs of all units, : together with 
pertinent reference data. i . i , 

BASIC FIELD MANUALS. (B. F. M.) 

Training, administrative, and reference data applicable to more than one arm, with 

special reference to the smaller units. 
Vol. I. Field Service Pocketbook. (F. S. P.)— The individual. 

II. Infantry Drill Regulations. (I. D. R.)— Drill, dismounted ceremonies and 
inspections; the infantry pack, display of equipment, and tent drill. 

III. Basic Weapons. (B. TV.) — Marksmanship and mechanical training of 

the rifle, automatic rifle, pistol, machine gun, 37-mm. gun, 3-inch trench 
mortar, bayone/ and grenade instruction, technique of fire (37-mm. gun, 
3-inch trench mortar, and machine gun); musketry and combat practice 
of small units; instruments. 

IV. Signal Communication. (S. C.)— Signal regulations and technical infor- 

mation needed by officers and enlisted men on signal communications 
duty of arms other than the Signal Corps. 
V. Transport. (T.)— Equitation, training remounts, use and care of animals 

and of animal-drawn, pack, motor, and tractor transport. 
VI. Administrative Regulations. (A. R.)— Army Regulations essential to 

small units. 
VII. Military Law. (M. L.)— The Manual for Courts-Martial, including the 
Articles of War; the Rules of Land Warfare, including recent conven- 
tions relative to the sick and wounded of armies in the field and to 
prisoners of war; an epitome of the legal principles applicable to mili- 
tary forces when aiding the civil power. 
VIII. Operations of Combined Arms (Small Units). (0. C. A.)— The principles, 
doctrines, and methods governing the tactical employment of combined 
arms with reference to the small units. 

FIELD MANUALS FOB THE ARMS 

The manual for each arm contains, primarily, the principles, doctrines, and methods 
governing the employment of that arm and pertinent reference data. 

Infantry Field Manual. (I. F. M.) 

Vol. I. Units other than Tanks. 
II. Tank Units. 

Cavalry Field Manual. (C. F. M.) 

Field Artillery Field Manual. (F. A. F. M.) 

Vol. I. Organization and Brill. 
II. Tactics and Technique. 

m 



IV LIST OF FIELD MANUALS 

Coast Artillery Field Manual. (C. A. F. M.) 

Vol. I. Harbor Defense, Railway and Tractor-drawn Units. 
II. Antiaircraft Artillery Units. 

Air Corps Field Manual. (A. C. F. M.) 
Engineer Field Manual. (E. F. M.) 
Vol. I. Engineer Troops. 

II. Military Engineering. 

Signal Corps Field! Manual. (S. C. F. M.) 
' Vol. I. Signal Corps Troops. 

II. Signal Corps Operations. 



FOREWORD 



Engineer Field Manual, Volume II, Military Engineering, is a 
compendium of technical information and suggestions as to the 
conduct of the most common operations undertaken by engineer 
troops in the theater of operations. The user of this manual 
should recognize that local conditions in the field will always 
profoundly affect the application of the principles and formulas 
given herein. The manual contains suggestions and guides to 
judgment rather than regulations to be rigidly adhered to. 

The manual will be published in three parts as follows: 
Part One. Communications: 
Chapter 1. Roads. 

2. Bridges. 

3. Military railways. 

4. Surveys and maps (this chapter will be pub- 

lished when it becomes necessary to revise 
TM 2180-30 and 2180-37). 
Part Two. Defensive measures: 
Chapter 1. Camouflage. 

2. Field fortifications. 

3. Explosives and demolitions. 
Part Three. Construction and utilities: 

Chapter 1. General construction. 

2. Water supply. 

3. Light and power. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Para- 

Chaptee 1. General construction: graph Page 

Section I. General principles - 1- 4 1,2 

II. Requirements 5- 14 2 -18 

III. Reconnaissance 15- 17 16,17 

IV. Standard types 18-28 18-44 

V. Construction methods 29- 33 46-47 

Chapter 2. Water supply: 

Section I. General principles 34-37 48-63 

II. Requirements 38 63,64 

III. Reconnaissance 39- 42 64-57 

IV. Development of sources -- 43-48 58-63 

V. Purification 49- 56 63-74 

VI. Distribution 57- 58 74-79 

VII. Water supply machinery __ 59-61 79-86 

VIII. Formulas and tables 62- 67 87-98 

Chapter 3. Light and power: 

Section I. General principles _ 68 100,101 

II. Fundamentals of practical electricity 69-82 101-109 

m. Instruments 83-87 109,110 

IV Generators and motors 88-98 110-127 

V. Power transmission and lighting 99-103 128-144 

VI. Military requirements 104-107 144,145 

VII. Reconnaissance 108-112 146-148 

vn 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL, 

VOLUME II, MILITARY ENGINEERING 

(TENTATIVE) 

PART THREE 

CONSTRUCTION AND UTILITIES 

(The matter contained herein supersedes the Engineer Field Manual, Edition of 1918 
(Professional Papers of the Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, No. 29).) 

CHAPTER 1 

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 

Paragraph 

Section I. General principles l- 4 

n. Requirements.. ; 5-14 

III. Reconnaissance. '_ 15-17 

IV. Standard types ...- 1&-28 

V. Construction methods .,... 29-33 



Section I 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES 

1. Simplicity. — All plans for general construction in the 
theater of operations are of the simplest nature and in general 
should call for only the most common construction materials 
and supplies. 

2. Economy of materials. — Economy of materials is ob- 
tained principally — 

o. By recognizing the temporary and emergency character of 
war-time construction. 

6. By limiting all construction to the barest necessities' of the 
situation, eliminating all nonessentials. 

c. By utilizing existing structures, which can be adapted for 
military purposes, rather than to erect new structures. 

d. By the use of type plang.' 

3. Use of type plans. — Efficient utilization of personnel and 
materials and speed in construction are attained by the use of 
type plans such' as those suggested in this manual. Type plans 



2 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

in detail are prepared in time of peace by the Corps of Engineers. 
These are the basis for the procurement of materials which are 
shipped to the theater of operations, and hence the employment 
of type plans by the field forces is an assurance that the materials 
called for are of a type and in quantities which are likely to be 
available. 

4. Planning. — In planning construction where large expan- 
sion may be required later, projects should be so laid out that 
expansion is feasible. The actual construction should be carried 
out so that each usable unit is completed in succession in such a 
way that it can be used immediately. Construction carried 
out in this manner, will lend itself continually to the military 
requirements, and a change in the military situation which 
makes it necessary to stop the construction will not leave a large 
quantity unused and useless. Work carried on in this manner 
may not be as economical of labor and materials as when parts 
requiring similar construction methods are all built at the same 
time. It must not be inferred from the foregoing that the 
planning itself should be piecemeal. A construction project, 
such as a cantonment, storage depot, or base hospital, should be 
planned in its entirety and the site chosen for the construction 
should be suitable for the ultimate development of the entire 
project. In this way, the actual construction which may pro- 
ceed in a piecemeal manner will, nevertheless, fit into the large 
scheme. 

Section II 

REQUIREMENTS 

5. Shelter. — a. Barracks. — Considering the theater of opera- 
tions as a whole, a fair assumption is that barracks will have to 
be provided for 60 per cent of the total force plus 100 per cent 
of the prisoners. In any particular camp, barracks must be pro- 
vided for all of the troops and may have to be provided for 
civilian labor. Barrack space is provided on a basis of 50 men 
per building, 20 by 100 feet. Aai air space of 400 cubic feet per 
man is required as a minimum. Expressed in floor space, this 
sanitary requirement in a building of average height of 10 feet 
is from 40 to 60 square feet per man. Bunks should be provided 
for all men and where space is scarce may be of the double- 
decker type. 

b. Kitchens and mess halls. — In ordinary, cantonments, a sep- 
arate kitchen and mess room should be provided for each com- 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 3 

pany, troop, battery, or similar unit. A standard barrack 
building will serve as a kitchen and mess for one such unit. 
In replacement camps, embarkation and debarkation camps, and 
at other poirils where large numbers of transients are fed rapidly 
from one kitchen, other special types of mess rooms may be 
provided. Rough lumber tables and benches may be provided, 
but this is a refinement not always necessary. 

c. Latrines. — Water-borne sewerage, septic tanks, and other 
sewage-disposal devices should not be constructed, as materials 
or labor are seldom available for such purposes. Latrines should 



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Figure 1.— Typical layout for 250-bed station hospital 

be of the simplest type. About one seat to 20 men is desirable, 
but one seat to 40 men can be made to serve. 

d. Bathhouses. — Bathhouses should be provided in the ratio of 
one to each battalion area. This allowance is small and requires 
good administration and supervision in the use of the bath- 
houses. If conditions permit, one bathhouse per company, 
troop, or battery should be provided. 

e. Water.- — The question of water requirements is discussed 
in Chapter 2. Where water is piped to separate companies, one 



4 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

faucet per company can be made to serve and no construction 
for washing face and hands is necessary, although such facilities 
should be provided if practicable. 

/. Electricity. — The question of requirements in electricity is 
discussed in Chapter 3. 

6. Hospitals. — a. Percentage alloviances.-^- Hospitalization .re- 
quirements vary from 5 per cent to as high as 15 per cent or 
more of the total strength of the command. Under normal 
healthful conditions 10 per cent should be sufficient. A com- 
bination of prolonged fighting and unhealthful conditions may 
necessitate hospital provision for considerably more than 15 per 
cent. Station hospitals at training centers should provide 
facilities for the care of about 5 per cent of the troops in the 
area. 

6. Space allowances. — Space allowances in hospitals must 
necessarily greatly exceed those-fpr barracks. A minimum 
allowance of 60 square feet per patient should be provided at 
each bed. The additional space for administration, supply, 
operating rooms, etc., and for accommodation of the hospital 
personnel will require a minimum of 30 to 35 square feet addi- 
tional per patient. General hospitals are constructed in 1,000- 
bed units. The capacity of the 1,000-bed units can in emergency 
be increased to 1,200 beds. Station hospitals are constructed 
in 250-bed units. Figure 1 shows approximately the space 
devoted to each facility in a typical layout for a 250-bed station 
hospital. 

c. Water supply. — Water supply for general hospitals should 
be provided on a minimum basis of 25 gallons per patient per day. 
For station hospitals this figure may be reduced somewhat if 
necessary. 

d. Electricity. — Electric current should be provided for all 
station and general hospitals for lights, sterilizing apparatus, 
dentist tools, X rays, etc. A 250-bed station hospital requires 
about 5 kilowatts which can be: supplied from a single portable 

5 kilowatt direct-current generator. 

7. Shelter for animals. — Veterinary general hospitals should 
be provided on a basis of hospitalizing 8 per cent of the animals 
in the theater of operations. Veterinary station hospitals 
should be provided at the rate of one per camp, with accom- 
modations for approximately 1 per cent of the animals in the 
camp. A veterinary hospital is required in close proximity 
to each remount depot. At each veterinary hospital are 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 5 

required dressing rooms, operating rooms, dipping vats, sulphur- 
izing rooms, horseshoeing shops with forges, and storehouses for 
equipment and forage. Each large project requires an ample 
water supply and a standard-gage railroad siding or spur, with 
facilities for rapidly loading and unloading animals. In general, 
animals in good condition do not require shelter, but watering 
troughs, feeding racks with feed boxes and mangers, and picket- 
line standings may have to be provided. 

8. Ports. — a. Dockage.— Ordinarily, the problem of port 
facilities resolves itself into the expansion or adaptation of existing 
facilities. Requirements in berths for vessels are based upon the 
tonnage rate passing through the port. Experience shows that 
about 1.25 tons per day can be unloaded per linear foot of dock 
frontage. On this basis, assuming supply shipments to be at the 
rate of 40 pounds per man per day, 16,000 linear feet would be 
required for a force of 1,000,000 men. In addition, there should 
be provided several docks for the handling of ammunition, suffi- 
cient to receive two lighters at one time or a dock approximately 
150 feet long. In addition to dock facilities, there should be 
planned a liberal use of lighters and barges for handling cargoes 
and for discharging troops. 

6. Cargo-handling apparatus. — At first cargoes may have to be 
unloaded, using no other devices than ship's tackle. Later, if 
shipping tonnage is sufficiently plentiful to warrant transporting 
cargo-handling machines, these may be provided. 

c. Trackage. — It is necessary to have tracks along the entire 
length of the wharves. In the case of a wharf paralleling and 
near the shore line, with connections to the yards in the rear at 
each end, there should be at least three tracks with ample cross- 
overs in the space between the front of the wharf and the ware- 
houses. Depressed tracks should also be placed in the rear of 
the warehouses and should serve open storage space conveniently. 
Behind the wharf there should be receiving and departure yards, 
a coal-storage yard, and facilities for light repairs to cars, 
requiring for a dockage of 8,000 feet front a total of approxi- 
mately 70 miles of track. In case the topography and local con- 
ditions permit, the base storage depot should be located immedi- 
ately adjacent to the rear of the wharves, reducing the total 
trackage requirements for receiving and departure yards, as well 
as coal-storage yards and car-repair facilities. There are also 
the reduced labor of operations and the economy effected by the 
concentration of operations. Generally speaking, the entire 



6 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

wharf and storage space, both open and covered, should be acces- 
sible to motor trucks, in order that local necessities may be served 
by trucks as necessary. 

d. Facilities for debarking 10,000 troops -per day. — The general 
facilities for debarking and entraining 10,000 troops per day are a 
railroad-classification yard and receiving and forwarding yard for 
freight, a troop-entraining yard, holding tracks, engine and 
car repair facilities, and a quartermaster depot, the total trackage 
amounting to about 35 miles. A camp should be provided near 
by for about 20,000 men, capable of expansion by tents to a 40,000 
capacity, with the usual quartermaster warehouse, messing, 
bathing, and hospital facilities. In general, debarking facilities 
should be the same as for cargoes ; that is, the men should be either 
disembarked directly on the wharf or transferred from ships to 
shore by lighters or tenders. 

9. Camps and cantonments. — a. Structural requirements 
of various kinds for camps and cantonments for units of the 
several arms can be stated in general terms only, since the precise 
requirements will depend uppn the Tables of Organization 
current during the war. In the absence of definite information as 
to the types of units which will occupy a given camp or canton- 
ment, unit installatipns may be made on the basis of accommodat- 
ing 500. men per unit and 1,000 men per unit. Combinations of 
these units can be made to accommodate organizations of varying 
sizes. In general) every camp or cantonment requires barracks, 
messes, latrines, baths, administration building, medical build- 
ing, guardhouses, storehouses, post exchange, officers' mess, 
and officers' quarters. Shops should be provided for motorized 
units. Stables, watering troughs, and corrals should be provided 
for mounted units. In large cantonments one recreation building 
per regiment or independent battalion is conducive to good morale. 
(See fig. 2.) 



ENGINEEE FIELD MANUAL 



SZO- 



AT2EA 520 x 700 = S-3 ACI5&S 

ACCOMMODATION ROTS 

ANIMAi.5 NOT SHOWN. 



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Fiouke 2.— Typical layout of shelter cantonment for 1,000-man unit 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



Table I. — Approximate areas required for semipermanent camps 
for an infantry division 



Unit 



Depth 



Breadth 



Acres 



Division headquarters and special troops. __. ■ . 

Infantry brigade headquarters and headquarters company. 

Infantry regiment — 

Infantry brigade - -- 

Headquarters field artillery brigade and headquarters 

battery 

Field artillery regiment (75-mm. gun) 

Ammunition train - _ --_------_-.-. 

Field artillery brigade.- 

Engineer combat regiment 

Division air service (if attached), including landing field-. 

MedicAl regiment __—-_„_ . 

Division train 



Yards 
305 
435 
435 
435 

435 
435 
435 
435 
300 
600 
370 
400 



Total for a division.. 



Yards 

350 

25 

540 

1,135 

30 
500 
70 
1;170 
260 
600 
440 
330 



22 
• 2.3 

48.5 . 
102 

2.7 
45 
6.4 
105.2 
16.1 
75 

33.6 
■J7-3 



Table II. — Approximate areas required for semipermanent camps 
for a field artillery regiment {155-mm. howitzer), for a cavalry 
regiment and for a squadron, Corps of Engineers 



Unit 



Depth Breadth Acres 



Field artillery regiment (155-mm. howitzer) 

Cavalry regiment 

Squadron, Corps of Engineers , 



Yards 

435 

•. 435 

: 280 



Yards 
575 
370 
150 



51.7 
33.3 
8.6 



6. Rule of thumb for camp areas. — A rough rule for determining 
the area for semipermanent camps of any unit is as follows: 
50 square yards per man. 
60 square yards per animal. 
300 square yards per vehicle. 

10. Air Corpia construction. — a. General. — The Air Corps 
may require special construction at assembly plants, training 
centers, depots, and airdromes in addition to shelter for personnel. 

6. Assembly plants. — If airplanes are delivered to the theater 
of operations unassembled, an assembly plant is necessary. 
This comprises assembly hangars with motor-testing adjuncts, 
salvage hangar, shops, storage sheds, hangars, and a flying field. 
The assembly hangars must be large enough to accommodate 
the largest size of aircraft. Floors are desirable in these hangars, 
although not absolutely necessary. Salvage hangars are iden- 
tical in type with assembly hangars. The shop requires a 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 9 

bailding large enough to accommodate the machinery and pewter 
plant and should be located adjacent to the assembly hangar. 
On account of machinery. Jaeing used, concrete floors in shops are 
greatly desired. Storage sheds are standard warehouses con? 
taining racks to hold special parts. No floors are necessary. A 
flying field adjacent to the assembly plant is necessary on which 
to test aircraft before being turned over to using troops. Hangars 
are placed on the side of the flying field along the direction of 
the prevailing wind. Shelter for personnel and administrative 
offices are required as for other cantonments. 

c. Training centers. -^^.ir Corps training centers require shelter 
for personnel, flying fields^with hangars, shops for minor repairs, 
assembly rooms for class instruction, and administrative buildings. 
As the training centers are located well to the rear, the layout of the 
installation is that which best facilitates efficient and economical 
administration and operation. 

d. Depots. — Air Corps depots are usually located separate 
from general depots, because air supplies do not, in general, follow 
the same lines of travel as other supplies. An Air Corps depot 
requires storage sheds without floors, shop buildings for repairs, 
and a flying field. 

11. Airdromes. — a. General. — Airdromes in the theater of 
Operations are of two general classes, those in the rear areas and 
those in the forward areas. Airdromes in the rear areas do not 
differ materially in characteristics ftom the army air fields 
commonly constructed in the zone of the interior in time of 
peace. Airdromes in the forward areas are used for tactical 
operations of the Air Corps. These airdromes are temporary 
in character, and considerations of camouflage, secrecy, and dis- 
persion to minimize casualties from enemy activity profoundly 
affect their layout. 

6. Nature of the terrain. — In selecting a site for a landing field, 
the following points should be considered: 

(1) Field should be clear of brush and stumps. Grass and 
weeds should not be taller than 15 inches. 

(2) The ground surface should be reasonably smooth. A grass 
field is best. Ridges and furrows cause aircraft to bounce 1 
dangerously. Stubble is good. Wet plow is very dangerous. 
Dry plow, harrowed and rolled, will serve. 

(3) The grade of slopes should not be greater than 2J4 per e*tfi+.- 
Within this limit a gently rolling fielti is usable. 

66590°— 32 2 



10 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



(4) An ideal condition is that the soil 8hould be so firm and so 
well drained that aircraft can use the field without the need of 
especially constructed runways. This condition will often be 
found where the'gfound is of a gravelly or sandy nature. The 
constjfpcfwwi of runways other than clearing should be avoided 
b&tWiio economize labor and to minimize the chances of detection 
from the air. 

c. Size of advanced airdromes. — The size of a landing field is 
influenced by the performance characteristics of the aircraft 
using it. The principal controlling feature is the angle of descent 
as the aircraft approaches the field in making a landing. The 




Figure 3.— Typical airdrome bombardment aviation forward areas 

usual angle of descent is 1 to 7. This fixes the location of the 
runways witfi reference to trees or other obstacles in the vicinity 
of the airdrome. For safety, 100 feet should be added to the 
tallest obstacle in computing, the distance from this obstacle 
to the runway. The runway itself must be of sufficient length 
to care for the landing and take-off. Experience shows that 
runways of from 2,500 to 3,000 feet are adequate. The width 
of the runway should be great enough to permit five aircraft to 
take off abreast. This requires a minimum of 400 feet to com- 
mence operations. This width should be increased as soon as 
practicable. 

d. Direction of runways. — Where choice is possible, the run- 
ways should parallel the prevailing winds. Where the winds 
are variable, a number of runways may have to be provided 
lying in several directions. In determining the direction of the 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 11 

prevailing winds a wind-rose diagram should be constructed 
based upon data collected over a considerable period of time. 

e. Layout. — Figure 3 shows the layout of a typical forward 
airdrome of the L- shape. The longer leg of the L is in the 
direction of the prevailing wind. The shorter leg gives a take- 
off for storm winds. A third direction may be developed across 
the angle. Camouflage considerations and dispersion to mini- 
mize losses due to enemy bombings may direct that the buildings 
be scattered. 

/. Construction. — The construction required includes clearing 
and grading the landing field, construction or maintenance of 
roads and railways, construction of hangars and shelter for 
personnel, and utilities, including water supply. Some clearing 
and grading are usually necessary. Tall brush and trees should 
be cut down and the debris removed from the site. . Stones and 
boulders must be cleared from the surface and removed or 
buried. The grading and smoothing of the surface may be 
accomplished by using plows, harrows, and drags drawn by trac- 
tors. Drainage is very important and where necessary must be 
provided by subsurface drainage pipes. It is necessary that 
trenches carrying such pipes be filled in and leveled, in order not 
to provide an obstacle to the ground movements of airplanes. 

g. Shelter. — In rear areas shelter must be provided for per- 
sonnel on the same basis as for other cantonments. In the 
forward areas tentage suffices. In addition, messes and shelter 
should be provided for transient personnel using the airdrome, 
and shelter must be provided for shops and photographic 
laboratories. 

h. Ammunition dump. — An ammunition dump consisting 
principally of open storage must be provided within reasonable 
distance of the airdrome for the storage of bombs and other 
ordnance supplies. If practicable, an ammunition dump should 
be separated from the airdrome proper by natural defilade to 
minimize the possibility of damage resulting from^explosions. 

i. Hangars. — Hangars are made of steel, wood, or canvas. 
Canvas is the most expedient, but where long use is required, 
or where extremely wide spans are required, wood or steel is 
used. Spans under 70 feet can be made with wooden trusses. 
Greater spans than this make steel almost essential, and even 
for smaller spans steel may be more expedient. In forward 
areas hangars are required only to shelter mechanics while 
making repairs to aircraft, and to conceal lights used by them 



12 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

in making repairs at night. In general, hangars are not neces- 
sary for sheltering aircraft from weather. 

