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FIELD MANUAL
for
SUGAR BEET GROWERS
A Practical Handbook for
Agriculturists, Field Men and
Growers
BY
Reh. ADAMS
PUBLISHED BY
BEET SUGAR GAZETTE COMPANY
CHICAGO, ILLS., U. S. A.
Copright 1918.
By Beet Sugar Gazette Company.
4d a
¥ 780
©61.A347446
MA |
PREEACK:
The most important improvement in sugar beet grow-
ing will come in the bettering of growing methods so
that the acreage returns will be increased. The average
yields are below what they should be with proper atten-
tion given to the demands of the plant. When the beet
receives the benefit of proper environment the acreage
returns for the beet growing sections will be greatly in-
creased—5so to 75 per cent in many cases.
In this work the author has aimed to develop the sub-
jects which are closely connected with the growing of
the sugar beet in the field. It is taken for granted that
the farmer understands the general principles of farm-
ing and the author’s aim is simply to show the relationship
of those principles to the growing of sugar beets. This
“Manual” is gotten up to record the results of practical
experiments and comparative field observations for the
good of those interested in the beet sugar industry. The
pages contain information which the author has had to
collect from various sources—laboratory, field and library
—for use in his work in growing the sugar beet. He be-
lieves this information will make interesting and profitable
reading to all who have to raise the beet or who have the
good of the agricultural side of the beet sugar industry
at heart. Many of the factors which enter into the suc-
cessful raising of the crop are taken up. These may be
of interest to the more or less advanced farmer as the
aim has been to elucidate the principles upon which suc-
cessful beet culture is based, and which, in the majority
of cases, are not thoroughly understood.
At this point the author wishes to give credit to the
writers of the various books and articles upon which he
has drawn in gathering this data. While in the main
this book records his own observations and experiments,
he has found occasion to consult other sources, the num-
11}
ber being so numerous that it is impossible to cite all to
whom he 1s indebted. The Orange Judd Farmer, the dif-
ferent state experiment stations, the United States De-
partment of Agriculture and THE AMERICAN SUGAR
INpustry deserve special mention. Liberal extracts of
several articles of the author published in the Orange
Judd Farmer are utilized in this text.
The author is also deeply indebted to Mr. L. Myers for
his kindness in writing out at length the article on “The
Growing of Sugar Beets in the Salt River Valley—Ari-
zona,’ which appears in the text. R. L. ApDAmMs.
CONTENTS.
Page
Fey CTION: © Seen ae ete a ee take Sudha he i 1- 18
Amount of Capital-—Value of a Contract Price... 22.2... 2
TOs: “Oly oe aie BO CEES ss.c Seles hac bots thesaieee ote, Sbetees eee 3
Soils for Sugar Beets=Physical ‘Nature. to... 2722. 8
Chenmeal waren nw sn es oe Oh ee oe ena aaa ea ete 10
Jel) ce) Lear Al ® ae ea rome, dee MAR PAT a rei ep ede A gl
Goseren” (CULTURAL VWVORK. (4. oes cue fe ahah actrees 19-112
Plowing ... Fe Ricicten ed eal See, eee
Putting the Trad Dato Shape aba sch cid Cea aa dorsi AE os ena |
Sup soto —— DCCC & tah ois vis aa hee ek Seas on enn eee) ei Ze
LU STna@Voge(G) San ale 09 G1 1 phen eae ER REE WS Se Pa Maa Ooh 24