12. Motor transport construction. — There should be an 
assembly plant at each base port. The construction work re- 
quired includes sheds, roads, and storage parks. Sheds are neces- 
sary only for work and for storage of spare parts. All vehicles 
are stored outside. Heavy traffic around motor facilities re- 
quires much road work. Drainage is especially important. 
Storage ground for motor vehicles may be graded and drained, 
but surfacing with rock or gravel is rarely necessary. Gener- 
ally, grading for drainage will keep the ground firm enough to 
permit storage of motor vehicles, and only those portions of a 
park which are subjected to traffic have to be surfaced with rock. 

13. Ammunition depots. — Depots for ammunition other 
than for small-arms ammunition are constructed apart from 
general depots; and they are so laid out that each storehouse is 
located apart from other storehouses so as to localize the effect 
in case of accidental explosion. Standard warehouses and sheds 
are used for the storage of ammunition. Much ammunition may 
be kept in open storage. 

14. General storage depots. — a. Plans and development. — 
All supplies other than ammunition, airplanes, and motor 
vehicles are ordinarily stored in general storage depots whose 
location depends on conditions. The plan shown in Figure 4 
shows a typical layout for a general storage depot. The con- 
struction progresses according to immediate and urgent needs. 
The warehouse area is laid out in sections, each section having 
a ladder track on each side connected by house tracks about 
1,700 feet long, there being one of these to each three warehouses. 
These tracks are about 150 feet apart, which gives space enough 
for open storage on the opposite side of the track from the houses, 
as well as space for firebreaks. A section can be started with a 
ladder track on one side, a ladder on the other side to be added 
later. 

Variations will have to be made in the layout to take advan- 
tage of local topography, but the principle of operation should 
not be changed. No turntables should be built for military 
operations; use Y's, or loops. 

b. Construction. — In the beginning a space should be laid out 
for each supply service, and the construction should proceed so 
that each service can begin storing supplies and expand without 
mixing up its supplies with those of other services. Different 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



13 



types of storehouses should be 
distributed on separate tracks 
so that any one commodity 
can be stored on separate 
tracks and so that if desirable 
the same commodity may be- 
loaded on one track while it is 
being received on another. 
No existing road should be 
closed by warehouses or 
tracks, as existing roads are 
very valuable and scarcity 
of materials may make new 
road construction impracti- 
cable. Each supply service 
should be provided with one 
or more storehouses adjacent 
to roads from which ship- 
ments can be made by motor 
truck. 

c. Fire protection. — Ware- 
houses are spaced far enough 
apart so that fire can not 
spread from one to another, 
and groups of warehouses are 
separated by open storage 
spaces. No installation of 
water pipes and hydrants for 
fire protection is provided 
because the cost of such a 
system would exceed any 
probable loss from fire. Sid- 
ings and spurs far removed 
from other stores are laid for 
the storage of hay and dyna- 
mite, thus localizing fire risk. 

d. Warehouses. — A suitable 
type of storehouse is about 
50 feet wide and 400 or 500 
feet long, made with wood- 
en frame and corrugated iron 
roof and sides. (See fig. 5.) 
For many uses the sides may 




I ft 



14 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

be omitted and the structures used as sheds. Sides are neces- 
sary bnly on houses which carry perishable supplies, such 
as flour or sugar. No windows are needed if the siding is 
carried up to within 12 or 18 inches of the roof and a continuous 
opening left at the top which is protected by the eaves. Doors 
are not essential, canvas being hung over openings where it is 
necessary to close them. The frames of the buildings may be 
made of round posts and rough lumber. In general, floors are 
not necessary. For the preservation of supplies which are very 
sensitive to water, such as flour and sugar, dunnage consisting 
of wood poles with rough plank laid on them may be used. 
Floors at car level are not constructed since they do not warrant 
the labor, materials, and time necessary. 

e. Cold storage.— Cold-storage plants may be required to 
freeze or store meat between shipments. While such a structure 
on account of its technical nature must be most carefully con- 
structed, a designer having in mind the military requirements of 
simplicity, economy of materials, and time, and the absence 
of necessity for durability, can modify for the better a refrigerat- 
ing plant designed upon the basis of civil practice. 

f. Freight house and small shipments. -—The depot will fre- 
quently have to make a large number of less-than-carload ship- 
ments from the various departments. It is desirable to have a 
special shipping warehouse for this purpose. This warehouse 
should be located near a connection to the main line outgoing 
railroad. 

g. Post warehouse. — The post to serve the personnel which 
operates the depot needs a warehouse for local issue purposes. 
This warehouse should contain from 20,000 to 25,000 square 
feet and should be located on a road outside of the depot area, 
since it is important that post supply functions should not be 
mixed up with depot operation. This warehouse should be on 
a railway siding. 

h. Offices. — Each- supply service operating at the depot needs 
office space. The standard barrack building is suitable for this 
purpose. The offices should be located adjacent to the respective 
storage areas used by the several supply services. 

i. Camps. — Camps for operating personnel should be located 
on existing roads and should be distributed around the depot 
so that personnel belonging to each supply service is within 
walking distance of its work. 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



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16 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

j. Water supply. — In addition to water for personnel, there 
must be water for locomotives and possibly ice plants and 
bakeries. A large depot may use about 500,000 gallons per day. 

k. Electricity. — Experience has shown that in the intermediate 
and base depots very little night work is necessary, and so it is 
unnecessary to install electric lights in the warehouses. On 
the rare occasions when night work is necessary, portable 
illuminating sets may be used. 

I. Railway facilities. — A general storage depot requires so 
much railway operation in connection with the depot that engine 
terminal facilities in immediate proximity to the depot are 
essential. These do not differ from the engine terminal facili- 
ties discussed in Chapter 3, Part One. They are shown in Figure 4. 
In the storage area, the cars are pushed into the storage track 
from the ladder on one side and taken out at the other, thus 
always maintaining a flow in one direction. 

Section III 

RECONNAISSANCE 

15. Reconnaissance for general construction. — Recon- 
naissance for general construction consists principally in the 
selection of sites for camps or cantonments, hospital areas, storage 
depots and remount depots. In general, a site for any of these 
installations should have about the same characteristics. In 
the selection ■ of sites and in the comparison of the merits of 
various available sites, aerial photographs, both vertical and 
oblique, are of much assistance. A map should always be used, 
if available, in connection with personal reconnaissance of the 
site. 

16. Reconnaissance party. — A reconnaissance party making 
a preliminary examination of sites should include a general 
staff officer, an engineer officer, and a medical officer, and where 
the site is for the especial or principal use of one of the separate 
arms or services, the party should include a representative of 
that arm or service. They should be equipped with motor 
transportation, field glasses, maps, and notebooks. The engineer 
should carry a compass for general orientation and a pocket 
level for rough determination of grades. In a foreign country, 
the reconnaissance party should include an interpreter. 

17. Reconnaissance of the site. — a. General. — In general, 
sites chosen for construction should be on well drained, fairly 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 17 

smooth terrain There should be no heavy grades and the 
amount of excavation and grading necessary in connection with 
construction on the site should be a minimum. 

b. Cantonment sites. — In the selection of a cantonment site the 
following points should be kept in mind: 

(1) A cantonment site should — 

(o) Be of sufficient size to accommodate the command 
without crowding. 

(6) Have an adequate water supply for both men and animals 
to be encamped thereon. 

(c) Contain within itself, or be located within convenient 
distance of, an adequate training area. 

(d) Contain within itself, or be located within convenient 
distance of, suitable ground for target practice. 

(e) Be located upon or near a railroad of sufficient capacity 
to insure the convenient supply of the command and its prompt 
movement in case of need. 

(f) Be one that can be leased (if not already owned or leased 
by the Government) for one or two years with the option of 
renewal from year to year for about five years. 

(g) Be immune from floods and inundations. 

(2) The following very desirable features should be secured 
whenever practicable: 

(o) Soil of sandy loam with good drainage. 

(6) Site affording natural bathing facilities, such as streams, 
lakes, or seas. 

(c) Site adjacent to a city or large town containing facilities 
for healthful and attractive recreations. 

(3) The following desirable features are not so important as 
those enumerated above, but they should not be overlooked, as 
they tend toward efficiency, economy, and the welfare and 
contentment of the command: 

(o) Roads good or potentially good. 

(6) Infrequent interruptions of training by inclement weather. 

(c) Grazing for animals within convenient distance. 

(d) Absence of insect pests. 

(e) Good strategical location. 

(f) Location central with respect to training area. 

(g) Material for temporary shelter locally obtainable in suffi- 
cient quantities at reasonable prices. 

(h) Mechanical, skilled, and common labor locally obtainable 
at reasonable wages. 



18 BNGINEEE FIELD MANUAL 

Section IV 
STANDARD TYPES 

18. General. — This section presents type plans for use in the 
theater of operations for the construction of shelter and covered 
storage. The designs are based upon the utmost economy of 
construction materials, simplicity, and the absence of details 
requiring skilled personnel to construct. The standard 20 by 100 
foot one-story building, with minor adaptations, is used for as 
many purposes as possible. 

19. Standard barrack building. — Figure 6 shows a standard 
20 by 100 foot barrack building. This type of building can be 
used for a great variety of purposes, such as barracks, warehouses, 
mess halls, administration buildings, infirmaries, hospital wards, 
etc. It consists essentially of a very lightweight frame covered 
with a sheathing of wood or corrugated steel. This structure is 
designed to make the maximum use of standard sizes of lumber, 
sawed-off end pieces being utilized in making splices or ties 
between the side frames and the ends. Only such bracing is used 
as is considered absolutely essential, the stability of the structure 
depending partly upon the stiffness of the complete assembly of 
sides and ends. The simplest form of covering is corrugated 
steel. This should not be used in hospital areas, because it is too 
hot in summer and too cold in winter. The doors are of the com- 
mon batten type shown in Figure 10, simple hardware being 
used. An improvised latch is shown, but any available latch 
may be used. The same type of door is intended for use on all 
outside openings of buildings of this type. The doors may be 
either single or double leaf, and may be covered with either 
corrugated steel or wood. Screen doors as shown in Figure 9 are 
for use only on hospital wards, kitchens, and mess halls. The 
window frame is designed for assembly in the field. It is not in- 
tended that glass should be used in the frame, but it should be 
covered with a translucent material or screened. If mill-made 
sashes of the proper size are easily available, they may be used 
instead of the sash shown. Certain uses of this type of building 
require the installation of ventilators, which may be either of the 
ridge type or the tubular-metal type. 



ENGINEEB FIELD MANUAL 



19 




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ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 21 

20. Floors. — Figure 11 shows two types of floors which may 
be used in situations where floors are absolutely essential. For 
the type-X floor it is merely necessary to bring the ground to 
some grade. Where necessary to install floors, it is considered 
desirable to construct them before the main frames of the build- 
ings are erected and use the floors as a level work space for assem- 
bly of the building frames in a horizontal position. On an uneven 
terrain the type-Y floor is used. Buildings should be located, if 
practicable, so as to avoid excessive use of this type of floor. 

2 1 . Bunks. — Figure 12 shows two types of bunks for one or two 
men. The double-tier bunk is for use where shelter is limited. 

22. Latrines. — Figure 13 shows a latrine shelter with roof and 
sides, and urinal trough and box latrine over a pit. The details 
of the latrine box are shown in Figure 14. Where materials are 
scarce, or the latrine is for temporary use, the shelter may be 
dispensed with and a screen only provided consisting of burlap 
supported by a frame of 2 by 4 inch studding. For hospitals and 
for officers' or nurses' quarters, a pail latrine may be used, as 
shown in Figure 15. 

23. Mess halls. — The standard 20 by 100 foot barrack build- 
ing is adaptable for use as a mess hall. A space 20 by 12 feet 
suffices for the kitchen, which may be at one end of the building, 
(See fig. 16.) 

24. Mess-hall accessories. — Figure 17 shows a mess table 
combined with seats, a serving table, and a grease trap. 

25. Bathhouse. — Figure 18 shows a bathhouse in a building 
20 by 20 feet constructed similarly to the standard 20 by 100 foot 
barrack building with a floor. Details of the shower outfit are 
shown in Figure 19. 

26. Lavatory. — Figure 20 shows a lavatory with benches and 
faucets. The building is 12 by 20 feet, constructed in a manner 
similar to the standard barrack building. 

27. Hospital ward.- — Figure 21 shows two types of standard 
hospital wards. These buildings are adaptations of the standard 
20 by 100 foot barrack building. They are floored throughout, 
lined with wall board, ventilated with either galvanized steel or 
ridge ventilators, heated with stoves, and screened. Each con- 
tains a scullery and dietary kitchen, a linen closet, and a wash 
room with pail latrine. The 92-foot building is suitable for 
station hospitals. It has a capacity of 25 patients, with a floor 
space of 60 square feet per patient and an air space of 600 cubic 
feet per patient. In an emergency, by slight crowding, about 10 



22 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

additional patients could be provided for in this type ward. The 
184-foot building is suitable for general hospitals. In addition 
to the facilities provided in the smaller-type ward, it has a small 
room for a special-case ward, an office for the ward surgeon, and 
a bedpan room. It has a normal capacity of 50 patients, giving 
each patient 60 square feet of floor space and about 600 cubic feet 
of air space. In an emergency, by slight crowding, about 16 
additional patients could be provided for in this type of ward. 
28. Storage shed and horse shelter. — Figure 22 shows an 
open-sided storage shed suitable for use where commodities are 
placed under the roof by hand. Where vehicles are to be driven 
under the roof it would be necessary to increase the height of the 
roof by making the posts of proper height. This same type of 
building is suitable for a garage or automotive repair shelter. 
When combined with mangers and feed racks, this structure 
makes a satisfactory horse shelter. It may be sheathed on the 
sides if conditions make this necessary. Figure 23 shows an 
arrangement of this type of building with a center grain-storage 
room, feed racks, mangers, and covered picket line. 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



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ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



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ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



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2.104- 


AS 3 


Tfi'fi" 


16' 


3£6> 


Flooring. 


72 


2"* 4" 


16' 


766 


133 


2''4" 


!G" 


1419 


Sleepers 


42lbj 


,8d 


2i*" 




77 Its 


Bit 


?w~ 




nails 


4 lbs 


20 a 


4" 




7 lbs 


Sod 


4." 




Nails 






















O 

3 

L. 

>- 
U 

Q. 

f 


263 


?*»• 


16' 


2.104 


483 


V"^ 


16' 


3.864 


Flooring 


107 


2'1.6'' 


to' 


1,070 


l9o 


2". ft- 


10" 


Mhh 


Joists 


21 


2*4" 


10' 


140 


38 


2-4" 


to' 


2S3 


Bridging 


27 


2-4" 


12" 


ZI6 


48 


2i4" 


12' 




SPLICtS 


' 3 


&S' 


10' 


30 


6 


2"-6" 


10' 


60 


bPLlCES 


^? 


Hi6" 


10' 


730 


136 


2".«- 


10' 




GIRDERS 


35 


fH*ooe> 


£&$ 




6Z 


«%«£? 


tyi*" 




POSTS 


21 


z'-s" 


12' 


25Z 


38 


2"-6~ 




456 


Foot 1 mo 


6 


2"- ft'' 


1' 


6 


6 


2-6" 


l' 


6 


corner Blocks 


39 lb! 


S d 


Z&" 




fcjibj 


e a 


?'A- 




NAILS. 


SSIbS 


20 J 


4" 




172 lbs 


ZOi 


4" 




Nails 



I s 



JOIST-* 



100 FT. 


La 

OUILOlMOS. 


IOK 


164. rr 


BuiLD'NGS 


TvptX 


90 MANHOVfta. 




sie « 


ah HOUR*. 


Tv«Y 


270 -. 


579 .. 



E*6-i2 Corner Bloc 



^3 



EoToorHCftftiaa- 

Plan or coRNCft 



^STUO 2-4 



- e o- - 



■ - c- - Stud 2' 

8 "6 Floorinb floor Joints zV"to-oez4"cTi*s. s.llzU" 



; «* f— 9-10"- 

^-S-Z««»I8" FbOTtNC 



;?s 




TvpcY Floor 



Figure 11.— Floors 



34 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 




FRONT ELEVATION 




Bill of Material 




Item 


Pes 


Sizt 


Unsth 


Cut trom 


fT.an 


Posts 


4 


2*4 


6o" 


2-IZ'lCNOTHJ 


16 


Sides 


4 


W 


6.6" 


z-ia" 


14. 


ETnos 


4- 


S-6 


Z-8" 


l-l£ 


6 


Slats 


a 


*'* 


7-o" 


4- 14' 


2fl 


Battens 


4 


S* 


2-6' 


l-IO' 


S 


"Braces 


2 


S^" 


7--»" 


1-16 


4 




2 


Si»" 


3-0 


1-8 


2 




2 


*" 3 " 


6* 


1-16' 


4 




2 


\,i 


2-8" 


i-e' 


2 


Blocks 


a 


>l4 


6" 


fhom Waste. 




Nails 


ilb 


6d 


2" 


FDR SLATS. 




» 


iib 


Ed. 


24' 


- FRAME. 





LABOR". A MAN HOURS. 



PERSPECTIVE 
FRONT VIEW 



Figure 12. — Bunk for one or two men 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



35 



HJ.IMQ3N11MDS 3ti Oi Sl^NVbXNg 




I—.*" -I 



36 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 




ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



37 




Boards % *6- 

Li o NOT SHOWW 

•Base Stripes* a a 
Hincc Board^s" 
Sill z* a" 

Stop"B 'not shown . 



DOOR 16 * 
*b"*6'BOM<DS\ 



57^T ,OP 8 



<l ^"£*3™ BAT TENS 
j&'tA '20 LiO 



Rear Elevation 

Figube 15,— PaU latrine 




5 ^gau*;,Pan 



1#^§ 



Section on A A 




-& 



'■+=+= 



Room S>;i6 



4-3-^2 S.@ 2-+- 3-4-6 S.@ 2= ie-o"— »{*- 3-+I8+-6 S.@ Z= !2-o" — ^-3'-+6SPC5.@ 2'= l2^o"-4-3->|<^~ 6-5 




^ 



a 




Doors 2-8x6-8 
5 P. Mill Made 






:a >< 4- 



ZE 



nc 



Mess Table 



re 



nn 



D 





@ Mess and Assembly Room 

20' x 24' 
^-■y (for 16 Officers) 



.. (S) Stove. 

Note-. ^ 

5X3x7 Door if mill maoc. 
(l) s ||"x3'-2"x7-2"" For Battened DOOR. 



Sheet Steel P| 
on Boa rcl Floor 
or 4"Concrete 
Slabon Earth 
Floor, 



3 



Kitchen 
iz'x 2o 





Note- Provide 
Smoke Flue 
thru roof. 



Note 

No Ceilings. 



end of closet.,, 
Boards £'x6"or8w. 



tr — : 

^-Sli di nc 



lis Sashes 39"x39"- 
16 A 16 



® 



24- 



3 Shelves hiqh-each 
Ist.Shelf 3' from floor. 

: 12' 



W. Sill-, 



Girt 2x4 I 1 

ai 



© 



Ka 



$ 



Sashes 



£ 




Kvfl,!^ l,i i i i l f i i l i 

-Wall Bd. notched ScALE 

© 




© M (around SilLGi't 
W ,1 and Plate. 



Wall BdJ t^-joint. 

Details or Partition Work 



i Material for partition work Oniv 

Material for St'd. iooft. Bldg 


N^Pcs. 


Size 


LENGTH 


Ft.BK] Items 


02 


2"x 4" 


16' 


I.08S 98tl Studs, Girts,5ills,Ptotes, Tics and Stakes. 


* 5 


Z"*6" 


IE' 


144 |2fl 


Foundation Blocks. i2"ond 18" Lengths. 


59 


48" w. 


IO' 




wall Board Sheets, Fibre ^16'thick. 


l 7 


z d. 


1" 




Nails, Large Headed for Wall Boord. 8" Spacing. 


|lo 


IMxl-8 


S'-8" 




Doors, 5 Pa net, v/. Pine- Mi II Made. 


IO 


JKt" 


4" 




Locks .Rim '.with Pottery knobs. Strikes, etc. 


1 20 


4"x 4" 


4" 




Hina.es for Doors, Steel Fast Joint with Screws. 


IS 


7P7S" 


16' 


ZO is 


Door Stop Strips. 


' 3 


4 d. 


'!&"■ 




Nails for Door Stop Strips. 


i l6 


10 a. 


3* 




Nails for Partition Framing. 


3 


a^v8" 


12' 


it- 24 


Shelves , Kitchen Closet. 


3 


**8" 


9' 


16 Ifi 


Dram Board fors'tnk. 


. ' 


18" 


30" 




Sink. Cast Iron, with strainer ana Trap. 


! i 


'/?•" 


12' 




C.w. Supply Pipe, W.I. Galv. 


i 


it? 






Bi bo, Plain tor c.w. supply, conrp. 


i 


. iV£" 


IE' 




Drain Pipe -Black W.I. 


3 


28 "W 


84' 




Sheet Steal, Galv. •for'behind Range. 


E 


Z8"w. 


64" 




Sheet Steel Hearth. - 


L^lZl 


4"*4-6 


7' 


UCWFt. 


concrete Hearth siapr 



Figure 16. — Standard barrack adapted for quarters and mess [ 



66590°— 32. (Follows p. 37) 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

■ e'-o 



39 




M?H 



LE 



SEFIV/NG TABLE 




GHEASE TRAP 




MESS TABLE 

Figure 17. — Mess hall accessories 



C2x4x&' Purlins. 




BRACES. 



L 



CO 



^-BoardWalk^ j ,.»itt 



o/.S 



Sh<5we3" Room 

CORRUJa. SteIeL. FLOOR 










-5' 1 

Dressing Room 

Board Floor . 



ij Footing Blocks, 



ia-» 



Seat 



_UE 



-co SEAT 



-7-6 



■ 7-6'L 



BILL OF MATERIAL 


No. Pes. 