Distance of Rews—oecdiine” Growth... .n..c.2 oe eee = = 27
Crustine—Selection of Varieties*ot Beet Seed. ...°.-.-; 29
CLO, UECE OC «oc oa ow «dot abies oe aiars asian ate 3a
Treated or Decorticated Seed—Hulled or Shelled
Seed —omele Germ Seeder cay er oes: Ale eee 2 hea ars 34
ME livencitie viet Se sei at. sda ara wages wares ake te oats oat 555
Cultivation—Growth: of the meet. 2: taetae eo ese hee 36
Plarvestin® “a0. 2.0% EYE Ae ee od
Sate rine ane Bee in tie’ Picld: SOAP PEPE hh Sed 42
hopping. Beeter are. Aaah Ser 7 en
Schedule of Payment to Dee oaie Hees to ene 45
abo erGmlems....< jas OO a ee tae ce cae eae
Irrigation—Preparation for feasGs aA cares aa 48
Niptnoeds vob. Urrima tions sa tac ee ets eee Peden eat Si
Preparastiomor Joand) for rreation .. 6: . s\n csi: games 55
110) Ps TS cee eg Ra Ee RI Ni -l a RR aP 59
PEAGHOS) OL DRA LION:\0 sian eet lek. « Bieses 4/2 3 ee, cee as 61
User eit Wma VVALEDS: octane a ws ade wpe sige e wien eh ae rg
QR Sa MS Ey, Mata 2) cy os en ee ee Ra OR erg a GO ed PONE ee a
Fertilizing the Sugar Beet—What the Beet Uses—Use
Grawommenmeain Mertilizerses 5 4.-i ete a neo <2. eas tae oes 74
Vv
Greet. Manure sCrops. =) 2 tee ba ota cde eens ee ei
Baniyard said: ota ple: oMismiter 2S cite weet ae kee dlaw ome 81
Mii WVitseer Whaber iirc kt city, Sa ce eee rs et
MALT SW Vira ser itige s,m, aise fete cs: apt oe RRR ae Pe OE eo Cine 84
Crop Potato y saa cts @A.c case RC ene ae Manan. 85
Howithne beet; Beneits: the Somnenc- cee oer bee oes ae 86
Pigniing Ane: otaptomes is «. . jcechtec sso eee eels Gh i FOO.
Sttear ects" tO rchands oes) ion fees oO ened cco ale 92
Mechanical yeabor tsaversa. 2%)... sss eee ree 94
Ae. (Bac tory: A Obie WittmiSten <.. 6.55 1s hhc ee ee 95
Stcar Beet Culturean the Salt River Valleyico..:..-.. 96
Conclusions Jono€ wliwaralawOrkws ons: os-s.c aad eee 98
CHAPTER: DL HREDING- DYE RODUCTS ore ae sn ee eee 100-112
ECU alan oto ee ooh I eet eae, ON sake RO rea 100
Peedmer Beet. de alpss oo et leeeiem elcsaece Se ee ee 102
SHG Malate awe, ante RU reek ahaa che PN ao deus eee SS i SOR 105
PCSd Mies leer er ee Sin) OU ic eee said ele ota an 106
Ereseryiie Pulp-— Molasses 2057). t: i009 o.02 as oes eee
DCSE MOPS? wk Sacre tear he tee os Ce a ek ot eS 110
CrArrer Vil BEpr el ROUBLES to: My wee o ee ae eee 113-130
PMSECE MO OMEROL sed ch Me ce 2 CRON iin ak fetus 8 Cees Nese eae 13
Pants Omer Ole. outa eee a aetna the ee ee ee A 114
Combined Insect and Fungus Control—Insects Affect-
Pier vines leet CAGE ac Petes eye bat eesk PEAe ee ceees ee ee LS
Insects, Attectine thes HROObS. (cots sale ak oe ete 116
he VVioollly Acts ios mints tain: ant ele.w oe ce an ee a7
Beet VBiieit or Curly “Pops. steak sock oss a ee. oe 118
BLS EIEN 3) cen 2 eye Vie Coe ee ON teat ee. er kee 119
Citworns —W inewonns,..-.. Gr ote lke eo nn eee 122
Chewing tnsects—Pungus Troubless..u. + eee aoe aS:
EROEL -SCAD i ronan aeu € eras Thc Sones eae ake 4 aie ale ee ee 124
Beet Rust—Downy Mildew—Rhizoctonia Root Rot—
SOCOM AR OOS NOEs 0 ee Oo eee ae Dad eee eee 125
Crown Rot — Physiological Troubles — Sprangley
Roots-—-Compoiund, Vops: vee at avs see oo oe ae
Seed Stalks—Lack of Plant Foods—Animal Troubles.. 127
Gophers, Moles, Ground Squirrels, Rabbits es 5)
CHAPTER I[V.—IMPROVEMENT OF Our AGRICULTURE....... 1381-133
LU cist aie Ay ae SO Se PU ee DATE or Ravan <<) UP tMuam eyes Re 132
CHEAPTEG AVG OT AIS TEC Sure. oer Ae at athe Seas 134
vi
INTRODUCTION.