SlZL. 


Lenoth 


Ft. B.M. 


| Items. 


75 


2'*4" 


IS 1 


8oo 


si lls.GirtJs, Studs, Plates.Headers, 










SHOWER AS 


>emb. Beams, HAN6tRs,PufiLiNs 










Splice Blo^ks^Corner Posts^Sleepers 










JolSTSjSF 


KT SUPPORTS&FlllER3UHPE;tC0RR.ST. 

ers, Partition "diagonals, 


18 


SV^' 


IE' 


14.4- 


Roof Raf' 










Small Tank brAces,Blocks for Doors. 


4 


2"x6' 


8' 


32. 


Footin6 Blocks. 


36 


m*e 


10' 


240 


Floor Boa 


rds. 


24 


7/&x6' 


S' 


•96 


Doors &5EA1S. 


14 


?g'x4" 


12' 


56 


Floor Sill 


IN SHOWER ROOM, TIE BEAMS 










FOR RC OF RAFTERS &KNEE BRACES. 


6 


7 /e,*s" 


!&• 


18 


WINDOW SASH; COVER STRIP AND BOLT 










FOR DOORS. 


2 


7g'*2" 


10" 


3'/ 3 


Protectiom Strip for covering 










SHARP) 


ENDS OF CORR. STEEL Fl'R 










SHEETS IN SHOWER ROOM. 


2 


y&w 


4- 


2X3 


WINDOW Fl 


llER Strips, 














15 


^i!cl" 


8' 


IO 


Window Guide Strips. 


4 


fc"x6" 


TbSurrC. 




Posts. Si 


e Note . 8"0 may be. used. 


II 


26" w. 


12.' ■ 


296 0' 


CORR.SHEUTS FOR FL0OR a SHOWER R.M. 


56 


i» 


6' 


968°' 


*t i 


FOR SlDES.ENDS.ftPARTlTlON. 


22 


n 


6' 


381°' 


■I i 


•■ Roor . 


22 


» 


6' 


266°' 


it i 


it ii m 


2 


2e"w 


7" 


33 d ' 


Galv. ste 


:l Sheets-un derheater?26 


_J*. 


20d. 


4-" 




NAILS. TRAMINS. 


10 


6d. 


2}>fe" 




NAILS, FO!R%"MATERIAL. 


4- 


#10 


Mi" 




Nails.Barbed Roofing. 


1 


Ad. 


i!4" 




Mails, for strips. 


4 




10" 




T-HINGES Y<ITH iVfel'SCREWS FOR DOOR.. 


1 LIJ. 


3/16" 


■*6" 




RIVETS Fori CORR. STEEL SHEETS. 


1 


?s*3" 


16' 


4BM. 


Window sills. 


4- 




3" 




SCREW HobKS & EYES FOR DOORS. 










« THE ABOVE CORR. SHEETS #26 GfT. — 


25 


/$X4 


IE' 


too 


Boards for board walk. 



Figure 18.— Bathhouse 



66590°— 32. (Follows p. 39.) 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



41 



Cl"CLBC 



»i"»i4"'J-"-ft?i 



5teCI.Tan« 6'k3'«I.5 

SCAMS RlVETfp OR WtLOtD 

CYLINDRICAL Tan* m*.¥BC s 




Ideal. Boiler No.os or Equal. 



Figure 19.— Shower outfit 



66590°— 32 4 



££ 



SLOPE 



^ 






x\ ABL - bznch7 1 ^ 



! t U t 



SCRUBBING 



Bench 



CO 
I 

«9 



■T 



,V 



^ •« aslope J4" in! ig "Ablution bench? 



•7-6 ,J - 



-5'- 
■20' 




Scrubbing Bench 



End sheet 
flanged and 
soldered 



PLAN 




^mVbraces 

(5 8 CTRS. 

P 



Post 2-2*4 



39*39Sl 



5 ash. 



Girt aW 



■^fSlLL 2X4-" 



-10 



scale JlNDVIEW 



(O 



-<T 



lio 5 io' " 15' ifflrr. 

LluJ l i l i I t_J I I i i I l t l I i I i - T - 



Sink Pan 
z^'long 



^ (C^BRASsBlBB 
*X WITH WHEEL 




iSTEELj ^W'FiLiJeIr. 



WITH WHEEL 
OR T HAN 
DLES,. 

' If ' 




VlEW 



ABLUTION BE^CH 



MATERIAL FOR LAVA TO RV 


No.Pcs. 


Size 


LENGTH FT. &M. 


Items. 


27 


■zua" 


16' 


288 


SI LL& , S IRTS, PI_ATES,STUDS.PUR1-INS, 






SUB- 5 ILLS, 


PuR.BRACES.SPHCES.&FLR. JOISTS. 


16 


2"x4" 


12' 


126 


RA.FTERS, BENCH LEGS.PIPESUP.&FL.JOI.SPLS. 


35 


-Jfi'StS" 


ia 


28o 


FLOOR BDS. ABLUTION BENCH T0P&5dSH CORNERS 


A 


?-fe'y6" 


14-' 


28. 


DOOR, BOARD. 


ao 


T^g" 


8' 


8o 


ABL. aSCRUB. BENCHES &BDS.OWR WINDOW 


13 


7o'x4" 


8' 


35 


ABL. & SCRUB. BEN. &ABL.BEN. BRACKETS 


5 


?g'x4' 


IE' 


2o 


RAFTER Tl ES & KNEE. BRACES. 


A 


7&X3' 


IE' 


\Z 


SILLS & SASHES. WINDOW. 


1 


Sfcxl2i 


IO' 


1^ 


WINDOW FILLERS. 


8 


Tfex 1" 


14' 


IO 


STRIPS FOR DOORS? WINDOWS. 


a 




IO" 




T HINQES WITH SCREWS -STEEL. 


a 




3" 




SCREW HOOKS &EYES. 


IE 


26"W. 


8' 


BLACK CORR. STEEL SHEETS*^ 6A. FOR ROOF. 


IE 


i » 


£' 


>» 


•■".If »» H » t »» "i 


27 


» 


8' 


»» 


" '• SiaES&ENR 


1 


24"W- 


8' 




STEEL SHEETS, GALV.*26 GAUGE. 


3 


36"w. 


8' 




>i >t , >» »» )> 


-W'tto. 


3 /l6" 


VS" 




RIVETS FOR CORR.. STEEL SHEETS. 


2 lbs 


*|0 


Ite" 




NAILS, BARBED. FORROQFING. 


12 lbs 


2od.. 


4" 




» FOR FRAMING WORK. 


10 lbs 


a a.. 


.zva* 




» FOR ?&" STUFF. 


lib. 


A a.. 


i/i- 




» FOR WIN DO W STRIPS &DOORS. 


A 


fc» 


I2'toI6' 




W. I. PIPE.6ALV. FOR SUPPLY. 


z 


i" 


n - >> 




)' M , U »l W 


1 


IS*!' 


ji -» 




15 '1 , » > . " '» 




2" 


40 LIN. FT. 


» .BLACK •< WASTE. 


A 


94" 






ELBOWS. FOR SUPPLY. GALV 




z 


'vtf 






l» . M M . | 






1 


i!# 






» » * . »> J 1 i ) 






1 


2" 


45" 




" . >> WASTE. i 






A 


.!#& 






CROSSES. . 






|A 


£*>* 






TEE3. 






2 


l"x 1" 






>' . i 






4- 


a" 






»' . i 






1 


H" 






CAP. , 






2 EACH 


2"*%' 






PLUGS. 






1 EACH 


i"&%: 






UNIONS. 






1 


IJStOI" 






REDUCER. i 




IE 


1" 






PIPE STRAPS. TINNED. 


1 


l!/2" 






STOP &WASTE COCK-LEVER HANDLE. 


36 


•/a" 






COMPRESSION BIBBS, ROUGH BRASS 


4- 


a" 


6" 




THIMBLE .COMPLETE WITH WIRE STRAINER 


1 LB. 








ROOFING CEMENTFOR THIMBLES. 



Figtjee 20.— Lavatory with benches 



'—32. (Follows p. 41.) No; 1 



o 

< 
-J 

z 
u 

> 

LI 

a 



o 

z 
u 
O 

> 



2 Union IGalv. Pipe 

v /t Note- All partitions full height. Flooring thruout building. _<SjJDiNtt sash 3-3x3-3 



WB. denotes WallBoard, 




Station Hospital 
92 FT HospitalWard-( Above) 

Normal Capacity 25 Patients 



GENERAL HOSPITAL 

184 FT HospitalWard-GBelow-) 

Normal Capacity 50 Patients 



"v" denotes 8'Vgalv steel ventilators, WB denotes WallBoard. 



1^ 



"o 9 
"6 ""> 

CV3 



7 3JSHELVES; l 5T 3 ABOVE FLOOR. OPENING 24x24'! ' '■ 



— 8- 



T 



Linen Room 



■12-0- 



J< 8-i- — >| ^- gWStLL. 2x4fSTU D 5v~- C"3^£x3-3 SLIDING bAS^ H, 



:-2" 



StovE^P i5«i50mhing5 
Special CaseWard 1T0 f f i c e! 



*- 4-' - +2- 8 -)| | , Bxa 2-6«6'eT 





Hi Spaces® 6 = 66-0- 



PROVIDE 5 STOVES FOR MAIN WARD 



- 25 Spaces® 6'=i50-d 
1 ■ ■■ ■ l 8 ' °" 



-4.-9-H 



Studdins Spacing- 



>k€ SPASMS >f — 6 VI S * 



WARDI56-2.XI9-4 

L_£o"J SEE PLATE 3 

Eia**. / 0R DETA ' LS 

I /OF DOORS. 




-^73-4 



-*k-6sfss;8'=48— >« 3 spaces @ 8 = a4-o - 

— 1 » 8 2 '- 6" 



I84-0 



("'i'DRAIN. ^SUPPLY. H'BlEsBS. FLOORS THRUOUT BUILDING. ROOF VENTS TO BE PROVIDED BY EITHER^GALV VENTILATORS OR OPEN RID6E WITH LOUVRES 



Figure 21.— Hospital wards 



66590°— 32. (Foilows p. 41.) No. 2 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



43 





Figure 22.— Open-sided storage sheded 



44 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



p — p 



T~T 



1 






M 




ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



45 




Figure 24.— Water trough 

Section V 

CONSTRUCTION METHODS 

29. Overhead organization. — The construction of a large 
project such as a cantonment or supply depot requires an ade- 
quate overhead organization. The subdivisions which should be 
considered in the organization are — 

a. Administration. — Handling personnel, correspondence, con- 
tracts, project plans and reports, and coordination. 

6. Buildings. — Requirements, design, layout and technical 
supervision of construction. 

c. Surveys. — Preparation of maps, giving lines and grades to 
construction troops. 

d. Roads and railroads. — Layout and technical supervision. 

e. Water supply. — Requirements, design and technical super- 
vision. 

/. Drafting and reproduction.— -Preparation of working draw- 
ings and blue prints. 

g. Supply. — Preparation of requisitions, purchases, and follow- 
up of supply and finance. 

h. Personnel. — Troop and civilian labor. 

30. Steps in the development of the project. — The first 
step in the development of the project is the preliminary recon- 
naissance and selection of the site; next comes the procurement 



46 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

or making of a detailed topographic survey of the site and the 
preparation of a map; then the detailed layout of the project. 
Type plans are a guide only, and in each case the layout must be 
adapted to local conditions. The general layout of buildings and 
grounds having been decided upon, the outside utilities are laid 
out, including roads, water supply, and electric lighting if used. 
The construction follows the general principles laid down in 
Section I, with particular reference to making those portions of 
the project immediately needed available at the earliest moment. 

31. Supply. — Occasions when local material will be adequate 
for the construction of a large project are extremely rare. Sup- 
plies must, in general, be procured and transported to the site of 
the construction. In this connection, consideration should be 
given to the construction of emergency roads. (See Chs. 1 and 3, 
Part One.) It may be advisable to erect a sawmill to utilize 
existing standing timber. At least one woodworking shop should 
be erected with machinery for the cutting of dimension lumber 
and special pieces in quantities. 

32. Layouts of camps and cantonments. — Take advan- 
tage of all local facilities to avoid unnecessary construction. 
If tents are likely to be changed to barracks, space allowance 
should be sufficient to permit of the change. Any existing roads 
should be taken advantage of in order to avoid road construc- 
tion. Kitchens, warehouses, and stables should be accessible 
by roads. Stables and incinerators should be located with 
respect to prevailing winds when possible to minimize annoyance 
from wind-borne odors. A compact layout is preferable to a 
straggling one: and facilitates administration. 

33. Erection of buildings. — a. By adopting a form of organ- 
ization wherein successive crews especially trained in one type 
of work follow each other over the job, one laying sills, one grad- 
ing, one framing timber, etc., a high degree of skill is acquired 
with the result that the construction proceeds rapidly. The 
actual organization for different kinds of building construction 
will vary, but the general principles are illustrated by the follow- 
ing procedure in the erection of a standard 20 by 100 foot bar- 
rack (see fig. 6). The location of the building is given by the 
surveyor who establishes corner stakes. The cut lumber, nails, 
roofing and other materials are delivered to the site. The side 
frames of the building, including the sheathing, are completely 
assembled on the ground within the building rectangle by 
spiking the sills and plates to the studs, and applying the side 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 47 

covering. When completely assembled, the entire side of the 
building is raised outward to a vertical position and temporarily 
held in place by braces. The end frames are assembled on the 
ground outside the building rectangle and are raised into position 
and spiked to the sides of the building previously erected. The 
sheathing is applied to the ends after they have been erected. 
The rafters are assembled on the ground with the rafter ties 
spiked in place. The rafters then are passed up to men working 
on the plate, who secure them in their proper places and apply 
the knee braces. As the erection of the rafters progresses, 
temporary tie pieces are used to hold them in their places until 
the roof covering has been applied. Where roofs are of wood 
and roofing paper, the roof boards should be completely applied 
before attempting to apply the roofing paper. If wooden floors 
are used, the floor should be constructed first. The sides can 
then be assembled on the floor and erected as described above. 
Doors and window sash can be made up in quantity at the 
mill and delivered to the building site for hanging. A suitable 
disposition of personnel for the foregoing operations is: — 

(1) Piers and sills.— One squad (if floors are used). 

(2) Assembly of side frames. — Two squads. 

(3) Erection of side frames. — All available men. 

(4) Assembly of end frames. — Four men at each end. 

(5) Placing rafters and knee braces. — One squad. 

(6) Applying sheathing. — Two squads. 

(7) Applying roof boards. — Two squads. 

(8) Applying composition roofing paper. — Two squads. 

(9) Hanging doors and windows. — One squad. 

6. The millwork required for the erection of buildings of this 
type in quantity is shown below: 

(1) Beveling rafters. — One operator and four helpers. 

(2) Assembling rafter units. — Two men. 

(3) Cutting and assembling sash. — One man. 

(4) Cutting and assembling doors. — One man. 

(5) Cutting sheathing boards. — One man and four helpers. 

(6) Cutting studs and girts. — One man and four helpers. 



CHAPTER 2 

WATER SUPPLY 

Paragraph 

Section I. General principles _ 34-37 

II. Requirements - -- 38 

III. Reconnaissance - - -- - --- 39-42 

IV. Development of sources 43-48 

V. Purification.-.. — -- 49-56 

VI. Distribution - - - - 57-58 

VII. Water supply machinery _._ 59-61 

VIII. Formulas and tables 02-67 



Section I 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES 

34. Character of water supply work. — The amount and 
character of the water-supply work that can be carried on in the 
field vary according to the conditions of the campaign, the 
mobility of the forces, and the hydrology and transportation 
facilities of the area occupied. Water must be provided in any 
area either from surface flow, from subterranean sources, by 
transportation from a distance, by pipe line, or from existing 
developments. 

35. Sources of water supply. — a. Surface waters. — (1) Sur- 
face waters constitute the most available source of water supply. 
In the theater of operations, surface waters usually require 
purification, but many cases exist in the United States where 
drainage areas have been protected from pollution and impound- 
ing reservoirs supply large cities without purification. 

(2) The waters of lakes and ponds are generally good unless 
polluted from habitations on their shores or tributaries. In 
these waters, sunlight, aeration and the settling of sediment have 
a considerable influence on the destruction of bacteria. In small 
ponds there is less dilution of the impurities washed into them. 
Decaying leaves may accumulate and with the growth of water 
organisms give the water a dark color and noticeable taste. 
Such color does not make the water dangerous nor does the 
green slime which may collect on the surface, but both are objec- 
tionable and may mask dangerous conditions. Bubbles of gas 
48 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 49 

which rise to the surface when the bottom is disturbed are due to 
accumulations of decayed vegetable matter and silt. Some 
small ponds, however, fed from unpolluted springs, are excellent 
sources of supply. Ponds used by animals should not be used 
for camp supplies. 

(3) Streams in thinly settled regions are usually free from 
contamination although a tanbark plant or sawmill may lessen 
their desirability. Acid drainage from mines, particularly coal 
mines, is always objectionable, but the most common source of 
pollution is the entrance of sewage and industrial refuse from 
cities and towns. Although streams become purified naturally 
to some extent, the use of such water is a common source of 
typhoid and other intestinal diseases. 

6. Springs. — (1) Springs, under favorable conditions, are an 
ideal source of supply. When coming from considerable depths 
in the rock or through sand and gravel they are usually free 
from pollution except where buildings are situated on the hill- 
sides above them or surface waters are allowed to enter. The 
minerals contained are usually harmless. 

(2) A gravity spring is one which flows from loose materials 
or open passages under the action of gravity, usually where 
an outcrop of impervious material forces the ground water flow to 
the surface. They are often formed by a ledge underlying 
saturated soil or by beds of sedimentary rocks of different poros- 
ity. They often flow from passages in glacial deposits or from 
solution channels in soluble rock. In limestone the passages 
may be miles in length. If the water is clear, it is usually of good 
quality, but if found to be muddy after storms, it is liable to 
pollution from surface drainage. 

(3) An artesian spring is one where the waters are confined 
between impervious layers under hydrostatic pressure. Such 
springs often flow through faults or fissures and carry considerable 
amounts of water. 

(4) In a seepage spring, the water seeps from sand or gravel 
deposits. It may emerge above an underlying impervious bed, 
but usually occurs where valleys cut into water-bearing deposits. 
They are likely to be found in small swales cut back into a slope, 
the flow of water being the primary cause of the swale and the 
swale secondarily tending to concentrate the flow. Areas of dif- 
fused seepage may develop into springs by such a process. They 
are usually marked by vegetation at their outlets and are often 
colored from vegetable matter or the presence of iron. Coming 
from no great depth, they are not often very cold. 



50 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

c. Wells. — (1) Dug wells, usually 3 to 6 feet in diameter, 
require little labor for the shallow wells, but as commonly sunk 
are the most dangerous sources of water. They should be pro- 
tected from surface flows by water-tight curbing with earth 
banked around it sloping away from the well. They should be 
protected from pollution by animals, and watering troughs 
should be a sufficient distance away. Drippings from pumps and 
containers should be kept out by the use of a water-tight cover. 
There should be no opportunity for the entrance of small animals. 

(2) Driven wells consist of 1% to 4 inch iron pipes, with open 
end or point, and a strainer, forced into the ground. The joints 
are water-tight preventing pollution from waters near the sur- 
face.. Their use is limited to soft materials. Hard strata or 
bowlders prevent their use. 

(3) Drilled wells 1J4 to 12 inches or more in diameter are used 
in harder materials or where the depth is too great for driving. 
Sections through soft materials or where undesirable water might 
enter require an iron casing. Drilled wells may reach a depth of 



Ground Surface 




Figure 25. — Typical flood plain well 

2,000 feet or more, but in granitic rocks if a supply is not found 
within 300 feet it is better to try a new locality. The deeper 
waters contain large amounts of mineral matter which makes 
them unfit for use in boilers and they usualty yield less water 
than wells nearer the surface. 

(4) Bored wells are sunk with augers from 2 inches to 3 feet 
in diameter, rotated and lifted by hand or horsepower. 

36. Location and movement of ground waters. — a. The 
ground water has a definite upper surface called the water table 
(see figs. 25 and 26) which conforms in general with the broader 
surface irregularities of the ground; but the water table is flatter, 
often being far below the surface on hills and cutting the surface 
in the valleys. .. The movement of ground water is in the direc- 
tion of the slope of the water table and approximates that of the 
surface drainage. Low points are the most favorable for open 
wells, but as polluted water follows the same flow, they are points 
of danger when sources of contamination exist on the slopes. 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



51 



b. The occurrence of deep waters depends on the structure 
and character of rocks far below the surface and the well may 
usually be located without reference to surface relief, except that 
where artesian flows are expected it should be located on low 
ground. Information as to the best location may be obtained 
from a record of wells in adjacent areas or from a study of the 
rocks and their structure, which will require a trained geologist. 




Figure 26.— Typical water table 

c. It is a widespread belief that water increases with depth 
and may be had anywhere by going deep enough. This is far 
from the truth. Rainfall is the source of over 99 per cent of 
fresh ground water and, neglecting the surface material above 
the water table, ground water decreases with the depth. The 
deeper rocks are largely granitic and hold little water. Unless 
they also constitute the surface rock and are broken by joints it 




Figube 27. — Typical flowing (artesian) well (an artesian well may 
be nonllowing, the water rising in the well to a height depending 
on the pressure head in the water-bearing strata) 

wiO be of little use to penetrate them. Unless there is some 
evidence that deep water-bearing beds exist, a deep well should 
be considered as an experiment, although in sedimentary rocks 
it may penetrate a number of water strata which furnish in the 
aggregate an adequate supply, or supply artesian flow. 

d. In connection with underground water supplies in dry 
areas or where deep wells are required, the location of water- 



52 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

bearing strata is almost an exact science to the geologist. Much 
wasted time and labor can be avoided by utilizing his knowledge. 
When it is necessary to estimate stream volumes during the dry 
season, depth of ground water, and the probable location of 
springs within the enemy lines, his services may be invaluable. 
37. Selection of type of wells. — a. (1) The yield of a well 
is largely determined by the character of the water-bearing 
material. A sand will furnish large supplies while a chalk or 
clay, although possibly containing more water, will yield little 
or none. Quicksands contain large amounts of water, but owing 
to the ready flow of the fine sand through crevices, dug wells 
are impossible and driven wells with ordinary strainers become 
clogged. Drilled or driven wells sunk by men familiar with the 
methods of handling quicksand and equipped with special 
strainers are usually the only types successful in such material. 
The strainers may be of brass wire mesh, but are usually cylinders 
of brass tubing with openings varying from 0.004 inch (0.1 
millimeter) upward, depending on the fineness of the strata. 
Solution passages or joints in rock play an important part in 
determining yield and may afford excellent supplies where the 
mass of the rock contains no water. 

(2) The facility with which water enters the well depends 
both on the rock structure and on the type of well. In loose 
materials, water accumulates most easily in stone-lined unce- 
mented dug wells, and somewhat less in tightly-lined dug wells 
with open bottoms. If the materials are so consolidated as 
to prevent their entering the well, water will enter an iron 
casing open at the bottom. In soft materials perforated casings 
or screens are necessary. In the harder rocks, casings are 
unnecessary except to prevent entrance from undesirable levels. 

(3) The amount of storage in a well is important when the 
rate of flow is low. The storage capacity varies as the square 
of the diameter; a 3-foot well will hold 36 times as much 
water as a 6-inch well. Dug wells are of advantage in any 
material where water enters more slowly than it can be lifted 
by the pumps. In rock, only .relatively small-bore holes are 
practicable and wells should be made as large and as deep 
as possible below the entrance point of water if the flow is 
inadequate. 

6. It is a common belief that wells in lowlands near a river 
receive their water from the river. Under normal conditions, 
as shown in Figure 25, this is not the case, the well being supplied 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 53 

by the ground water; the water table will be lowered as shown 
by the dotted line and the supply may be drawn from both the 
ground water and seepage from the river. The arrows indicate 
the normal ground water movement. 

c. The depth of water is of importance in determining the 
type. A dug well is usually suitable only for depths less than 30 
or 40 feet. Driven wells are most suitable at depths of less than 
150 feet, although at times are carried to 300 feet or even 500 
feet in suitable material. Bored wells are not carried more than 
100 feet below the surface. Wells of the California type have 
been carried te 1,000 feet, and with the percussion drill to far 
greater depths. 

d. The time available often will be important in determining 
the type. Drilled wells and power pumps require considerable 
time and equipment for installation and can be used only under 
favorable conditions in stabilized areas. Dug and driven wells 
are the types most used in forward areas. 

Section II 

REQUIREMENTS 

38. Estimates of water required. — The water supply pro- 
vided for civil consumption in most regions rarely is sufficient 
for military needs. During the World War, both French and 
English estimated minimum water requirements when troops 
were massed for an advance at about 150,000 gallons per day 
for every 20 square miles occupied. An Infantry division of 
20,000 men has about 7,000 animals. At one gallon per day, 
the men require 20,000 gallons and at 10 gallons per day the 
animals require 70,000 gallons, a total of 90,000 gallons per day. 
The Cavalry division with 7,500 men and 9,500 animals requires 
102,500 gallons. The table following gives per capita consump- 
tion under average conditions. 



54 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

Table V. — Water consumption 





Gallons 






per 
capita 
per day 


Remarks 


Cities and Army posts 

(peace) . 
Cantonments, 30,000 to 

50,000 troops. 
Semipermanent camp 

in rest area. 


100-200 


Provides for water-borne sewage. 


55 
30 


Men and animals. Includes water for kitchens, 

baths, steam heat, toilets, sewers, and stables. 
Includes piped supply for baths, toilets, etc. 


Temporary camp 

On the march and in 
bivouac. 

In battle, absolute 
minimum for not 
over 3 days. 

Locomotives (standard 
gage) . 

Stationary engine (con- 
densing). 

Stationary engine (non- 
condensing). 

Condensing water 
(waste) . 

Gasoline engines (cool- 
ing water) . 


{ ii 
i in 


Men. 

Animals. 

For drinking, cooking, washing, disinfecting. 

No water-borne sewage. 

Men ( 3 4to IK gallons). 

Animals. 

Men. 

Animals (3 to 5 gallons). 

7,000 gallons a day or 120 gallons per train-mile with 

1 locomotive. 
2 gallons per horsepower- hour. 






4 gallons per horsepower-hour. 




100 gallons per horsepower-hour. 




H to H gallon per horsepower-hour. 



These estimates must be modified according to circumstances, 
especially in hot climates. The requirements of the maximum 
month may exceed those of the average month by from 15 to 
40 per cent. 

Section III 

RECONNAISSANCE 

39. Sources of information. — Information of the water 
resources of an area may be obtained from Government or other 
reports, topographical and geological maps, airplane photographs, 
by interrogation of the local population or prisoners, and by per- 
sonal reconnaissance of the ground. In arid countries the assist- 
ance of a qualified geologist should be obtained if practicable. 

40. Equipment of the reconnaissance party. — In addition 
to the equipment customarily carried by parties engaged in 
general reconnaissance, a water supply reconnaissance party 
should be equipped with a number of clean glass bottles holding 
from 2 quarts to a gallon each and equipped with a well-fitting 
stopper or a clean, unbroken cork. A label should be provided 
for each bottle. 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 55 

41. Technique of a water reconnaissance. — a. Notes 
should be taken of the location of all resources in the area and 
attention concentrated on those supplies which appear to be 
easiest of development. The seasonal variation of supply and 
areas of possible artesian flow and the localities where shallow 
wells are likely to be successful should be noted. In locating 
water supplies the following suggestions may be useful: 

(1) Streams in open country are usually bordered by trees. 

(2) Spots where the grass is greener in one place than another 
or the vegetation more abundant are more likely to be near 
ground water. 

(3) Vapor often rises in the early morning or evening from 
places where springs or ground waters may be found. 

(4) Springs are often found at the junction of valleys or at 
the base of an overhanging cliff. 

(5) Areas suitable for shallow wells will usually be found in 
valleys. 

6. The rate of flow for wells is determined by making a pump- 
ing test or by local inquiry. The rate of flow of a spring is 
determined by noting the time to fill a container of known capac- 
ity. The rate of flow for streams is determined by the formula 
Q = AV; where Q equals the quantity in cubic feet per second, 
A equals the area of cross section of the stream, and V equals 
the velocity of the stream in feet per second. The cross section 
is determined by estimate or measurement. The velocity may 
be estimated by noting the velocity of a chip floating on the 
surface of the stream. 

c. The measurement of the yield of flowing wells requires only 
a foot rule. The following table from data by Slichter requires 
the measurement of the height of the jet from a vertical pipe. 
The discharge for other sizes can be obtained by remembering 
that the discharge will vary as the square of the diameter. If 
the pipe is one-half inch in diameter the discharge will be one- 
fourth that of a 1-inch pipe for same height of jet. For an 
8-inch pipe the discharge will be that of a 4-inch pipe multiplied 
by 4. 



56 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

Table VI.— Flow of artesian wells in gallons per minute 



Height of jet, Inches 


Diameter of pipe in 
inches 




1 


2 


3 


14 


3.96 
5.60 
7.99 
11.3 
13.9 
16.0 
17.9 
22.0 
25.4 
30.0 
43.8 
58.9 
68.0 


15.6 
22.4 
32.0 
45.3 
55.5 
64.0 
71.6 
87.8 

102 

123 

175 

236 

272 




1 _ 




2 


71.9 


i . _ .. 


102 


6 


125 


8 . . . . 


144 


10 .__ _- 


161 


15 


198 


20 - 


228 


30 - 


278 




394 


108-- -_ . _ 


531 


144 _ ___ 


612 







42. Reports. — a. The most important information to be ob- 
tained and reported immediately is the location of the water 
supply and the rate of flow. The location should be shown 
exactly on the map or by coordinates. The rate of flow should 
be expressed preferably in gallons per 24 hours. In reporting 
on animal water points, the number of animals that can be wa- 
tered at one time should be indicated. 

6. In making a report of a water reconnaissance, the use of 
the following form is helpful: 

WATER RECONNAISSANCE 
FORM FOR RECONNAISSANCE REPORT 

Date 

Report by 

Grade and organization 

1. Location 

r Coordinates 

2. Source (well, spring, or stream) 

3. Character of water : Clearness, 

. ; taste, ■ ; odor,. 

4. Result of test (if test impossible take sample of water). 
(See back of sheet for method of taking samples) 

5. Possible sources of pollution and location 



6. Rate of flow (for wells, pumping test, local inquiry, or esti- 
mate; for springs, time of filling a container of known capacity; 
for streams, determination of velocity and cross-section area, or 
flow over a weir): 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 57 

7. Existing development: 

(a) Pump: Number, ; type, ; 

size, ; speed, 

(b) Engine: Type, ; size, ; 

speed, ; horse power, 

(c) Electrical equipment 

(d) Storage facilities: Type, ; capacity, 

; height, 

(e) Pipelines: Kind, .; size, ; 

length, ; head, 

(/) Present condition or damage 

8. Well or spring: 

(a) Depth of water in well 

(b) Depth of water below ground surface 

(c) Nature and depth of lining, curbing and cover, and 

whether water-tight 

(d) Diameter: Top, ; bottom, 

(e) Opportunity for entrance of surface water 

(f) Method of raising and delivering water 

(g) Temperature of water 

9. Stream: 

(a) Width, ; mean depth ; maximum 

depth, 

(b) Nature of bed 

(c) Height of banks above water surface 

10. (a) Proposed development 

(b) Material available and required 

Report by 

Grade 

Organization 

Note. — Back of sheet may be used for sketch or additional information. 
The following instructions should be printed on the reverse side of the form for 
reconnaissance report: 

Instructions foe Taking Samples of Water 

If sample is to be used for chemical examination only: 

1. Use a clean glass bottle, holding from 2 quarts to a gallon, with a well-fitting 
stopper or a clean unbroken cork. 

2. Rinse out the bottle two or three times with the water to be sampled. 

3. In sampling a well, support the bottle in a string or wire cradle, weighted at the 
bottom. Lower the bottle until the neck is 2 or 3 inches below the surface. It is 
advantageous to attach the stopper to a separate string, so the bottle can be opened 
below the surface of the water. In sampling a stream or pond, hold the bottle so the 
neck is well below the surface. Allow the bottle to fill. 

4. Pour out a small quantity of water so there is an air space below the stopper. 

5. Insert stopper or cork, stretch a clean cloth over it, and tie down the cloth below 
the flange of the neck. 

6. Label the sample. 

If the sample is to be used for bacteriological examination: 

1. Use a sterilized bottle and stopper. Never use corks. 

2. Avoid touching the neck of the bottle or the stopper with the fingers. 

3. Before removing the stopper and after filling, the neck of the bottle should be 
held in a clean flame (alcohol torch) and heated to just over the boiling point of water 
(212° F.). 

PRECAUTIONS: Never let the water entering the sample bottle flow over the 
hand. Before taking a sample from the spout of a pump or from a tap, allow water 
to flow to waste for a time. 

66590°— 32 5 



58 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

Section IV 
DEVELOPMENT OF SOURCES 

43. Increasing the yield of wells. — a. An originally inade- 
quate yield usually results from insufficient supply or the 
slowness with which the supplies are given up by the water- 
bearing rock. In clay and the denser varieties of bowlder clay 
and till, water is given up slowly, and the amount entering is 
more or less proportional to the area of surface exposed in the 
well. This area varies with the diameter, six times as much 
surface being exposed in a 3-foot as in a 6-inch well; hence large 
wells are desirable. They are also desirable in rocks in which 
the water occurs in pores, rather than open passages, and at 
the same time they increase the chance of striking an opening. 
The depth of dug wells is important in providing increased 
storage. In some cases where the water table has sunk, the 
deepening of the well will be sufficient. 

i 6. In deep wells the use of dynamite shatters the surrounding 
rock and may result in connection with other water-bearing 
crevices. Dynamite is most effective in hard, brittle rocks, such 
as limestone, and least effective in soft, tough shales. 

c. Packing with gravel is useful when the material is so fine 
as to clog the flow. Pebbles may sometimes be dropped into 
the well and forced out into the surrounding clay with a drill 
until a pocket is produced permitting flow. Yield and specific 
capacity of wells in unconsolidated sands may often be increased 
by removing sand from around the strainer and substituting 
selected graded gravel. A coarse strainer will be used, and the 
effective diameter of the well becomes that of the gravel pocket. 
The method consists of pumping out sand through an inner 
casing and simultaneously feeding in gravel between an inner 
and an outer casing. This method is most applicable to shallow 
wells in fine sands. 

d. A gradual reduction in the flow of a deep well may be due 
to a drawing off of the general supply in the area, to deterioration 
of the well from clogging of the screen, entrance of sand to 
working parts of a pump or leakage of the well from corrosion 
of the casing. 

e. Emergency equipment for the cleaning out of wells and 
springs and installing temporary water points can be carried on 
a l}i to 2 ton truck, or a 4-mule wagon, if roads are poor is mobile, 
and may be of great value on the march or during combat. It 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 59 

should usually include a windlass with buckets, shovels, pick 
mattocks, crowbar, blocks and rope, hand force pumps, car- 
penters' and plumbers' tools, canvas water troughs and basins, 
Lyster bags, hypochlorite of lime in 1-gram capsules and in 
1-kilogram bottles. The personnel should include an experi- 
enced noncommissioned officer, a carpenter, plumber, and laborers. 
Additional supplies and equipment may be added as required. 

44. Development of streams. — a. The methods of develop- 
ing surface streams will depend on the amount of water required 
and may vary from pumping by means of the mobile purification 
truck into storage basins to constructing impounding reservoirs 
for the supply of a cantonment, concentration area, or general 
hospital. 

b. Dams will rarely be required during military operations, 
but may at times be useful for equalizing the flow of streams to 
cover variation in draft or flow. 

45. Development of springs. — A substantial collecting 
basin should be constructed. A water-tight timber casing may 
be used, but will be objectionable if permitted to become old 
enough to decay. Concrete is preferable. Water-tight walls 
should extend 1 or 2 feet above and below the surface to prevent 
the entrance of surface wash. The shape of the springy area 
should determine the shape of the reservoir. Small springs may 
be developed by setting a length of large concrete, iron, or 
vitrified pipe in the ground vertically over the spring. A cover 
should always be provided to keep out dust, leaves, sticks, and 
small animals. Every care should be taken to guard against 
pollution, particularly such as might occur from dipping buckets 
or dippers into the spring, and the water should be taken by a 
pipe to the storage tank or point of delivery. 

46. Dug wells. — a. Dug wells require a considerable expendi- 
ture of time and labor. For depths over 20 feet it usually is more 
economical to use some method of driving or boring. Excava- 
tion is with pick and shovel and there is usually room for only 
one man to work at the bottom. A windlass and bucket must 
be provided for lifting out the excavated material. The size of 
the shaft depends on the amount of storage required, the type 
of lining, and the method of raising the water. Shafts using a 
windlass and bucket require a diameter of at least 4 feet. Where 
considerable storage is required in shallow wells, diameters of 
from 15 to 20 feet may be called for. It is usually desirable 
during excavation to install the permanent dump for use in 
removing water. 



60 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



6. Linings may be of brick, masonry, timber, concrete, or 
corrugated iron, depending on the diameter of the well, the 
character of the soil, and the time and material available. For 
field use timber is the most useful and shafts may be sunk as in 
mining operations (at least 4 feet square for a shallow well) . The 
top of the well should be secured from contamination by raising 
the lining above the ground level and covering the opening. For 
temporary use the top may be of timber with an impervious 
cover. For semipermanent construction a concrete top should 



Troajh for filling water 
carts 6. canteen filler 



type required 



Canteen filler 
■ttJtth. treated vaXa 

Watertight roof 




Figure 2S. — Development of existing well 

be used. A manhole should be provided with the cover set on a 
curbing. The pump hole should be protected from waste water 
by a sleeve and gasket set on a curbing. The lining of the well 
should be water-tight for at least 6 feet below the ground surface. 
(See fig. 28.) 

c. An infiltration gallery is a modification of a dug well in which 
the ground water at moderate depths is intercepted by galleries 
across the line of flow. The gallery may range from an open 
ditch leading the water away, to conduits of masonry,, wood, 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 61 

iron, or vitrified pipe provided with openings, surrounded by 
stone or gravel, to permit the entrance of water. The galleries 
are usually constructed in an open trench and are arranged to 
lead the water to a pump well. Similar galleries at right angles 
to the direction of flow can occasionally be used to increase the 
yield of dug wells. 

47. Driven wells. — a. Driven wells are constructed by 
driving pipes into the ground with a maul or a driving machine, 
sometimes with the assistance of a jet or "wash drill." In 
closed-end wells a drive point slightly larger than the pipe is 
used and above the point is a perforated section. The pipes are 
usually % to 3 inches in diameter (2-inch is the most common 
size) and the screens 2 to 4 feet long. New sections are screwed 
on as the pipe is driven. 

Open-end wells are constructed by driving a plain pipe which 
may or may not have a heavy driving shoe attached. The mate- 
rial inside is removed by a sand pump or by a water jet forced 
down a small pipe inside the drive pipe. The pipe is perforated 
either before driving or by special tools after driving. A per- 
forated strainer section about 2 feet long should always be used 
even if the bottom of the well is open. A portable and very 
simple arrangement for driving tube wells is illustrated in Figure 
29. It is entirely suitable for moderate depths. A hollow cast- 
iron monkey slides over a bar which is supported vertically by the 
tube to be driven. By means of two ropes passing over pulleys 
at the top of the bar, the drop weight ma3' be alternately raised 
by hand and allowed to descend by gravity, striking a blow on an 
attached clamp or cap fitted to the upper length of well tubing. 

6. Driven wells are suited to loose sand or gravel where caving 
would interfere with digging. If unsuccessful the pipe may be 
withdrawn and used again. One disadvantage is that in the 
smaller tubes the screen may become clogged by mineral matter 
or silt and another is that grit may be drawn up and score the 
working parts of the pump. If a well becomes clogged after use 
it can sometimes be cleaned by forcing water into it under pres- 
sure. It may be necessa^ to pull and redrive the casing, per- 
haps with a new strainer. Wells of the larger diameters are best 
adapted to obtaining large supplies from the stratified drift or 
other sand or gravel deposits. Driven wells are not suited to till 
because the bowlders make driving difficult and because the yield 
is insufficient for a satisfactory supply. If several wells are to 
be driven, they should be in a line across the direction of under- 



62 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



- Driving Monkey 



flow so that the maximum yield may be intercepted without 
interference among the wells. In stratified drift, the wells 
should be 8 inches or more in diameter with holes one-fourth 
inch or larger. They should be pumped vigorously for a con- 
siderable time with an air lift or centrifugal pump to get out the 
sand and leave a pocket of clean grav- 
el around the intake. 

c. As a safeguard against pollution 
the casing should be thick enough to 
resist corrosion, should have tight 
joints, and should be carried above 
ground level. If located in a stream 
valley casings should be carried above 
flood levels. 

48. Development in advanced 
areas. — a. The extent to which wells 
can be dug, reclaimed, or driven, or 
small purification plants installed, de- 
pends on the sources available and 
the intensity of shell fire. Such water 
points should be developed for filling 
water carts or buckets and canteens as 
required, and should always be pro- 
vided with adequate chlorinating ap- 
paratus. For shallow wells a hand 
force pump may be used, for deeper 
wells a windlass and bucket or a suit- 
able pump. The windlass and bucket 
arrangement, however, is usually inad- 
equate and insanitary. If safe water 
can not be provided at these sources, 
it is better to carry it from a suitable 
source farther to the rear. Water 
taken from shell holes is a source 
of sickness, particularly after gas shell- 
ing. Water tainted by gas can not 
be purified by boiling. 
6. Springs form excellent water points. They should be pro- 
tected against contamination, provided with chlorinating tanks, 
hand pumps, and faucets for drawing off the water. Fouling will 
occur if men are allowed to dip any sort of receptacles in the 




-Well Tubing 



Figure 29.— Simple device for 
driving tube wells 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 63 

spring. A popular belief that springs as they issue from the 
ground are pure has no basis in fact. They are as subject to 
pollution by drainage from stables, latrines, or sewers as are 
wells and the source of contamination may be at a considerable 
distance from the spring. 

c. Small filters may often be used which are compact enough 
to be erected in forward dugouts or shelters. During long periods 
of position warfare, it will sometimes be possible to dig or drive 
wells in a dugout in the trench system. Special precautions 
must be taken to protect them against drainage, and chlorinating 
arrangements must be provided. 

Section V 
PURIFICATION 

49. Requirements as to quality. — a. Natural water always 
contains inorganic and organic matter in suspension, as sand, silt, 
leaves, animal tissue, alg£e, insects; or in solution, as oxygen, 
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, ammonia, carbonates, bicarbonates, 
and sulphates of calcium and magnesium, sodium chloride, 
nitrates, etc. The presence of the carbonates, bicarbonates, and 
sulphates of calcium and magnesium in solution makes water 
hard and unsuitable for use with soap. In general, mineral 
constituents are unobjectionable in water for drinking unless 
present in sufficient amounts to create an objectionable taste. 
Two hundred and fifty parts per million of sodium chloride give 
a salty taste; 60 parts per million may cause boiler trouble. 
Rain water may have solids as low as 20 parts, while ground 
waters may have 500 parts per million. Free mineral acids 
from mill or mine wastes cause corrosion of pipes and fixtures and 
possible poisoning and can not be allowed in drinking waters. 
They also render water unsuitable for use in boilers. 

6. A bacteriological examination is necessary to determine the 
character of the water from a disease-carrying point of view. 
Cholera and typhoid are propagated through drinking water as 
also are dysentery and other intestinal diseases. Tests for con- 
tamination are usually based on a determination of the presence 
of Bacillus coli communis (B. coli), which are abundant in the 
intestines of men and animals and usually indicate contamination 
by sewage. If organisms of the B. coli type are absent and the 
total number of bacteria is not too high we can definitely say 
that the water is safe. If B. coli are not entirely absent it can 



64 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



not as definitely be said that the water is dangerous, as they may 
be of animal origin; but if they are persistently present in small 
amounts of water, as 1 cubic centimeter or less, the water is 
likely to contain human waste and is certainly unsatisfactory. 

c. In any analysis, the following items are usually determined 
and the figures given are typical. The quantities are expressed in 
parts per million by weight (milligrams per thousand cubic 
centimeters). The usual report also gives information con- 
cerning the turbidity, sediment, odor, hardness, and acidity of 
the sample. 