To develop the beet to the best advantage the neces~
sary conditions are a rich, fertile soil, proper distribution
of rainfali or irrigation to start and maintain the crop
with a lessening towards harvest, warm, sunny weather
to aid maturing, freedom from sudden, severe changes of
weather and fair weather for harvesting. When these
conditions exist in tracts of considerable area, in con-
nection with proper limerock, transportation facilities and
plenty of good water and fuel, a sugar mill is as good
as established, for it will come in time. Only favorable
natural conditions will bring about the investment of
such sums of money as the establishment of a sugar mill
involves. When a sugar mill is put up, that alone is suff-
cient evidence that the section is adapted to the culture
of the sugar beet and the grower need take no further
roncern regarding the general adaptability of the coun-
try. His duty will consist in determining the possibili-
ties of his own farm for beets. If conditions are such
that he can grow them he is fortunate, for it means in-
creased wealth to him and a marked improvement in his
soil.
The distance from a sugar factory will largely deter-
mine the growing of beets, as their profitableness depends
very greatly on the distance of the haul. Often by util-
izing the railroad, beets can be raised at a good profit,
where otherwise the wagon route would prove to be too
long a haul. On the other hand, the attractive reduc-
tions in freight rates on beets offered by the majority
of railroads make beet growing at quite a distance from
the mill profitable. Shipments of beets from seventy-
five to one hundred miles or more are by no means un-
common. Each farmer must decide for himself the
1
possibility of successfully marketing his beets after they
are grown.
Amount of Capital—bBeet raising on a large scale Te-
quires special tools and considerable of an investment to
carry the crop through. If a responsible man does not
have the means himself or a way of getting it he will
find that most sugar mills are ready to back him, either
by making him loans direct or by endorsing him at the
local banks. In fact the local banks can be counted on
for financial backing to a great extent.
Beet raising on a small scale can be carried out with
but little change from the usual equipment of the ranch
or farm. In putting in beets it is well for a man new to
the business to go rather slow. Better put in a few acres
and, experimenting with these, gradually increase the
acreage, than to put in too much at first and make a
partial failure of it. This would result in such disap-
pointment that the grower would fail to give the beets
another conscientious trial. The ultimate aim, however,
should be to run to beets as far as consistent with the
handling of the farm.
Before changing from ordinary field crops to beets on
a large scale the farmer should consult freely with the
factory authorities as to the extent of the investment re-
quired and the nature of the tools to be purchased, should
he be at all unfamiliar with the different aspects of beet
culture. Both the mill agriculturist and the superin-
tendent will be only too willing to lend all the assistance
in their power. They desire a large supply of beets and
will, therefore, be only too glad to give the prospective
grower all the information they can.
The Value of a Contract Price-—To know what one
is to receive for his crop when harvested is a great ad-
_vantage. This is one of the advantages attendant on
beet culture, as the price at which the crop is to be sold 1s
stipulated previous even to sowing the seed. This
benefit will be especially appreciated at harvest time in
dull seasons. Then the sight of potatoes piled under
straw in the fields, grain in stacks and huge piles of hay
under board covers will testify in a mute but vigorous
manner to unforeseen low prices. And until these crops
are moved there will be little money for those to come.
2
So, aside from the fact that there is little satisfaction in
raising a crop and having it left on hand, there is the
dissatisfaction of planting the same crops again with the
almost certain possibility of a stagnant market when
they come in.