Good 
water 


Sewage 


50.0 


700.0 


30.0 


200.0 


20.0 


500.0 


3.0 


40.0 


0. 010 


25.0 


0.100 


10.0 


0.200 


0. 1 


0.000 


0.005 


0.5 


40.0 


50.0 


1, 000, 000. 


0.0 


5, 000. 



Total solids 

Organic matter (loss on ignition) 

Inorganic matter (fixed residue) 

Chlorine as chlorides 

Free ammonia 

Albuminoid ammonia 

Nitrogen as nitrates 

Nitrogen as nitrites _ 

Oxygen consumed 

Bacteria in 1 milliliter (1 cubic centimeter) 
Bacteria coli communis in 10 milliliters 



d. The presence of abnormal amounts of chlorine (or sodium 
chloride) is usually indicative of pollution by human or animal 
excreta, but in deep ground waters the chlorides may be soluble 
ingredients of the rocks traversed, and the normal amount is 
larger in surface waters near the coast than in inland waters. 
Albuminoid nitrogen is an indication of undecomposed organic 
matter, animal or vegetable. Free ammonia nitrogen is nitrogen 
which has passed through the first stages of mineralization. 
Nitrites are the next step in mineralization. They are unstable 
and not ordinarily found unless active chemical change is going 
on. They are always an indication of danger. Nitrates are the 
final stage of oxidation in which the nitrogen is found in the 
completely mineralized form. The amount is an indication of 
past history and is an index of so-called remote pollution. In 
ground water they may be due to mineral deposits and have no 
sanitary significance. "Oxygen consumed," serves as a means 
of comparing relative amounts of carbonaceous organic matter, 
or other oxidizable constituents of various waters. Analysis of 
the same water may show different results at different seasons, 
and a knowledge of the topography and sanitary conditions of 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 65 

the source of supply is absolutely necessary for the interpre- 
tation of a chemical analysis. 

e. Living organic matter is usually certain species of micro- 
organisms, commonly called alg®, found by microscopic exami- 
nation, which may produce a fishy or pigpen odor. Suspicion 
is justified in case of turbidity and unpleasant odor, but the water 
is not necessarily dangerous, while the most dangerous bacteria 
may exist in water which is clear and sparkling. 

/. Hardness is mainly due to sulphates, carbonates, and 
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. The sulphates give 
"permanent" hardness which can only be removed by chemical 
treatment, while the bicarbonates cause "temporary" hardness 
which can be removed by boiling. Water containing 250 parts 
per million of hardness producing constituents is unfit for wash- 
ing 6r for use in boilers, although waters that are even harder 
may be suitable for drinking. In boiler use the carbonates of 
lime and magnesia are precipitated, forming a deposit which 
can usually be removed by blowing out. The sulphates form 
a very objectionable hard scale. Softening of water is usually 
accomplished by precipitation. To remove the carbonates, 
lime (Ca(OH) 2 ) is added, precipitating calcium or magnesium 
carbonate. To remove the sulphates, sodium carbonate (Na 2 - 
CO3) is used (lime must be added in case of magnesium sulphate), 
producing sodium sulphate. 

50. Purification by sedimentation. — a. Sedimentation 
may occur by the action of gravity in any quiet bod}' of water. 
Waters are often clarified in a pond or reservoir in from one 
to three days. Should the silt be composed of finely divided or 
colloidal clay it may remain in suspension indefinitely. In water 
purification it is customary to use a coagulant which, forming 
precipitates of a gelatinous character, unites the finely divided 
suspended matter into larger masses, thus facilitating removal by 
either sedimentation or filtration. Colloidal solutions of clay, 
vegetable color, etc., can not be removed by filtration unless 
coagulated. 

6. The most commonly used coagulant is aluminum sulphate 
(Al2(S04)3). If this is introduced into water containing car- 
bonates and bicarbonates of lime and magnesia, it is decom- 
posed, the aluminum uniting with the water and liberating car- 
bonic acid. "Alkalinity" is a measure of the salts that neutralize 
acids, usually carbonates, bicarbonates, or hydroxides. Water 
that has been treated with aluminum sulphate or other aluminum 



66 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

compounds should contain a residual alkalinity of at least 10 
parts per million. One grain per gallon of the aluminum sul- 
phate requires 5 to 10 parts per million of calcium carbonate 
alkalinity or its equivalent for complete reaction, and this 
should ordinarily be allowed. If not present in natural form, 
soda ash (anhydrous sodium carbonate (Na 2 C0 3 )) is added to 
bring about coagulation and prevent undecomposed alum 
remaining in the treated water. High alkalinity is undesirable 
as causing a corresponding high degree of soap consumption, 
and an excess of sodium carbonate may cause the coagulate to 
redissolve. If a larger amount of the aluminum sulphate is 
added than can combine with the carbonates present, it will 
leave an objectionable amount of alum dissolved in the water. 
The reaction which takes place forms aluminum hydrate 
(Al2(OH) 6 ), which acts as the coagulant. Carbonic acid is set 
free, increasing the corrosive action of the water on unprotected 
iron or lead. This fact, however, will rarely be a detriment. 
The amount of aluminum sulphate required varies, with the 
amount of sediment, from three-fourths grain to 3 or 4 grains 
per gallon; 2 grains of alum per gallon (28J4 pounds per 100,000 
gallons) is a common average for surface waters. 

c. The rate of sedimentation depends much on the amount 
of coagulant used. Where sedimentation is to be followed by- 
rapid filtration, two to six hours are usually allowed. Complete 
clarification is unnecessary and better filtration occurs if a small 
amount of the coagulant is carried to the filters. If the water 
is not to be filtered it would be desirable to allow from 12 to 
24 hours. 

d. Sedimentation basins may be operated by continuous flow 
or by filling and emptying. The first method, the water moving 
with a low velocity, is desirable for filter plants. The second 
is often necessary where basins have to be improvised or the 
water is chlorinated without filtration. The apparatus for 
handling alum should have special bronze or hard-rubber fittings 
and copper, bronze, or lead pipes. Tanks may be of concrete. 
Particular emphasis must be placed on the reliability of the 
method of feeding the coagulant in the continuous-flow method, 
as the efficiency of the rapid filter in removing bacteria depends 
largely on proper control of the coagulation. The coagulant 
is introduced into the water as it enters the basin, preferably 
by a series of perforated tubes distributed over a channel through 
which the water passes, and the solution in the alum tank must 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 67 

be kept stirred during application to insure uniform strength. 
(See method of applying hypochlorite in paragraph 52.) A low- 
velocity in the basin (2J^ feet per minute) is obtained by increas- 
ing the cross-section area and the use of baffles insures thorough 
mixing. In case the alum is added to the water in a basin, 
using the method of filling and emptying, sufficient agitation 
to insure thorough mixing is necessary. A trough directing 
the incoming water along one side of the basin will assist in 
maintaining circulation while the tank is being filled. Concrete 
is desirable for the basin, but timber or tarred canvas or other 
materials may be used. Laboratory tests are required to deter- 
mine the amounts of alum and alkalinity required. 

51. Purification by filtration. — o. Sand filters are of 
the slow or rapid types. The time required for construction 
of slow sand filters, in which the total thickness of the filtering 
layers of sand and gravel averages 4 feet, eliminates any possi- 
bility of their being constructed for use during military opera- 
tions, but where already in use they may be taken over. They 
operate at from 2,000,000 to 6,000,000 gallons per acre per day. 
Every three or four weeks the filter must be drained and the top 
layer scraped off. When the sand bed becomes too thin, sand 
must be added. The bacterial efficiency does not depend so 
much on the mechanical effect of the sand as on the bacterial 
growth in the body of the filter and the film which forms on its 
surface. The sand should be clean, uniform, and with grains 
about 0.2 to 0.4 millimeter in size. As the filter becomes clogged 
the head is increased so as to maintain a uniform discharge. 

b. A rapid sand filter is shown in Figures 30 and 31. 

(1) The filter medium is a thick layer of selected uniform 
Band with the artificial surface mat caused by coagulation. 
The sand, 24 to 30 inches deep, should be nearly pure quartz, 
preferably with rounded grains and between 0.35 and 0.60 in 
size. A certain amount of flocculent precipitate from the coag- 
ulating basin is necessary to secure proper filtration, and sedi- 
mentation for 2 to 6 hours is required. The filter units are 
usually small tanks of wood, steel (for pressure filters) , or concrete 
(see fig. 31), and require washing every 6 to 24 hours. Washing 
is accomplished by reversing the flow and should hold the entire 
sand bed in suspension, care being taken that no sand is washed 
out through the troughs. It should clear the sand of dirt but 
some coagulated floe should remain in the water over the filter 
to form the basis of a new mat. Effective washing requires 
7.5 to 15 gallons per minute per square foot applied from three 



68 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



to eight minutes. Elevated tanks are often used to furnish 
wash water at the required pressure. Between 1 and 5 per cent 
of the filtered water may be required for washing. Mechanical 
agitators are regarded as obsolete. Common filter troubles 
include the appearance of mud balls, which must be removed, 
and the clogging of the surface sand with organic matter and 
mud, which may cause cracks in the surface mat. After wash- 
ing, a certain amount of the effluent should be wasted. The 
sand bed is supported on a 10-inch layer of pea-size gravel 
overlying the underdrain system on filters with brass strainers 




L^ j r«iw vntr line w kmi trwijU. 
-£lcp*»nt Irotv 



^^<T 




Figure 30.— Water-purification plant 

discharging upward. On other types 12 to 20 inches of graded 
gravel are used. 

(2) There should be at least 10 feet difference in elevation 
between water surface in the clear water basin and in the filter. 
This gives the filtering head necessary. A greater head is 
likely to break the film of coagulant on the sand surface. The 
pipe to the clear water basin should be trapped against the 
entrance of air. The head is usually controlled as in the slow 
sand type by maintaining a constant water level on the filter, 
preferably the level of the water in the coagulating basin, and 
automatically or manually varying the pressure head in the 
effluent pipe by a valve. This valve supplies a means of main- 
taining a constant rate of filtration. For a capacity of 100,000 
gallons per day the tank should be about 7 feet in diameter and 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 69 

5 feet or more deep. A pipe grid at the bottom with jKe-inch 
holes at 2-inch intervals leads off the effluent. An overflow 
trough should be built about 12 to 30 inches (average 20 inches) 
above the surface of the sand for taking off the wash water. 

(3) The rate of filtration is usually 125,000,000 gallons per 
acre per day or approximately 1,000,000 gallons per day for 
each 350 square feet of sand surface. This rate is equivalent 
to 2 gallons per minute per square foot. Filters usually permit 
a variation of 25 per cent above or below the normal rate. Any 
sudden change in the rate of filtration is undesirable. 

52. Purification by disinfection. — a. It has become stand- 
ard practice to disinfect water by the application of liquid 
chlorine. This is the method used in the mobile purification 
unit. In the liquid chlorine treatment a reliable feed apparatus 
is essential, the rate of feed being constant, as all of the flowing 
water must come in contact with the chlorine. The solution of 
the chlorine is secured by a water jet which thoroughly mixes 
the chlorine and water. A flow of 1 pound of chlorine per 24 
hours or 0.000694 pound per minute treats approximately 
300,000 gallons of water per day. In civil practice 0.1 part 
per million of free chlorine remains in the water. In military 
practice 0.5 part per million is customary and is the minimum 
prescribed for the mobile purification unit. The germicidal 
action is due to the formation of hypochlorous acid (HOC1) on 
mixing chlorine and water. This reacts with the protein of the 
bacteria, decomposing and killing them. 

. 6. (1) Chlorination in the field in semipermanent and impro- 
vised installations (see fig. 32) is usually by the application of 
calcium hypochlorite (chlorinated lime or bleaching powder) 
(4CaOCl 2 -2Ca(OH) 2 -5H 2 0). On dissolving in water hypo- 
chlorous acid and calcium bicarbonate are formed. The hypo- 
chlorous acid is further decomposed into hydrochloric acid 
(HC1) and nascent oxygen. The hydrochloric acid combines 
with carbonate or bicarbonate alkalinity in the water to form 
calcium chloride, carbon dioxide and water. It has been as- 
sumed that the hypochlorite killed bacteria by oxidation, but it 
is now believed that the germicidal action is due to chlorine or 
its derivatives rather than to nascent oxygen. 

(2) When chlorine or calcium hypochlorite is added to water 
the reactions may be divided into three types: 

(a) Oxidation of organic or mineral matter. 

(b) Direct chlorination of organic matter. 

(c) Bactericidal action. 



70 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 




ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 71 

Usually the greater part of the chlorine added is required for 
the first reaction and the chlorine demand of this reaction must 
be satisfied before an excess for the removal of bacteria is avail- 
able. Five to ten parts per million of caustic alkalinity in the 
water materially retard the germicidal action. It is common 
practice to make solutions of 0.5 to 2.0 per cent strength (1 to 
4 pounds of hypochlorite to 200 pounds of water). The essen- 
tial features of its use are (Medical War Manual No. 6, 1918) : 

1. The powder should be made into a smooth paste by 

adding a small amount of water. 

2. This paste should be kept thoroughly stirred. 

3. Solution tanks should be kept covered. 

4. Solutions deteriorate but little when standing (about 

2 per cent per day). 

5. Period of contact with the water should be not less 

than 20 minutes. 

6. A thorough mixture of the hypochlorite and water 

should be obtained. 

7. Solution tanks should have two valves, a sludge valve 

on the bottom and a discharge valve on the side. 
The sludge should be removed daily. 

8. The strength of the hypochlorite solution must be de- 

termined and adjusted with each new charge. If 
the water is to be filtered the hypochlorite is 
added after filtration. Any turbidity reduces its 
efficiency. Concrete tanks with valves of brass 
or bronze usually are used for dissolving the 
bleaching powder. Wood can be used, but is rap- 
idly destroyed unless protected. Galvanized pipe 
is fairly resistant, as are also tin, brass, lead, hard 
rubber, and paraffin. Wrought iron or steel cor- 
rodes rapidly. 

(3) For waters overtreated with calcium hypochlorite or 
chlorine, sodium thiosulphate (sodium hyposulphite), which is 
available in tubes containing 1 gram, can be used to remove the 
excess of chlorine. This is needed only in cases where the taste 
of chlorine is so objectionable to troops as to cause them to 
drink from unpurified sources. Dechlorination is always inad- 
visable until the water has passed all stages where contamina- 
tion is possible. There is no reason to believe that any amounts 
of free chlorine obtained by methods used in the purification of 
water are in the slightest degree harmful. It is desirable, how- 
ever, to keep the free chlorine down to two parts per million or 
less. Where tests are possible it can easily be kept below one 
part per million. 



72 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

(4) Twenty-five pounds of hypochlorite (30 per cent chlorine) 
are required to sterilize 1,000,000 gallons of water by applying 
one part per million of available chlorine. The standard strength 
requires not less than 30 per cent of available chlorine in the 
hypochlorite. Either storage or contact with air or light may 
bring about reactions liberating oxygen and chlorine and reducing 
their efficiency. The hypochlorite is usually supplied by the 
manufacturer in sheet steel drums 39 inches high by 29)4 inches 
diameter (gross weight 750 pounds, net weight 690 pounds). 
It is also available in smaller containers. The loss of available 
chlorine is approximately 1 per cent per month in hot weather 
and 0.3 per cent in cold weather. 

c. Either hypochlorite or alum solution is usually applied to 
water entering a sterilizing or sedimentation basin by main- 
taining a constant head with a float valve on a varying size 
orifice. The usual head is one foot. Several orifices may be 
available in the chemical tank and that one used which gives the 
desired discharge. The orifices should be made in a plane sur- 
face and beveled so that the inner surface has a sharp edge. 
(See Table XI.) 

53. Tests for free chlorine. — a. (1) Where water is disin- 
fected with calcium hypochlorite, a test to determine the amount 
of free chlorine acts as a protection against the use of deteriorated 
chemicals, and such tests should be applied in all cases. Ortho- 
tolidin is the reagent ordinarily used (a 0.1 per cent solution 
made by dissolving 1 gram of orthotolidin in one liter of a 10 
per cent solution of hydrochloric acid) and the usual test is to 
add one cubic centimeter of the orthotolidin solution to 100 
cubic centimeters of the water to be tested. (If the free chlorine 
exceeds three parts per million it will be necessary to add more 
of the reagent.) Small amounts of free chlorine give a yellow 
and larger amounts an orange to red color after standing five 
minutes. By comparing with color standards the amount of 
free chlorine can be readily estimated. This is the official test 
of the American Public Health Association. 

(2) The oxidation of organic or mineral matter requires 10 
minutes, and the test should not be made until the chlorine has 
been in contact with the water for 10 minutes. Rarely ortho- 
tolidin added to raw water produces a yellow color (as when 
manganese is present). It is, therefore, desirable to test a 
sample of the water before the application of chlorine. The 
presence of organic matter in the water sometimes causes a false 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 73 

color reaction after 10 minutes and readings should be made in 
five minutes or less, after adding the reagent. In very alkaline 
waters a blue or green color may be produced instead of yellow. 
Slightly increasing the amount of orthotolidin eliminates this 
trouble. Standard color solutions should be kept away from the 
light. 

6. A method of determining the amount of chlorine needed 
for sterilization is as follows: 

(1) Rinse a canteen cup, which holds approximately 1 pint, 
with water, leaving a few drops in the cup. Mix a 1-gram tube 
of hypochlorite into a paste with the few drops of water. Fill 
the cup to within 1 inch of the top (500 cubic centimeters) and 
mix by pouring into another cup and back. This solution should 
contain 0.3 gram of available chlorine. 

(2) Rinse four canteen cups with the water to be tested and 
fill to within 1 inch of the top. With a pipette or hypodermic 
syringe add 0.2 cubic centimeter of the hypochlorite solution to 
the first cup of water, 0.4 cubic centimeter to the second, 0.6 
cubic centimeter to the third, and 0.8 cubic centimeter to the 
fourth. Mix the solution with the water in each cup by pouring 
into another cup and back and allow them to stand 30 minutes. 
Fifteen minutes is sufficient if time is important. 

(3) Test each cup by adding 1 cubic centimeter of the ortho- 
tolidin solution. The cup that contains the smallest amount of 
hypochlorite solution capable of giving an orange color contains 
the amount of chlorine necessary to sterilize the water. 

54. Water-sterilizing or Lyster bag. — The water-sterilizing 
or Lyster bag, as issued to the service, is intended as a convenient 
receptacle for the disinfection and storage of small quantities of 
water, from which the water may be drawn by the individual 
consumer. The bag, when filled to the white mark, contains 
36 gallons, or 288 pints. 

55. Sterilization of well water. — a. The amount of cal- 
cium hypochlorite solution required can be computed by the 
orthotolidin test and added to all containers taken from the well. 
Or the hypochlorite solution may be added to the well itself until 
the tests show a sufficient amount of free chlorine. Frequent 
tests must be made to determine when additional hypochlorite 
is needed. 

b. Wells can also be treated by placing 4 grams potassium per- 
manganate and 10 cubic centimeters hypochloric acid in the well 
66590° — 32 G 



74 ENGINEEB FIELD MANUAL 

and leaving 24 hours. If the water has lost its pink color, more 
must be added. Pump until well is clear. The action is prob- 
ably weakly germicidal except against cholera. 

c. In one instance a well in France which had been badly 
fouled by the enemy with excrement was cleaned carefully and 
about 3 pounds of hypochlorite added. This was left some 
hours and then the well pumped vigorously for some time and 
the treatment repeated. After four days the water was found 
to be of good quality. 

56. Small purification plants. — Small purification plants 
can be improvised as shown in Figure 32. Alum solution of the 
required strength is made up in tank A and added to the water 
as it is pumped into tank B from the stream so as to be thoroughly 
mixed. Let stand for about eight hours. Draw off clear water 
into tank C and add the required amount of hypochlorite solution, 
mixing thoroughly. After standing 30 minutes the water can be 
pumped to the storage tank D. Tests for free chlorine should be 
applied. The outlet pipe of tank B should be 4 inches above 
the bottom of the tank. There should be a depression at one 
end, S, to act as a sump for cleaning, and the tank should slope 
slightly in that direction. Sludge can be removed with a hand 
pump and a little water. The standard canvas basin can be used 
for all tanks and connections made with hose or pipe. If the 
water requirements are greater than 4,000 gallons 'in eight hours, 
additional sedimentation tanks can be used. 

Section VI 
DISTRIBUTION 

57. Distribution systems. — a. A distribution system con- 
sists of the following: 

(1) A source of supply. 

(2) Means of conveying water. 

(3) Storage. 

(4) Distribution. 

b. (1) In the direct system of distribution, the mains are sup- 
plied by gravity or by pumping directly into the pipe lines. In 
the indirect system, water is pumped into a raised reservoir from 
which the system receives supply by gravity. Direct pumping 
has many objections and should preferably not be employed. In 
case it is necessary, a relief valve must be placed at the pumping 
station to provide for the possibility of valves being shut on the 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 75 

line. Storage should usually be provided in the form of a raised 
tank or reservoir to provide a constant head, to prevent water 
hammer, and to provide for variations in the demand. If pumps 
are used duplicate sets should be provided for use in case of 
breakdown. Telephone connections are essential to the efficient 
working of a long pipe line. 

(2) One-inch, 2-inch, and 4-inch pipes have a large use and 
should be standard. The 4-inch size can easily supply a division 
with 100,000 gallons a day and by repumping the water can be 
carried forward indefinitely. With trained men 4 miles of 4-inch 
pipe can be laid in a da}', which is as fast as an army would be 
likely to advance against resistance, and the pipe can later be 
buried. The 2-inch and 1-inch sizes are suitable for laterals to 
water points, and other distribution. Occasional need may arise 
for 6-inch and, in rare instances, for larger sizes in bringing sup- 
plies for a large camp a considerable distance. Screw-joint steel 
or wrought-iron pipe was largely used in France. Universal 
joint and bell-and-spigot cast-iron pipe with lead-wool joints 
was used to some extent. Screw-joint pipe was found to be 
satisfactory except that occasional trouble developed from 
crossed threads or insufficient screwing when laid by unskilled 
men. Special fittings vary greatly with conditions, but should 
include 45° and 90° elbows, tees, bushings, plugs, nipples, valves, 
couplings, and saddles. 

c. (1) Pumping stations should be easy to install and simple 
to operate. Steam is rarely useful because of the heavy equip- 
ment required and the fact that the smoke is easily picked up by 
the enemy air service. Electricity has many advantages where 
its use is possible, but the standard fuel in the theater of opera- 
tions is gasoline. The pumps should be housed in a shelter large 
enough for two men and with such heating as required to prevent 
water jackets from freezing. It is usually possible to locate 
repair shops and needed supplies at the station. 

(2) In forward areas, where natural protection is not avail- 
able, splinter-proof and, in some instances, bomb-proof con- 
struction is desirable. 

d. Storage should be provided both at the source of supply and 
at the point of distribution. The amount depends on the varia- 
tion of supply and demand. In case water is moved forward by 
tank truck or light railway and the supply is sufficient for the 
average demand, storage must be sufficient to supply the differ- 
ence between the average and the maximum. In all cases some 



76 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

form of storage is necessary for efficiently supplying water, 
whether to tank truck, water cart, or canteen, and in many 
instances for regulating the flow of small streams. 

e. (1) Transport of water during a forward movement is 
normally by the 500-gallon tank truck from rear to forward 
areas pending a development of local supplies or supplementing 
them. In rapid forward movements, tank trains may be assigned 
to divisions and corps, or may operate under army control from 
water sources to water points established by the division or 
corps. The corps and division engineers are equipped to exploit 
existing resources and place water suitable for use at points con- 
venient of access to the water carts of corps and division troops. 
The engineers concerned should chlorinate supplies at the water 
point as a matter of standard practice unless it is known that no 
pollution exists. Following the advance, water-supply troops 
will move forward to make available captured supplies and 
develop new sources. 

(2) When suitable conditions exist, light railway tank cars of 
2,000-gallon capacity may be used. 

58. Water points. — a. Water points are points for storage 
and distribution to organizations. They should be as far for- 
ward as is consistent with concealment from artillery fire and, 
if possible, from air observation and may be located at varying 
distances from the front lines, at times actually in the trench 
system and under other conditions as far back as 5 to 7 miles. 
They should be located near the center of gravity of military 
population of the area to be supplied. Near the front, they 
make use of the mobile purification units, canvas reservoirs and 
horse troughs, hand pumps, and small power pumps as required. 
Farther to the rear, steel or wood storage tanks may be used or 
supplies may be piped. Their capacity is generally limited by 
the source or the number of troops to be supplied. Both men 
and animals must be supplied and separate facilities should 
usually be provided. The water point should be near a main 
road but not on it, and traffic should enter and leave without 
turning. 

6. Figures 33 and 34 give typical arrangement of canvas 
basins and troughs for a water cart and canteen filling point and 
a horse water point. The standard canvas basin is a flat water- 
proofed canvas. If used in a rectangular timber frame with a 
base 12 feet square and sides 4 feet high, its capacity is about 
4,000 gallons. These can be elaborated, or adjusted to available 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



77 



material, as conditions may dictate. Timber, steel, or concrete 
can be used for the tanks and troughs if a more permanent 
installation is desired. 

c. Tank cart fillers in the simplest form may be a hose and 
hand pump delivering by pumping from a canvas basin sunk in 
the ground. If used in this way, a support should be constructed 
for the hose to keep it from becoming soiled. The canvas basin 
should be covered with canvas or some other type of roofing, 




■M^mmS'-' *>»ap»mp 



Figure 32. — Improvised purification plant 

such as timber, tarred paper, or corrugated iron, to keep out 
dust and other forms of pollution, and to prevent reflection 
visible from the air. The canvas for the basins should be water- 
proofed, but unwaterproofed canvas, although leaking consider- 
ably at first, will gradually tighten up. The road at the filling 
point should be paved with gravel, rock, or timber and the area 
adequately drained. Suitable methods of disinfecting the water 
for the troops should be installed if necessary. Faucets of 
canteen fillers should be small enough to fit into the canteens. 




Z'standpipes &0~high'' 
with stop cccks a. hose 
connections 

Canteen fillers . 
I' pips with faucets 



~p & 4-" Deli very pipe 

S" f-j-ll^fliswg main 4'witfr 
jS stop cock. 

^Raised canvas tank on wood 
trestle, bottom 10-0 above road. 
Capacity 4000gaiions. 

Figure 33.— Typical water point 

d. Horse troughs (see fig. 35) need not be supplied with dis- 
infected water, although clean water is desirable. Streams are 
used, when available, by pumping into the troughs. The ground 
in front of the troughs should be paved for about 12 feet. 
Guard rails are essential, and chicken wire can be used to prevent 
animals from gnawing wooden frames or canvas. In estimating 
the troughing required, allow 4 feet frontage per horse and five 
minutes for each animal to water. 



78 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

e. In stabilized situations water ma}' be supplied for laundries, 
lavatories, and baths. The lavatories usually consist of a pipe 
with faucets at intervals of 2 to 2)4 feet placed over a shelf and 
V-shaped waste trough. Large, centrally located bath and 
delousing plants are operated by the Quartermaster Corps, 
but there are many opportunities to set up the 8-head showers, 
with heater and piping, which should be available in the army 
dump. 

/. If possible, all hospitals should receive piped supplies 
available at kitchens, operating rooms, and baths. Veterinary 
evacuation hospitals and veterinary convalescent hospitals are 
army units requiring relatively large amounts of water, which 
should be piped if the permanence of the location will permit. 



a-oo ROAD 

(Hkt Weather) "~"*<ns<*j<; I r Ditch -Mf ^r f^dYet h mether) 



- , , ... J '' (Dry weather) 

(Dry weather)^ ' j~ f~ \~ " ~] 

Ditch S / l! ir " 

J Troughs (canvas) on ^4' main, buried from souneof 

timber frames supply, (stream, pipe line or reservoir) 

Figuke 34. — Typical water point for animals 

g. Railway watering points must be provided at engine houses 
and sorting yards. For watering engines on main traffic lines, 
points should be provided where trains will stop for traffic 
requirements and where engines will not have to be taken from 
the trains for watering. Watering points for yards should be off 
of the main lines so as not to obstruct traffic. 

Filling stations for locomotives and tank cars should be of 
about 25,000-gallon capacity and so arranged that the time for 
filling may be reduced to a minimum and that engines can water 
without being detached from their trains. Locomotive filling 
tanks should be about 10 or 15 miles apart on main lines, at 
engine terminals and yards. Side tracks must be provided so 
that tank cars can be filled without impeding main-line traffic. 
Tanks are usually of steel or timber, the circular tank of 3-inch 
timber with iron binding rods and turnbuckles being particu- 
larly suitable, as it can be knocked down for shipment. Posts 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



79 



for such a tank should be 8 by 8 inches, Four or six inch piping 
should be used and hose connections for filling tank cars and 
locomotives provided. The bottom of the tank should be about 
16 or 17 feet above track level. 

h. Water discipline is of the highest importance. Guards 
should be available to superintend the filling of storage basins 
and tanks and canteen fillers, to see that water is chlorinated, 
to prevent waste, and to control traffic in the absence of military 
police. Discipline at animal-watering points should provide 
for admission at one time of sufficient animals to utilize the full 
length of the trough, to see that bits are removed, and to see 
that no animals attached to vehicles are permitted to water. 



|dia.rope 75'4'tmJ 



<g"dia. topt 100 : 0lon^ 



Overall dimensions ■i'0'»Z4'-0" 



Picket ftsts made of Z'Std.tt>.i.pip«. 
•4-6'lonf, pointed on one end and 
capped with mall, pipe cap 




ttqj. per 3<|.\)d. cotton 

or linen ducK-xua.teepec'of 



Figuke 35.— Canvas horse trough 

i. Proper use of signs in connection with water-distributing 
points is of the greatest importance, and they should be placed 
at road junctions and other points within a radius of from 500 
to 2,000 yards as well as at the water point. 

Section VII 

WATER SUPPLY MACHINERY 

59. Pumps. — a. The windlass with one or two buckets is 
the most common method of raising water. It is subject to the 
objection that it facilitates contamination of the water in the 
well. Hand force pumps may be used for shallow wells. For 
deep wells, if the water rises high enough, the best method for 



80 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

raising water is the electrically driven centrifugal pump, either 
fixed on supports across the well or in a chamber cut within 
the suction lift of the water; otherwise some type of deep well 
plunger, air lift, or vertical centrifugal pump set well below 
water level must be used. Power can be furnished by a portable 
gasoline engine. 

6. A canvas-belt elevator can be quickly installed in an open 
well. An endless 8-inch canvas belt weighing 0.346 pound per 
yard is used, running over a 15-inch belt drum, the bottom loop 
immersed in the water 6 inches from the bottom of the well 
when at rest. Water is taken off by a scraper at the top or at 
high speeds by centrifugal force. These elevators were used by 
the British forces for delivering 1,000 to 2,000 gallons per hour 
at depths of 40 to 200 feet. The chief disadvantage was a lack 
of durability in the belts. Slip can be avoided by tacking a 
4-inch strip of canvas around the middle of the pulley and for 
the shallower wells using two or more belts superimposed. A 
3 to 5 horsepower gas engine is suitable for power. The amount 
of water that can be lifted by a plunger pump depends on the 
diameter and the stroke as well as the speed. With a 6-inch 
hole, a 4- inch rising main and a 3%-inch pump barrel can be 
used, giving 200 gallons per minute. With a 6-inch rising main 
and 5%-inch barrel, 500 gallons per minute may be obtained. 
Pumps have been built to handle 1,400 gallons per minute 
against a head of 150 feet. It often happens that it is difficult 
to keep sand and grit out of the pump barrel with ordinary 
strainers, and considerable damage and loss of efficiency can 
result from this cause. For moderate ease of installation 250 
feet is the maximum depth of pump barrel below the surface. 
The suction lift should never be greater than 20 feet. Under 
some conditions it is necessary to change the elevation of the 
pump to adjust to varying levels of water; the practicable speed 
decreasing as the depth increases. The stroke of reciprocating 
pumps varies from 6 inches to 40 inches with speeds up to 40 
revolutions per minute. Owing to shock and vibration mainte- 
nance charges are high. 

c. (1) A centrifugal pump consists of a set of vanes mounted 
on a shaft and inclosed in a pump case. When the shaft is 
rotated, water admitted at the base of the vanes along the shaft 
is given a radial motion; and as it is confined by the pump case, 
this motion is converted into pressure and water discharged. 

(2) The pump may be of either the horizontal or the vertical 
shaft type. The horizontal is the standard form and should be 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



81 



used when possible. (See fig. 36.) The vertical type has the 
advantage that a short belt or direct drive can be used on the 
surface and power transmitted down to the pump by the shaft. 
It will operate under water, and this is convenient where large 
fluctuations of the water table occur, but a considerable loss of 
efficiency takes place in friction losses in the bearings supporting 
the shaft. 

(3) When electrical power is available centrifugal pumps are 
usually directly connected to the motor. A saving in power is 
effected by discarding the belt; but as the motor has a fixed 
speed, it must be designed to fit the conditions under which it 
is to work. 

(4) Centrifugal pumps are rated according to the size of the 
discharge openings in inches. The capacity varies with the 



7H.P Gas £»! %*, ... , Crowd lew/ 



2 m Cbntri/uga/ pan?p 



Wo for Line 




Figuke 3C. — Typical centrifugal pump installation 

total head (including suction lift), the speed, and the design of 
the impeller. Small pumps run at higher speed than the larger 
ones, and the same pump must run at a higher speed for greater 
heads. Average figures for a single-stage belt-driven pump are 
as follows: 

Table VII. — Centrifugal pump data 



Size of suction and discharge in inches 


Normal 
capacity in 
gallons per 
minute at 
40 feet total 
head 


Recom- 
mended 
horse power 
for each 
foot of lift 
at normal 
capacity 




20 
100 
150 
225 
400 


0.02 




.06 




.085 




.114 




.20 







82 BNGINEBB FIELD MANUAL 

(5) The efficiency reported by manufacturers is rarely attained 
under field conditions. A centrifugal pump is not ordinarily 
operated under more than a 17-foot suction lift; and as greater 
lifts are difficult to avoid if horizontal pumps are used and 
there is much fluctuation of the water table, it may be necessary 
to reset the pump from time to time to keep it within 17 feet 
of the water level. A 10 or 12 foot suction lift (or less when 
possible) results in more satisfactory operation. If a centrifu- 
gal pump, taking its supply from a reservoir, can be installed 
below the level of the water so as to have a positive head on the 
suction of the pump, its operation is more satisfactory and cer- 
tain than where there is a suction lift. 

(6) It is necessary to prime centrifugal pumps either by ex- 
tracting the air from the top of the pump casing or by admitting 
water under pressure when the pump is not running and allowing 
the air to escape through a valve at the top of the casing. If 
pumping from driven wells, a vacuum chamber should be in- 
serted in the suction pipe with an ejector for exhausting the air 
from the top of the chamber. Dissolved air will separate from 
the water and stop the pump unless this precaution is taken 
for its removal. In temporary field installations, where such 
provision is impracticable, it may be necessary to stop the pump 
from time to time and remove the accumulated air. 

(7) In a recent form of centrifugal pump, called the deep-well 
turbine, the shafting is inclosed in the discharge pipe and the 
apparatus designed to fit inside a well casing. As the impellers 
are small, a number of stages are provided — one for each 20 or 30 
feet of lift. It is of the turbine type, supported at the ground 
and hangs free in the well. Power may be applied by a belt or 
directly by a vertical motor. 

d. The air-lift pump is adapted to supplying large amounts 
of water from great depths. Compressed air is forced down an 
air pipe and delivered near the bottom of a discharge pipe, where 
it expands and rises bringing water with it. The length of the 
submerged portion of the air pipe should be from 30 to 70 per 
cent of the distance from the bottom of the air pipe to the point 
of discharge. It is preferable to have 70 per cent submergence 
of the eduction pipe. The pressure used ranges from 20 to 100 
pounds per square inch and is usually one-fifth to one-fourth 
pound per foot of lift. There are no moving parts to wear, and 
it may be operated from a distant air compressor, but the 
efficiency is not high. 



ENGINEEB FIELD MANUAL 83 

60. General suggestions for the use of portable pump- 
ing sets. — a. Setting up for operation. — The pump should be 
brought to the nearest level spot to the water hole, sump, or 
stream from which water is to be pumped. Although a pump 
head will lift from 10 to 20 feet, it is always advisable to shorten 
suction lift as much as possible. Every unnecessary additional 
foot of suction lift cuts down the discharge volume and pressure 
accordingly. An added foot of suction lift will decrease the 
possible discharge head at least five times that amount. Attach 
the suction hose securely to the suction port of the pump, making 
sure there are no air leaks. Attach the strainer to the other 
end of the suction hose. If the suction lift is over 10 feet, it is 
advisable to use a check valve or foot valve at the end of the 
suction hose so that the pump may be readily primed if stopped 
for any reason during the operation. Attach the suction strainer 
to this foot valve if the foot valve has no strainer on it. If 
a swing check valve is used as a foot valve, the suction strainer 
should be attached to it. Keep the strainer well under the 
surface of the water, but do not allow it to rest on the bottom of 
the water hole and do not permit it to come in contact with grit or 
fine rock. Place a stick or rock underneath to keep the strainer 
off the bottom or float it from a block on the surface of the water. 
Grit and sand will cut the pump and cause it to lose its suction 
and efficiency. 

6. No specific rules can be laid down for the use of hose lines 
because of the wide variation in the nature of the terrain elevation 
and topography of the various localities in which pumping sets 
are used. However, it is the general purpose to reach either 
the longest distance the most easily or cover the widest area 
with the least amount of hose. The Siamese connection used 
in connection with pumping sets is a valuable part of pumping 
equipment. It allows two or more hose lines to be used, per- 
mitting the extension of the hose to a wide front or to both 
sides of a fire or area to which water has to be brought. A 
Siamese connection used at the pump outlet, as in Figure 37, 
will handle four discharge nozzles by connecting two additional 
Siamese connections on the two primary lines. It is suggested 
that gate or stop valves be used at every point in connection 
with these Siamese connections so that the water may be closed 
down at one point while hose is being changed. A Siamese 
connection in the line with a valve may be used to take water 
from the line for any purpose. 



84 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



c. Relay pumping. — It is often necessary and many times 
desirable to place water at an elevation above the pumping 
set, impossible to reach with a single unit. It is practical and 
simple to connect two or more pumps in series and relay the water 
to elevations up to 1,500 feet through a mile of hose line. The 
simplest means is to pump from the lower pump to an elevation 
of about 200 feet into a canvas tank partly buried in the ground 
or suspended; placing the suction of the second pump at that 
elevation into this tank or pump and pumping to a second eleva- 
tion. Another very practical way of relay pumping where 

tanks are not available is 
through the use of Siamese 
connections. In order to 
supply the second pump 
in a relay series, the plant 
at the source of the water 
should be connected up as 
usual. The second plant 
should have a Siamese 
connection put on at the 
suction end with a valve 
on one side of the Siamese. 
The regular dischargehose 
from the first pump should 
be connected into the 
open end of the Siamese 
on the suction of the sec- 
ond unit. The valve on 
the other side of the Sia- 
mese should be left open 
and the first pump started. 
When the water reaches 
the second unit and starts 
to run out of the valve, the second pump should be started and 
the valve closed. This same connection may be repeated on the 
pumps above. (See fig. 37.) By this method relay tanks are 
done away with. 

61. Mobile purification unit. — a. (See fig. 38.) The entire 
equipment of this unit is mounted on a 3 Mi-ton truck and consists 
essentially of a modified truck body; a single-stage, 2-inch, 
double-suction, horizontal centrifugal pump, directly coupled 
to a 4-cylinder gasoline engine of 20 to 25 horsepower; a 42-inch 




Figure 37. — Siamese connection used with por- 
table pump 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



85 



rapid sand pressure filter, 5 feet high, with a hand agitator; 
a 5- way control valve; a direct dry feed or a solution feed chlorin- 
ator; an alum pot; a 12-gallon soda ash tank with appropriate 
feeds; a 32-gallon contact tank; a venturi meter; and a simple 
laboratory for making acidity, alkalinity, free chlorine, color, and 
turbidity tests. In some models slight modifications in the 
above have been made including the substitution of a power 
take-off from the truck engine in lieu of a special engine for the 
pump. 

6. (See fig. 39.) (1) The water is drawn in through the 
suction line by the centrifugal pump and forced to the 5-way 
valve, which can be set to normal filtering, filter to waste, 



Fid* latcntory 




A Pamp 

B Enjtne. 

C Five- way valve 

D Filter 



E Chloriqatot* 

F ^odaasli Apparatus 

GAlum pot 

I Contact tank. 



Figure 38.— Mobile purification truck 

washing filter, by-passing the filter (i. e. from pump to contact 
tank), or closed. 

(2) Chlorine is fed into the suction line and is thoroughly 
mixed with the water while passing through the pump and 
filter. Sufficient chlorine as determined by tests with ortho- 
tolidin is applied to leave a minimum of 0.5 part per million of 
free chlorine in the effluent. The chlorine is supplied in steel 
cylinders containing 1.1 cubic feet or approximately 100 pounds 
of the liquefied gas. A solution of alum also is fed into the 
suction line and reacts with the alkali in the water to form a 
fiocculent precipitate which is deposited in a layer on the top 
of the sand in the filter. If the water is normally acid, neutral, 
or has insufficient alkalinity this precipitate does not form and 



86 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



it is necessary to add a certain amount of alkali (2 or 3 per cent 
sodium carbonate) by means of the soda-ash system, feeding 
likewise into the pump suction. Sufficient alum is used to 
remove the turbidity and leave a residual alkalinity of 10 parts 
per million in the effluent. In general, one grain of alum per 
gallon reduces the alkalinity five parts per million. The correct 
amount is determined by the difference in alkalinity between the 
raw and filtered water. If ferrous iron is present, it will be 
precipitated after filtration as a reddish ferric iron. The addition 

A Pomp. 

D Enjitie. 

C Five-way valve. 

D Filtix 

E Chlorinator apparatus. 

VSoda. ash apparatus. 

GAtuttv pot. 

H Venturi meter: 

I Contact tank-. 




Suction 

Figure 39. — Diagram piping system of mobile purification unit 

of hydrated lime through the alkalinity device changes the 
ferrous to ferric iron, which is then removed by the filter. 

(3) After passing through the filter the water normally goes 
to the contact tank, where it is retained for a brief time to permit 
the chemical action of the chlorine and to furnish a small reser- 
voir for the laboratory water supply. The discharge lines lead 
from the contact tank at both sides of the truck. 

(4) The pump has a rated capacity of 100 gallons per minute 
against a 75-foot head when operating at 1,150 revolutions per 
minute. It may be operated as a simple pumping unit, as a 
pumping and chlorinating unit or as a pumping and filter unit 
with or without chlorination. 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 87 

Section VIII 
FORMULAS AND TABLES 

62. Symbols used. 

v= velocity in feet per second 

p=pressure in pounds per square foot 
w=weight of 1 cubic foot of water=62.4 pounds 

g= acceleration due to gravity=32.2 feet per second — per 
second (average) 

h= total head in feet 
H= hydrostatic head 
hf= friction head (head lost on account of friction) 

1 = length of pipe line in feet 

d= diameter of pipe in feet 

/= friction factor 

Q= discharge in cubic feet per second 

a = area in square feet 

, , ,. ,. area of wet cross section 

r=hydrauhc radius= t-t — , : r 

wetted perimeter 

■= (for circular pipes flowing full) j- 

__ head in feet_^ 
length in feet — I 

v 2 

o^=theoretic head required to produce a given velocity 

63. Flow of water in pipes. — The fundamental statement 
of hydrodynamics is the Bsrnoulli theorem, which may be 
expressed as follows: At any section of a pipe or tube under 

steady flow without friction the sum of the velocity head ( ~o~ ) 

and the pressure head ( — ) equals the hydrostatic head (H) that 

obtains when there is no flow. The expression p/w or pressure 
head is the head which gives rise to the pressure p. In Figure 
40 a sloping pipe is connected to a reservoir. At points A and 
B on the pipe are inserted vertical tubes open at the top. If the 
flow in the pipe is shut off at the lower end, water will rise in 
both vertical tubes to the level of the water surface in the 
reservoir. Evidently the head at A is Hi, and at B it is H 2 . If 
flow is again permitted in the pipe and we assume that it takes 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



place without friction loss, we can establish certain relations 
between the hydrostatic pressure and velocity heads at any 
particular point. While flow is taking place, water in the 
vertical tube at A, for example, will not rise to the water surface 
level of the reservoir but to some point lower than this. The 
extent to which it does rise in the tube is a measure of the pres- 
sure head (p/w) at the point and the difference between the 
hydrostatic head and the pressure head is evidently the head that 
produces the velocity of flow in the pipe — 

fli—rtr-- 



2(7 



. RESERVOIR 



Water 




Figure 40.— Flow of water in pipes 

This expresses Bernoulli's theorem in equation form. Similarly 
at point B — 

I-I 2 =P 2 /W+V^/2g 

From the above it is apparent that the pressure head at any 
section decreases when the velocity increases. At the outlet 
where the pressure head is zero — 

H b = V b '/2g 

But in steady flow with friction, the total hydrostatic head on 
the outlet (K) equals the sum of the head which produces the 
velocity of discharge and the head required to overcome friction 
between the reservoir and the outlet. Then 



h = v*/2g + h f 



(1) 



Considering points other than the top and bottom of the pipe, a 
general statement of the law governing the flow in pipes may be 
given as follows: The total head at any section is equal to that 
at any subsequent section plus the head lost on account of 
friction between the two sections. 