Profits on Sugar Beets——The final test of the value of
any crop is the maximum financial returns for the mini-
mum drain on soil fertility. The aim of every thinking
farmer is to prolong the life of his land indefinitely, and
at the same time receive the greatest acreage returns.
He builds not alone for the present but for the future,
and the scheme of growing which brings in the greatest
returns for a period of years will be the one he selects.
In this connection the value of the sugar beet has been
proved time and again. It benefits the soil because of
its deep rooting habits. If used in rotation this is espe-
cially noticeable. The deep feeders of the beet secure
plant foods from the layers of soil deep down in the
ground, where the shallow roots of ordinary crops can
never go, and deposits them as salts in the crown of the
beet just at the base of the leaves. This crown is cut
off when the beet 1s topped and left on the ground, where
in rotting it liberates phosphoric acid, potash and nitro-
gen in a form ready for the next crop. The big bulk of
tops, if turned under green, will furnish an abundance
of humus—one of the most important ingredients of
fertile soils.
But aside from the benefit to the land—and in addi-
tion to the one just stated are others which will be con-
sidered further on—is the income. This furnishes a
bright financial picture. It is true the cost of producing
the beets is greater than of many other crops, but the
returns are proportionately greater. This can be quickly
proved by any farmer who goes to the trouble to keep
track of all the work done on his various crops. Correct
figures are convincing. The data given here has
been worked up from the carefully kept records of in-
dependent beet growers. They are, therefore, well
worthy of consideration. These figures will not hold for
every section because of the varying productivity of dif-
ferent classes of land, and the different costs of carrying
on the work. The returns and prices of the crops com-
3
pared, however, err on the side of high yields and high
prices so that of all the crops the beet crop has what-
ever disadvantage may exist. Beet yields of fifteen tons
are common, many ranches producing an average of
twenty tons, and a few as high as twenty-five. With
only ordinary success every ranch fairly well adapted
to beets should produce fifteen tons.
In the beet table the results of two fields are given,
the first consisting of 650 acres and the second of 324.
Each represents a different type of soil. The first is a
splendid loam, the second a sandy loam. The first was
near the mill, the second 28 miles away, 25 by railroad
and 3 miles by team.
If the work be done by the farmer himself, he is paid
for his time in this estimate, so in reality the returns are
higher than shown in the estimate, as he makes on his
crop and on his services.
TABLE. SHOWING THE COST OF RAISING AND MARKETING
BEETS PER ACRE.
Nord, No. 2.
EGU UMNO NA rele os eae oe ae ee aha tx eee ee $ 3.68 $ 1.10
GWAR Sate axel ohtertei amt beoge oo ie whee ete ae 4.20(a) 1.54(b)
Harrowing, rolling and drageine:... 3... ; 3.30 1.58
ati atin econ 3 ooh Jeune ac boom Wind Se OEE: 1.52 76
Some SHG SCE tne tet racine te Ae een 2.49 2.10
Thinning, hoeing, weeding, topping and
ie GAA Bd is GE Mes PR ES Es aR 18.62 16.83
Poisoning ‘and: trapping-gophers...). 220.4. 04 aS
SUTIN Sig firs Gee Leak hes re Megs eee Re NY Bly 09 SE
Piewine ‘out and jauling:..:.....0)cc se 7.64 8.26
POAGINS ONO CATS (sek gocee Se eae ee 4 3.00
|B FS 0 UN a Ree od gD DPD te WR i nS Oa G0 KE 5.05 7.82
Was BeEAERE 4S 02) a Zea nee eee eee Adee 43.90
MiieiG er ACTe=—tOnS edie bc ciation av oceler lies 19.0 15.3
NBME MEG: ACT Ete sai aok tate aries $95.00 $76.50
Prolre Wer aCbe soy cad ok ae he ae ee 47.78 32.60
Costmper nO hoe tet ea ces te eee 2.48 2.87
Walle spetsstOtl s:..5 cictissato ns wa ate Oe a ree 5.00 5.00
PeCOMt CE THOMA a act mann, i seen eet 2.52 2.13
(a) Steam plowed sixteen inches deep.