Head lost by friction — hf—j-X? 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 89 

If, as explained below, the lost head (h/) is expressed in terms 
of V, equation (1) becomes the general equation for the solution 
of problems concerning pipe flow, losses other than those due to 
friction being neglected. 

64. Lost head. — In a straight pipe of uniform section the 
only losses of head of importance are the head lost at entrance 
and that lost in friction. Sudden changes in direction or diam- 
eter or obstruction to the flow by partially closed valves intro- 
duce losses which need not be considered here. The friction 
factor, /, decreases as the velocity increases and as the diameter 
increases; it increases with the roughness of the pipe. The 
friction head is directly proportional to the length of pipe, is 
inversely proportional to the diameter, increases nearly as the 
square of the velocity, increases with the roughness and is 
independent of the pressure. 

~d*2g 

Disregarding the loss of head at entrance and substituting the 
above value for hi in equation (1) 

h^v'/2g+f j v*/2g (2) 

That is, the head necessary to give a desired discharge at the out- 
let must be sufficient to overcome in addition the friction in the 
pipe line. But in a long pipe — that is, where the length is at 
least 500 times the diameter — the loss by friction will take up 
practically the whole available head. For example in a 12-inch 
pipe line 4,000 feet long with the reservoir surface 100 feet above 
the discharge, 98 per cent of the head is lost in friction. In 
such pipe lines we may even disregard the head necessary to 
give the discharge velocity. For practical purposes (2) may be 
written 

»= y^ = 8.02VH^ (3) 

For rough computations, / may be assumed to have a ; value 
of 0.02. 

65. Solution of pipe problems. — a. The common formula 
for flow in open channels, the Chezy formula, may also be used 
in computations for long pipes. Tins formula is 

v=CiJts. (4) 

GG500°— 32 7 



90 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

The term "r" is the hydraulic radius and equals the area of the 
wet cross section divided by the length of the wetted perimeter. 
For a circular pipe flowing full r—d/i. The term "s" (slope) = 
h/l. The values of C for various conditions have been deter- 
mined by experiment and may be obtained from Table VIII. 
The mean value of C for new j)ipes is 114. Most pipe problems 
can be solved with sufficient accuracy for ordinary military 
conditions by using Chezy's formula and the following: 

Q = av. 
Results need not in any case be carried to more than three sig- 
nificant figures. A common problem in pipe flow is: Having h, 
I, and d given, find v and Q. For example, assume that fe=100 
feet, d=12 inches, and Z=4,000 feet, and, as a trial, assuming a 
value of 0=115 we have in equation (4) — 

here V»""-=Vl74=0.5 



"^ VlTwO = V0.025 = 0.158 



w=115X0.5X0.158 
= 9.1 ft. per second. 
Taking 9 feet per second as sufficiently close, we find the value 
of C from Table VIII to be about 115, so no recomputation is 
necessary. If it should be found that the velocity computed 
does not correspond with a value of C in the table substantially 
equal to that assumed, a value of C corresponding to the velocity 
in the trial computation may be taken from the table and the 
formula recomputed for a new value of v. 

Finally : 

Q = cm;=0.785X9 (o=0.785cP) 
= 7.06 cu. ft. per second. 

b. The usual method of finding the diameter necessary to 
deliver a certain amount of water, having h, I, and Q given, re- 
quires finding the fifth root. It is generally easier to assume a 
diameter and solve equation (4) for v and Q. An estimate can 
then be made of the necessary amount to increase or reduce the 
trial diameter so that the equation will give the required value of 
Q. Here it may be useful to note that the discharge varies about 
as d 2 - 5 . Since the velocity increases with the diameter, a direct 
relationship does not exist. 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



91 



Example: To compute the diameter necessary to discharge 9 
second-feet with a head of 50 feet in a distance of 2 miles. For a 
trial assume d=10 inches and C=110. Then 

v=110-Jrs~ 

= 110X0.456X0.0688 

= 3.45 feet per second 

and Q = (M) = 0.545X3.45=1.88 second-feet. 

The value required, 9 second-feet, is about five times the result 

obtained. Inasmuch as the velocity is somewhat larger with a 

larger pipe, make a second trial with a pipe having an area about 

4 times that of a 10-inch pipe or one having a diameter the square 

of which would be about 4X10 2 , namely, a 20-inch pipe. With 

a 20-inch pipe — 

C=113 

and v=113-Jrs~ 

= 113X0.646X0.0688 
= 5.0 feet per second 
Q = 2.18X5.0 
= 10.9 second-feet. 
This is satisfactory. The next smaller size, 18-inch, will give a 
discharge less than ^^gX 10.9 = 8.8, and this will be too small. 



Table VIII. — Values of C for iron pipes 
[By Williams, American Civil Engineers Pocket Book, p. 1089] 



Diameter in inches 


Velocities in feet per second 


For new pipe 


For old pipe 




1 


3 


6 


10 


1 


3 


6 


10 


3__ 


05 
96 
98 
100 
102 
105 
111 


9S 
101 
105 
108 
110 
112 
120 


100 
104 
109 
112 
117 
119 
126 


102 
106 
112 
117 
122 
125 
131 


63 
69 
73 
77 
81 
86 
92 


63 
74 
78 
82 
86 
91 
98 


71 
77 
80 
85 
89 
94 
101 


73 


6_ 


79 


9__ 


84 


12. 


88 


15. 


91 


18. _- 


97 


24 


104 











c. At times it will be necessary to determine the size required 
and then compute the number of pipes of a smaller size which 
discharge the required amount. Based on the fact that relative 



92 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

discharge varies as the 5/2 power of the diameter, Table IX 
supplies means of determining this for the sizes commonly used. 
Example: To find size of pipe necessary to supply 28 branches of 
1-inch pipe, read down column headed "1" for a number 
larger than 28 — in this case 29 — and find answer in column 1 at 
tho left which gives diameter of pipe required as 4-inch. 

d. The greater number of military pipe problems may be 
solved with sufficient accuracy by Table X for long pipes. It 
applies to new straight cast or wrought iron pipes, and may be 
vised to advantage for problems involving the sizes given; it 
applies equally to steel or wood. The discharge coefficient 
for riveted steel is 10 to 25 per cent less than for smooth new iron. 

Example: Given a 6-inch pipe 3,000 feet long with a total 
head of 36 feet, find the velocity and the discharge: Assuming 
that the velocity head is so small as to be negligible, the friction 
head per. 100 feet will be 100X36/3000 = 1.2. From the table, 
for 6-inch pipe, the velocity is found to be 4 feet per section 
and the discharge 352 gallons per minute. For old pipe, enter 
the table with only one half the available head. If the above 
problem were for old pipe, the friction head used would be 0.6 
per 100 feet, the velocity would be 2.8 feet per second, and the 
discharge 247 gallons per minute. Similarly, if the velocity is 
given, the actual friction head for an old pipe may be obtained by 
multiplying the tabular value by 2. For a velocity of 4 feet 
per second, the friction head in an old 6-inch pipe is 2.4 feet per 
100 feet. The discharge must be reduced to allow for the age of 
any pipe which has been, or is expected to be, in service more 
than one or two years. The term "old pipe" as used here 
applies to an age of 10 years or more. 

To find the diameter necessary to furnish a given discharge 
with a given head and length of pipe: 

Example : Find the diameter of a pipe to discharge 4 gallons per 
minute under a head of 21 feet in a pipe line 1,000 feet long. 
Here the friction head is 2.1 feet per 100 feet. The table shows a 
discharge of 4.4 gallons per minute under 1-inch pipe with a 
velocity of 1.8 feet per second and the 1-inch pipe could be used. 
In connection with branching pipes, it is usually necessary to 
compute each branch separately, but note may be made of the 
fact that the friction head in a pipe discharging uniformly 
throughout its length is about one-third that of a pipe discharging 
only at its end. 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 93 

e. If a check computation is desired on the application of the 
Chezy formula, v=C-Jrs, or on data taken from Table X, 
equation (3), paragraph 64, can be used with a value of/ based 
on the following equations of Darcy: 

New pipe— /=0.02+y^? 

Old pipe- /=0-04 + ^g 

As / varies with the velocity, the values are not exact but they 
are sufficiently so for use here. (d= diameter in feet and 12d 
here = pipe diameter in inches.) 

/. The calculating diagram (fig. 41) for cast-iron pipe given 
below may be used in arriving at results quickly in pipe problems. 
If any two of the quantities shown on the four vertical lines are 
known, the other two may be read directly from the diagram. 
This eliminates the necessity of trial computations. 

The results from the diagram may not agree in every case 
with results derived from the use of formulas, but the values 
from the calculating diagram provide some margin of safety. 

66. Pipe line with. pump. — If a pump lifts water from one 
reservoir to another it requires power not only to lift the water 
through the height, h, but also to overcome the friction head, hi, 
in the suction and discharge piping so that the pump works 
against a head h+hi. The expression hi includes the velocity 
head of discharge. The power of a pump is — 



Foot-pounds per second = 



w (h + hi) 



e 



where to=number pounds lifted per second 
e= efficiency. 
To raise 20 cubic feet per second 16 feet with a pump efficiency 
of 0.62 and a friction head of 4 feet, 

20X62.4X(16 + 4) =4 ^ 260 foot . p6unds per secon d. 

This divided by 550 gives 73.2 horsepower. 

If a complete vacuum could be produced below the plunger of a 
pump, and if there were no friction, the suction lift would be 
equal to the atmospheric pressure (in feet of water) or about 34 
feet. In practice the suction lift is limited to 24 feet or preferably 
less than this. 



94 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



20- 



10- 

9- 
8- 
7- 



9000 


72 


8000 


66 


7000 


60 


6000 


54 


5000 


48 




42 


400<~ 





-3000 



- iooo ? 

-900 §_ 

-800 * 

-700 2 

-600 'J 
c 

- 50 ° & 
■S>l.0+ Si 

4 9- 
X 

X -8- 
P .7 

.6 



_— 300 



-100 

-GO 
-80 
-70 
-60 



30- 

28 

26 

24 

22- 

20 

18 

16- 

14- 

12- 

10- 
9- 
8- 
7- 

6- 



.03 — 
.04 — 

.05 
.06 

.08 -E 

o.\—_ 



.5 — 

.6 — 



to-: 



5- 

6- 

8- 
10^= 



30 — 

40 — 
SO 
60 — 

80 
100-f 



300 — 
400 



H 
.i- 
.i- 

.3- 

.4- 
.S- 
.6- 
.7 - 
.8- 
.9- 

8 • 

!••: 

a 

1* : 

.6 - 



8- 



,3 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 95 

Table IX. — Relative capacity of pipes of different diameters 



Diameter 
(inches) 


1 


2 


i 


6 


8 


10 


12 


15 


1. 

2 . 


1.0 
5.5 
29.0 
80.0 
100.0 
282.0 
443.0 
800.0 


0.18 
1.0 
5.3 
15.0 
29.0 
52.0 
81.0 
148.0 


0.034 
.19 

1.0 

2.8 

5.5 
10.0 
15.0 
28.0 


0.012 
.067 
.36 

1.0 

2.0 

3.5 

5.5 
10.0 


a 0002 
.034 
.18 
.77 

1.0 

1.8 

2.8 

5.0 


0. 0035 

.019 

.10 

.29 

.56 
1.0 
1.6 
2.9 


0. 0022 
.012 
.067 
.18 
.30 
.62 

1.0 

1.8 


0. 0012 
.0068 


4 


.036 


6 _ 


.10 


8_ 


.20 


10_ 


.34 


12 


.56 


15 


1.0 






Table X. — Discharge and friction head for clean iron pipes 
[From values of /by Morriman] 


1-inch pipe 


2-inch pipe 


Velocity (feet per 
second) 


Second- 
foot 


Gallons 
per min- 
ute 


Friction 

head-feet 

per 100 

feet 


Second- 
foot 


Gallons 
per min- 
ute 


Friction 

head-feet 

per 100 

feet 


1.0. -. 


0. 00545 
. 00655 
.00764 
. 00873 
. 00982 
.0109 
.0120 
.0131 
.0142 
.0153 
.0164 
.0175 
.0185 
.0196 
.0207 
.0218 
.0229 
.0240 
.0251 
. 0202 
.0273 
.0284 
.0295 
.0305 
.0318 
.0327 
.0338 
.0349 
.0360 
.0371 
.0382 
.0393 
.0404 
.0415 
. 0425 
.0430 
.0447 
.0458 
.0469 
.0480 
.0491 
.0502 
. 0513 
.0524 
.0535 


2.44 
2.94 
3.43 
3.92 
4.41 
4.89 
5.38 
5.88 
6.37 
0.87 
7.36 
7.85 
8.32 
8.80 
9.28 
9.78 
10.3 
10.8 
11.3 
11.8 
12.3 
12.7 
13.2 
13.7 
14.2 
14.7 
15.2 
15.6 
16.2 
16.7 
17.1 
17.6 
18.1 
18.6 
19.1 
19.6 
20.1 
20.6 
21.0 
21.5 
22.0 
22.5 
23.0 
23.5 
24.0 


0.7 
1.0 
1.4 
1.7 
2.1 
2.5 
3.0 
3.5 
4.0 
4.5 
5.2 
5.9 
6.5 
7.1 
7.9 
8.7 
9.3 
10.2 
11.1 
12.0 
13.0 
14.0 
15.0 
10.0 
17.0 
18.0 
19.0 
20.0 
22.0 
23.0 
24.0 
25.0 
27.0 
28.0 
29.0 
• 31.0 
32.0 
34.0 
35.0 
37.0 
38.0 
40.0 
41.0 
43.0 
45.0 


0. 0218 
.0262 
.0305 
.0349 
.0393 
.0436 
.0480 
.0524 
.0567 
.0611 
.0655 
.0698 
.0742 
.0785 
.0829 
.0873 
.0916 
.0900 
.100 
.105 
.109 
.113 
.118 
.122 
.127 
.131 
.135 
.140 
.144 
.148 
.153 
.157 
.161 
.166 
.170 
.175 
.179 
.183 
.188 
.192 
.196 
.201 
.205 
.209 
.214 


9.78 
11.8 
13.7 
15.6 
17.6 
19.6 
21.5 
23.5 
25.4 
27.4 
29.4 
31.3 
33.3 
35.2 
37.2 
39.2 
41.1 
43.1 
45.0 
47.0 
48.9 
50.9 
52.9 
54.8 
56.8 
58.8 
60.7 
62.8 
64.6 
66.5 
68.5 
70.4 
72.4 
74.4 
70.3 
78.3 
SO. 3 
82.2 
84.2 
80.2 
88.1 
90.1 
92.0 
94.0 
96.0 


0.33 


1.2 


.46 


1.4 


.00 


1.6 - -- 


.77 


1.8 . 


.93 


2.0 . 


1.1 


2.2 


1.3 


2.4 


1.6 


2.6 


1.8 


2.8 - ---- 


2.0 


3.0. _-_ _ 


2.3 


3.2 . 


2.6 


3.4 . 


2.9 


3.6 


3.2 


3.S . 


3.6 


4.0 


4.0 


4.2 . . . .. 


4.3 


4.4 


4.7 


4.6 


5.1 


4.8 - - 


5.6 


5.0 


6.0 


5.2 


6.4 


5.4. _ 


6.8 


5.0 


7.3 


5.8 


7.8 


6.0 


8.4 


6.2 


8.9 


6.4 


9.5 


6.6 


10.0 


6.8 


10.5 


7.0 


11.0 


7.2 


11.6 


7.4 


12.2 


7.0 


12.9 


7.8 


13.4 


8.0 . 


14.2 


8.2 


14.9 


8.4 


15.5 


8.6 . 


16.4 


8.8 _- 


16.7 


9.0... _ 


17.0 


9.2 


18.0 


9.4 


19.0 


9.6 


20.0 


9.8 


21.0 























96 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



Table X. — Discharge and friction head for clean iron pipes — Con. 
[From values of / by Merriman] 





4-inch pipe 


6-inch pipe 


Velocity (feet per 
second) 


Second- 
feet 


Gallons 

per 
minute 


Friction 

head feet 

per 100 

feet 


^Second- 
feet 


Gallons 

per 
minute 


Friction 

head feet 

per 100 

feet 


1.0 


0. 0873 
.105 
.122 
.140 
.157 
.175 
. 192 
.209 
.227 
.244 
.262 
.279 
.297 
.314 
.332 
.349 
.367 
.3S4 
,401 
.419 
.436 
.454 
.471 
.489 
.506 
.524 
.541 
.558 
.576 
.593 
.611 
.628 
.646 
.663 
.681 
.698 
.716 
.733 
.750 
.768 
.785 
.803 
.820 
.838 
.855 


39.2 
47.0 
54.8 
62.7 
70.5 
78.3 
86.2 
94.0 

102 

110 

118 

125 

133 

141 

149 

157 

164 

172 

180 

188 

196 

204 

212 

219 

227 

235 

243 

251 

258 

266 

274 

282 

290 

298 

305 

313 

321 

329 

337 

345 

352 

360 

368 

376 

384 


0.14 
.20 
.27 
.34 
.41 
.50 
.00 
.71 
.82 
.94 

1.07 

1.2 

1.3 

1.4 

1.6 

1.8 

1.9 

2.1 

2.3 

2.5 

2.7 

2.9 

3.1 

3.4 

3.6 

3.9 

4.1 

4.4 

4.6 

4.9 

5.1 

5.4 

5.7 

6.0 

6.3 

6.6 

6.9 

7.2 

7.5 

7.8 

8.1 

8.5 

8.8 

9.1 

9.4 


0.196 
.235 
.275 
.314 
.353 
.393 

.432 
.471 
.510 
.550 
.589 
.628 
.668 
.707 
.746 
.785 
.825 
.864 
.903 
.942 
.982 
1.02 
1.06 
1.10 
1.14 
1.18 
1.22 
1.26 
1.30 
1.34 
1.38 
1.41 
1.45 
1.49 
1.53 
1.57 
1.61 
1.65 
1.69 
1.73 
1.77 
1.81 
1.85 
1.88 
1.92 


88 
106 
123 
141 
159 
176 
194 
212 
229 
247 
264 
282 
300 
317 
335 
352 
370 
388 
405 
423 
441 
458 
476 
494 
511 
529 
546 
564 
582 
599 
617 
634 
652 
670 
687 
705 
723 
740 
758 
776 
793 
811 
828 
846 
863 


0.087 


1.2.... 


.13 


1.4 


.17 


1.6 


.21 


1.8 


.27 


2.0 

2.2 


.34 
.39 


2.4 


.46 


2.6 .. 


.53 


2.8 


.60 


3.0 


.70 


3.2 


.79 


3.4 ... 


.88 


3.6 


.97 


3.8 


1.08 


4.0 


1.2 


4.2. ___ 


1.3 


4.4 


1.4 


4.6 


1.5 


4.S 


1.6 


5.0 


1.8 


5.2 


1.9 


5.4 ... 


2.0 


5.6 _ 


2.2 


5.8 


2.3 


6.0 


2.4 


6.2 ... 


2.6 


6.4 


2.8 


6.6 


2.9 


6.8 . 


3.1 


7.0 . 


3.2 


7.2 


3.4 


7.4 


3.6 


7.6 


3.8 


7.8 


3 9 


8.0... _ 


4. 1 


8.2 


4.3 


8.4 


4 5 


8.6.... 


4.7 


8.8 


4.9 


9.0 


5.1 


9.2 


5 3 


9.4.... 




9.6. 


5 7 


9.8 


6.0 







ENGINEEB FIELD MANUAL 



97 



67. Convenient data for 
Area of circle 

TV 

g (average) 

v (theoretical velocity) 

h (theoretical velocity head) 

1 atmosphere 



1 meter 

lfoot 
1 inch 
1 kilometer 
1 mile 
1 gram 



1 kilogram 

1 grain per gallon 

1 part per million 

1 pound (av.) 

Grains per gallon/7 

1 ton water 

1 imperial gallon 

1 gallon (United States) 



1 gallon per minute 
1 cubic foot 



1 cubic foot per second 



1,000,000 gallons per day 

1 acre 

1 barrel (oil) 

1 pound per square inch 



hydraulic calculations. 

= 7rr 2 = }W 2 =0.7854d 2 

= 3.1416 

= 32.2 feet per second 

= /2^=8.02//T 

=W2ff = 0.0155« 2 

= 29.92 inches mercury 

= 33.90 feet of water 

= 14.7 pounds per square inch 

= 760 millimeters mercury 

= 3.281 feet 

= 39.37 inches 

= 0.3048 meter 

= 25.4 millimeters 

= 0.6214 statute mile 

= 1.609 kilometers 

= 15.43 grains 

= weight of 1 cubic centimeter of 

water 
= 2.20 pounds av. 
= 17.1 parts per million 
= 0.0584 grain per gallon 
= 7,000 grains 
= pounds per 1,000 gallons 
= 32.0 cubic feet 
= 1.20 gallons (United States) 
= 231 cubic inches 
= 0.1337 cubic foot 
= 3.785 liters 

= 8.345 pounds (av.) of water 
= 0.002228 cubic foot per second 
= 62.43 pounds water (average) 
= 7.480 gallons (United States) 
= 28.32 liters 

= 448.8 gallons per minute 
= 0.0864 million cubic feet per day 
= 646,317 gallons per day 
= 1.547 cubic feet per second 
= 694.4 gallons per minute 
= 43,560 sqiiare feet 
= 42 gallons (United States) 
= 2.31 feet water 



98 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



1 foot water 

1 inch on 1 square mile 

1 foot on 1 square mile 

1 kilowatt 

1 horsepower 



1 sterilizing bag 
Cart, water 
Trailer, tank, water 
Truck, tank, water-supply 

battalion 
1 light railway tank car 
1 standard railway tank car 
1 canvas water basin (20 by 

20) 
1 canteen 



1 canteen cup 
1 canteen top 



= 0.434 pound per square inch 

= 2.323 million cubic feet 

= 27.88 million cubic feet 

= 1.34 horsepower 

= 550 foot-pounds per second — 

-0.746 kilowatt 
= 3,954 foot-gallons per minute 
= 5,694,120 foot-gallons per day 
= 36 gallons (to the white mark) 
= 180 gallons 
= 180 gallons 

= 500 gallons 

= 2,000 gallons 

= 8,000 to 10,000 gallons 

= 4,000 gallons (approximate) 

= 1 quart 

=950 cubic centimeters (approxi- 
mate) 

= 700 cubic centimeters (approxi- 
mate) 

=8 cubic centimeters (approxi- 
mate) 

= 2 teaspoonfuls 



Table XI. — Discharge in United States gallons through a circular 
orifice — head 1 foot. Coefficient of discharge^=0.62 



Diameter 
(inch) 


Area 
(square 
inch) 


Gallons 

per 
minute 


Gallons 
per day 


Diameter 
(inch) 


Area 
(square 
inch) 


Gallons 

per 
minute 


Gallons 
per day 


0.05 . 


0.002 
.008 
.018 
.031 
.049 


0.0304 
.1217 
.2739 
.4869 
.7607 


43.81 
175.3 
394.3 
701.1 
1,096 


0.30 


0.071 
.096 
.126 
.159 
.196 


1.096 
1.491 
1.947 
2.464 
3.043 


1,578 


0.10 


0.35 


2,147 


0.15 


0.40 


2,804 


0.20 


0.45 


3,549 


0.25 


0.50..._ 


4,381 









ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



99 



Table XII. — Friction of water in hose 

Friction loss in pounds pressure per square inch, for each 100 feet of length in differ- 
ent size cotton rubber lined hose discharging given quantities of water per minute. 



Gallons per minute 


% inch 


1 inch 


1)4 inch 


iyi inch 


2 inch 


2% inch 


3 inch 


5 - 




0.84 
3.16 
6.98 
12.30 
19.00 
27.50 
37.00 
48.00 


0.310 
1.050 
2.380 
4.070 
6.400 
9.150 
12.40 
16.10 
20.20 
24.90 
56.10 


0.12 

.47 

.97 

1.66 

2.62 

3.75 

5.05 

6.52 

8.15 

10.00 

22.40 

39.00 








10 


3.3 
13.0 
28.7 
50.4 
78.0 


0.12 






15 _ 






20 


.42 
.91 






25 


0.21 


0.10 


30 




35 






40 _ 




1.60 

2.44 
5.32 
9.46 
14.90 
21.20 


.51 
.61 
.81 
1.80 
3.20 
4.89 
7.00 


.20 


45 - 






50 






.35 


75 






.74 


100 






1.31 


125 








1.99 


150 










2.85 















CHAPTER 3 
LIGHT AND POWER 

Paragraph 

Section I. General principles 68 

II. Fundamentals of practical electricity - 69-82 

III. Instruments 83-87 

IV. Generators and motors _ — 88-98 

V. Power transmission and lighting _ 99-103 

VI. Military requirements 104-107 

VII. Reconnaissance - 108-112 



Section I 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES 

68. Military considerations. — a. Military applications of 
electricity. — The military applications of electrical engineering 
devices consist principally of lighting systems for headquarters, 
hospitals, shelters, depots, and schools, and power systems for 
operating shop or portable electrical machinery, for charging 
batteries, and for operating pumping and ventilating systems. 

6.- Sources of electricity. — As a general rule, the Army makes 
use of commercial sources of electrical energy whenever they 
are available within a reasonable distance and when the charac- 
teristics of the local power supply are such that the power is 
adaptable to the kinds of electrical machinery employed b}' the 
military forces. 

c. Equipment. — The items of electrical equipment procured and 
stocked for the use of the field forces are limited to a few standard 
commercial items, including generating sets, ranging from 1J4 to 
about 750 kilowatts, motors ranging from one-fourth to about 
30 horsepower, single-phase transformers ranging from 5 to about 
200 kilovolt-amperes, and the common articles of miscellaneous 
electric equipment. Both alternating-current and direct-current 
machines are used, depending principally upon the availability 
of suitable current and machines, although for certain special 
purposes such as searchlights, direct current is essential. 
100 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 101 

d. Character of installations. — The installation of large power 
plants in the combat zone is unusual because of the long time 
required to install the necessar}' machinery and because of the 
uncertainty as to the duration of the need for the plant. As a 
general rule, military requirements call for the immediate use of 
a small amount of power, the demands increasing from week to 
week. Such requirements usually can best be met by the instal- 
lation of a small generating set, to be augmented by other small 
sets from time to time, in accordance with the need for electrical 
service. Military electrical installations ma} r , therefore, seem 
uneconomical from the point of view of civil practice and will 
probably be most successful when the piecemeal character of 
their establishment renders them suitable for the immediate 
needs without much regard to the ultimate economy of the 
resulting system. 

e. Scope of treatment. — The scope of this chapter is limited to 
information useful to the engineer in the installation and opera- 
tion of equipment most likely to be used in the combat zone. 
The brief treatment of the theory of electricity here presented is 
just sufficient to afford a practical understanding of the principles 
most often applied in the field. 

Section II 
FUNDAMENTALS OF PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY 

69. Amperes. — The ampere is the unit of measure of the 
current or rate of flow of electricity along a conductor. One 
ampere represents a flow of one unit of electricity per second. 

70. Volts. — The volt is the unit of electromotive force. 
One volt is the force or pressure required to cause a current of 1 
ampere in a circuit containing one unit of resistance. 

71. Ohms. — The ohm is the unit of electrical resistance. 
A circuit has a resistance of 1 ohm when a pressure of 1 volt will 
force a current of 1 ampere through it. 

72. Direct current. — A direct current is one which flows in a 
single direction in a conductor. Certain types of electric 
generating machines provide direct current. 

73. Alternating current. — An alternating current is one 
that reverses in direction at regular intervals of time. Its value 
changes from zero to a maximum in one direction, returns to 
zero, and passes to a maximum in the reverse direction and 
returns to zero again. A complete set of these values through 



102 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



which an alternating current repeatedly passes is called a cycle. 
The number of cycles per second is the frequency of the current. 
Common frequencies of alternating currents arc 60 cycles per 
second and 25 cycles per second. The voltage of an alternating 
current also reverses periodically, just as does the current itself, 
but the corresponding values of voltage and current are not 
necessarily reached at the same instant. This is illustrated in 
Figure 42 which shows a curve of values of an alternating cur- 
rent and its corresponding voltage in a typical case where the 
current and voltage do not reach corresponding values at the 
same instant. In such a case the current and voltage are said 
to be out of phase. A similar phase difference exists between 
the several currents in a 2-phase or 3-phase alternating current 
system. Thus in a 3-phase circuit, carried on three wires, there 



+ 




Figure 42.— Curves of alternating current and voltage 



are three separate alternating currents, one flowing in each pair 
of the wires. These three currents are out of phase with each 
other by exactly one-third of a cycle. The practice has grown up 
of calling the current in each pair of wires a "phase." An alter- 
nating current circuit having but one current is called a 
single-phase circuit. One having more than one current is called a 
polyphase circuit. Alternating currents are provided by certain 
types of electric generating machines called alternators. Cur- 
rents coming from transformers are also alternating currents. 
If necessary, an alternating current can be changed over to direct 
current by the use of a machine called a rotary converter. Bat- 
teries do not provide alternating currents, and alternating cur- 
rents, unless rectified, can not be used to charge batteries. 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 103 

74. Comparison of alternating and direct current. — 
The chief advantage of alternating current is that power in alter- 
nating current circuits may be transformed without material loss 
to higher voltages, permitting transmission over long distances to 
the point of consumption, where it can be transformed back 
to a lower voltage suitable for lamps and other uses. Direct 
current can not be so transformed and is therefore not easily 
distributed over a wide area. However, small direct-current 
generators are much simpler than alternating-current generators 
and most small portable sets in commercial use generate direct 
current. The question, then, as to which type of current to 
use will depend very largely upon the type which is available. 
From the point of view of the consuming end there is little 
difference. Machines designed to use direct current are not 
ordinarily usable with alternating current, and vice versa, but 
incandescent lamps may be operated with either type of current. 

75. Watts. — a. Definition. — The watt is the unit of electrical 
power. 

6. Power in direct-current circuits. — In a direct-current circuit, 
the power is equal to the current in amperes multiplied by the 
pressure in volts. It can be determined by measuring the volts 
with a voltmeter and the amperes with an ammeter and 
multiplying their values. Thus, in a direct-current circuit: 

W=EI 
Where W=the power in watts 

E— volts as measured with a voltmeter 
/= current im amperes as measured with an ammeter. 

c. Power in alternating-current circuits. — In alternating cur- 
rents the foregoing rule for computing power does not apply 
since the voltage and current are generally not in phase with 
each other. The product of the volts and amperes in an alter- 
nating-current circuit gives what is called the apparent power. 
The true power in such a circuit may be measured with an instru- 
ment called a wattmeter. The ratio between the true power 
and the apparent power is called the power factor. When the 
power factor of a circuit is known, the true power may be ob- 
tained by multiplying the apparent power by the power factor. 
The power factor is usually expressed in per cent and is never 
greater than 100 per cent. The foregoing relations are 
expressed by the following formula for power in a single-phase al- 



104 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

ternating-current circuit or in any one phase of a polyphase 
alternating-current circuit : 

W=p. f.XEXI 
Where W=the true power in watts in a single-phase circuit or 
in any one phase of a polyphase circuit as measured 
with a wattmeter ' 
2?= the volts as measured with a voltmeter 
7 = the current as measured with an ammeter 
p. f. = the power factor, a percentage determined as 
described in paragraph SO. 
76. Kilowatts and kilovolt amperes. — a. Kilowatts. — A 
kilowatt equals 1,000 watts and is a unit of electrical power 
sometimes more convenient to use than the watt. The relation 
of kilowatts to watts is shown in the following formulas: 

Kilowatts^ 

Kilowatts X 1 ,000 = watts. 

b. Kilovolt-amperes. — The kilovolt-ampere (kva) is the custo- 
mary unit of measure of the apparent power in an alternating- 
current circuit. Its value is expressed in the following formula: 

Kil volt-amperes=X2lteXamperes 

The relations between the kilovolt-amperes (kva), kilowatts 
(kw), and power factor (p. /.) of an alternating-current circuit 
are given in the following formulas: 

Kilovolt-amperes= volts Xamperes 

Kilowatts= kilovolt-amperes X power fac- 
tor 

P-f- 
kva 

77. Horsepower. — Horsepower (h. p.) is the unit which 
measures the rate of doing mechanical work. One horsepower 
is the work required to raise 33,000 pounds vertically 1 foot in 
one minute. One horsepower is the equivalent of 746 watts, 
or 0.746 kilowatt. For either direct or alternating currents 
these relations are expressed by the following formulas: 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 105 

, _ watts watts=746Xft. p. 

h . p . = kU?watteXl,qpp kU0 watts=Z*6^S: 

78. Ohm's law for direct current. — Ohm's law is a formula 
expressing the relation existing between electromotive force in 
volts, current in amperes, and resistance in ohms. This formula 
is the basis of many electrical computations. It may be ex- 
pressed in several ways: 

a. Current flow equals the electromotive force divided by the 
resistance. 

R 

b. Electromotive force equals the current flow multiplied by 
the resistance. 

E=IXR 

c. Resistance equals the electromotive force divided by the 
current flow. 

The'se relations hold good for circuits carrying direct current. 
For circuits carrying alternating currents, certain modifications 
are necessary, as explained in paragraph 79. 

79. Ohm's law for alternating currents. — a. Alternating- 
current circuits have characteristics, such as inductance and 
capacitance, which affect the application of Ohm's Law. The 
theory of these characteristics of alternating-current circuits is 
beyond the scope of this manual to discuss, but the following 
formulas permit of practical calculations for the majority of 
alternating-current work likely to be met in the combat zone. 

b. Single-phase circuits. — The relations between current, 
voltage, power, and power factor in a single-phase circuit are 
given by the following equations: 

j_ w E= W t^_#X/ 



Exp.f. rxp.f- p.f. 

, _ true power W h. p. X746 

P ' } '~~ apparent power = i?X/~ voltsXamperes 
fr.y»X 746X1,000 



kva 
R6590 — 32 S 



106 ENGINEEB FIELD MANUAL 

Where 

/ = current as measured with an ammeter 
E= voltage as measured with a voltmeter 
T7=true power as measured with a wattmeter 
p. /. = power factor 
h. p. = horsepower 
kva= kilovolt-amperes. 

c. Two-phase circuits. — Two-phase circuits are so unusual that 
formulas therefor are omitted. 

d. Three-phase circuits. — (1) The relations of current, voltage, 
power, and power factor in a 3-phase, 3-wire circuit furnishing 
current to lights only (noninductive load) are given by the follow- 
ing equations. In such a circuit the power factor equals unity 
and is therefore not shown in the equations. 

W 



"1.73XB 



E= W 



1.73 XI 
TF=1.73XBX/ 

Where I and E have the same meanings as in 6 above 
W—the total true power of all three circuits. 
(2) The relations of the voltage, current, power, and power 
factor in a 3-phase, 3-wire system carrying a mixed load of lights 
and motors (inductive load) are given by the following equations: 

j _ true power _ W 

apparent power — 1.73 X/XB 

kw 
~kva 
_ h. p. X 746X1,000 

kva 

kvaJ^ 
P-f- 

E= W 



1.73 XIX p.f. 
W=1.73XlXEXp.f. 

Where /, E, W, p.f., h. p., kw, kva, have the same meanings as 
in b and (1) above. 

80. Power factor. — a. The power factor (see par. 75c) in an 
alternating-current circuit is of much practical importance and 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 107 

must be carefully considered when putting a load upon a generator 
if damage to equipment and operating failures are to be avoided. 
The power factor is fixed by the nature of the load. Thus, a load 
consisting of induction motors, not utilized to their full capacity, 
causes a low power factor, the practical effect of which is to 
cause the generating machine to generate current which circulates 
without producing useful power, causing the overheating of 
conductors both within the generator and out on the power line, 
with resulting loss of efficiency. The obvious remedy in such a 
case is to substitute smaller motors which would be taxed more 
nearly to their capacity, thus giving a high power factor. Good 
power factor is anything above 75 per cent. When a number of 
machines are to be installed the power factor of the total load 
should be computed by one of the following formulas: 

f true power _ W 

P ' } ' ""apparent power - 1.73 XI XE 
kw of the total load 



kva of the total load 
_ horsepower of the total load X 746 
~~ leva of the total load X 1,000 

Where 7 = the current requirements of all the motors 
jE=the voltage of the motors 

TT=the total power in watts of the motors as shown on the 
name plates. Usually the power is given in horse- 
power in which case the last form of the equation is 
used. 
If the motors are not all of the same voltage the kw for each 
voltage group is computed separately and then all are added 
together to get the total kw of the load. Similarly, the kva for 
each voltage group is computed separately and then added to get 
the kva of the total load. 

6. Power factor of typical loads. — Incandescent lights have 
100 per cent power factor. Alternating-current arc lamps have a 
low power factor (average, 70 per cent). Single-phase induction 
motors, squirrel-cage rotor, have power factors ranging from an 
average of 68 per cent for less than 1 horsepower to an average of 
about 82 per cent for 1 to 10 horsepower. Polyphase induction 
motors, squirrel-cage rotor, have power factors averaging 85 
per cent for 1 horsepower to 10 horsepower and 89 per cent for 
10 horsepower to 50 horsepower. In general, induction motor 
loads have power factors ranging from 60 to 85 per cent, depend- 
ing upon whether motors are carrying their rated loads. 




108 ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 

c. Power factor does not have to be considered in direct- 
current circuits, because in such circuits the voltage and current 
are always in phase with each other. 

81. Magnetism. — a. If an insulated wire is coiled around a 
soft-iron core, as in Figure 43, and a current is passed through the 
wire, the coil and its core become a magnet. Such an arrange- 
ment is called an electromagnet. One end is the north pole; 
the other end is the south pole. When the current is turned off 
the magnetism disappears. The strength of the magnetic field 
depends upon the amount of current flowing in the wire and also 
upon the number of turns the wire makes around the core. The 
coils of wire in electric generators and motors are electromagnets. 

b. Another principle of magnetism applied in electric machines 
is that when a conductor moves rapidly across a magnetic field an 

electromotive force is set 
, up (induced) in the 

- .I conductor. The faster 
the conductor moves 
the greater the induced 
FiGUEE43.-Electroma.gnet electromotive force. If 

the conductor forms a closed circuit, this induced electro- 
motive force causes a current to flow in the conductor. This 
is the basic principle of the electric generator. 

82. Properties of conductors. — a. Definition. — A conductor 
is a wire or other metallic path along which an electric current 
flows. Copper, aluminum, and iron make good conductors and 
are in common use. When a current flows in a conductor, a 
certain amount of heat is generated, and if the conductor is not 
large enough to carry the current, the heat may become excessive 
and cause it to become very hot. It is therefore necessary 
to determine carefully the size of conductor to be used in practical 
installations in order to avoid fire hazard as well as losses of 
power due to heat dissipation. 

6. Characteristics. — The resistance of a conductor varies di- 
rectly with its length and inversely with its cross section. It 
follows by Ohm's law that for a given voltage, the smaller a 
conductor is, and the longer it is, the less the current. For. any 
given size of conductor, the further we get from the source of 
power the lower will be the voltage. Such a decrease in voltage 
is called the line drop or the voltage loss. 

c. Mils and circular mils. — Wire conductors are usually circu- 
lar in cross section. The unit of measure of the area of cross sec- 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 109 

tion in common use is the circular mil. The area of cross section 
of a wire in circular mils equals the square of its diameter in mils. 
A mil equals one one-thousandth of an inch. 

Example : What is the size in circular mils of a wire one-fourth 
inch in diameter? 

Answer: 1 inch equals 1,000 mils. One-fourth inch-= 100 % 
mils=250 mils. This is the diameter of the wire in mils; 250 
squared = 250X250 = 62,500. This is the cross sectional area of 
the wire in circular mils. 

d. Wire gage. — Wire sizes are referred to by gage numbers. 
The Brown & Sharpe gage is the standard for American practice. 
The gage numbers of wires commonly used range from 0000, 
which is very heavy, to 14, which is the smallest size for Army 
use in the field. (See Table XVIII.) 

Section III 
INSTRUMENTS 

83. General. — The measuring instruments in common use 
are the ammeter, the voltmeter, and the wattmeter. These are 
all small instruments and may be either portable or mounted 
upon a switchboard. The range of readings on the dials of 
electrical instruments varies according to the uses for which 
the instruments are designed. In selecting an instrument for 
any given purpose, take one whose highest reading is about 25 
per cent greater than the expected load. In general, instruments 
designed for direct-current circuits are not interchangeable 
with those designed for alternating-current circuits. 

84. The ammeter. — The ammeter is used to measure the 
flow of current in a circuit. It is generally connected in series 
with the load in the circuit, the entire current in the circuit 
passing through the instrument. An ammeter must never be 
connected across the terminals of an open circuit. For measur- 
ing very large currents use is made of a shunt which permits 
only a known proportion of the current in the circuit to pass 
through the ammeter. This shunt is provided especially for 
each particular instrument, and the instrument is so calibrated 
that when its shunt is used with it, the dial shows directly the 
amount of current flowing in the main. 

85. The voltmeter. — The voltmeter is an instrument for 
measuring the electric pressure between any two points in a 
circuit. It is connected between the two points and indicates the 



110 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 



electromotive force in the circuit in volts. The voltmeter has a 
high internal resistance which permits only a very slight current 
to flow through the instrument. It must not, therefore, be 
connected in series with the load, since to do so would cut off 
the current in the circuit. Voltmeters are made to measure over 
a variety of ranges. 

86. The wattmeter. — The wattmeter is an instrument for 
measuring the power in a circuit. It really is a combination of a 
voltmeter and an ammeter. The voltmeter side of the instru- 
ment has small binding posts which are to be connected across 
the circuit. The ammeter side of the instrument has large 
binding posts which are to be connected in series in the circuit. 
(See fig. 44.) Some wattmeters indicate power in watts, while 
others indicate power in kilowatts. 

87. The rheostat. — The rheostat is a device used to introduce 
resistance into an electrical circuit. It usually consists of a 
number of coils of special wire of varying resistance with a handle 




Generator Load 

Figure 44. — Ammeter, wattmeter, and voltmeter connections 

to regulate the amount of resistance introduced. Rheostats are 
frequently mounted on switchboards. 



Section IV 

GENERATORS AND MOTORS 

88. General. — The electrical machines in common use consist 
of generators which convert mechanical power into electrical 
energy and motors which convert electrical energy into mechanical 
power. An electrical machine, whether a generator or a motor, 
consists essentially of two parts: A magnetic field, produced by 
electromagnets and an armature formed of a number of loops or 
coils of wire wound upon an iron core. These parts are so 
arranged that one of them may revolve, thus causing the magnetic 
lines of force of the field to be cut by the coils of the armature, 
thus producing an electromotive force or a mechanical torque, 



ENGINEER FIELD MANUAL 111 

depending upon whether the machine is acting as a generator or as 
a motor. These machines may be constructed for either alter- 
nating or direct current. A machine having but one pair of 
field coils, called the N-pole and the S-pole, in its field structure is 
said to be bipolar. Where there are more than two poles in the 
field structure, the machine is said to be multipolar. In addi- 
tion to the field coils, some machines have coils called interpoles, 
which are connected in series with the armature to improve the 
performance of the machine under heavy load. They are attached 
to the 3'oke of the machine in the intervals between the field 
coils. 

89. Direct-current generators.
…[truncated]