(b) Horse plowed ten inches.
4
Barley has always been considered a good crop, but the
returns are more apparent than real. It is the lazy man’s
crop. The crop is a cheaper one to produce and the prof-
its per acre are correspondingly less. Good bottom land
will produce on an average twenty sacks per acre, costing
as follows:
TABLE SHOWING THE COST OF RAISING AND MARKETING
BARLEY PER ACRE.
Oley DUGWARG Eg Niaetscsa eres cco ce cee aS oem tae cimmetberooh gs $ 1.00
SOwinie andeharrOwiiter.. ss fos canes ae cake eles 40
Reino weGllitigneer, vat che OAC eens ck we hide et eee 25
SELENE RL Se AEA ENE ne, Se ee ROR ITE 1.00
AUS eeerae tes ss Oana naeie ca avnsas ated AEE eae 1.30
SUMIREG IIE e ueracerat eesti a sree tons, reed Sense Sia nie TOR 1.80
SACKS ios Need Kee TAS Oot Melag. anc eueubed ame 1.40
ae GG
Value of 20 sacks (100 pounds each) at $1.00..... $20.00
HOES SCOSE of tice tiene an aie, o bactay tin deteriora es Shee 7.15
$ 12.85
This is about one-third the profit on beets.
Beans will produce a crop of 1,200 pounds worth, at
3 cents a pound, $36 to the acre, gross. The same land
will raise twenty tons or more of beets to the acre. The
cost of growing the crop is:
AAV CEO WITS nets. cer ry OM Ae Uae eee cai $ 2.50
anree: NarrowimMess vats ook sales. d oe ote Soka aids ease .60
RrenollinG, 35 ie eva, wie cae cae hens St netcis ais create .20
PIAMiAR hc. ard eos cet hs ec eee as Bs oe Seance 25
SEE Gat Rises KIER SEN Madore ia eres ee .60
PaARVES plTnes Tous. Sore at re rele bo ete oo nighe re cued eto eee 3.00
EELMeeNATICS: . 56 Roe Ales Os Da aha wake re eee eee 50
BMSTSRGS Ie he id oy ache: Sti vhah thas rane aN a aid ie ie ae ee eS 1.00
$ 8.65
Wialite OP RETOPE 6) 2% aking awed aie eee nee elammae $36.00
Str eect S's op A neat catches SU ERM eee Saye aha, tu eta layet eaacat oh 8.65
$27.35
Potatoes are a good crop, yet they do not rank above
beets.
TABLE SHOWING THE COST OF RAISING AND MARKETING
POTATOES PER ACRE.
Pirst plOwang er. ccc cea eet Teena see $ 1.00
Second: plowine 47.65 OL ee ieee Reet ee ee es 1.50
PAROS Lilac iatias, Node os, ie Cada epee hen eee .20
PONENT 7. Sasa ee oak a oe el COLO a oO
SECO so Ree a Res les Sa Ue ee OE ee aes 2.75
One coltivabnig, sce hone be ee eee 40
PAST VESEUIE va hte bo adele 2.2 os ORL Ute selon ere ae ane 12.50
Sep I IS St A ae ee eine io tis a gOS Se a Ee IE 2.80
$21.65
Value of crop, 40 sacks (100 pounds each) at $1.40. ee 00
SECONGSE eh la sate ANGE ote at ick Sec be cho eee 2.75
IIAUSs Sees eh eS OR en aie Cia tae ink 2 Gc ee eee 00
Opava et ne, 21 vearete aa) ae es PER Tart Rhee Chee $47.25
COS Gere etter ec ie es onan eee en ie eae ero aes en 21.65
EC Oinieee See Make ed 6: OL Tae ep gE Ri oat ee eae $25.60
Peas do well in a year of good rainfall; yet the profit
is small.
TABLE SHOWING THE COST OF RAISING AND. MARKETING
PEAS PER ACRE.
loin teers Ace Ards eh, ete eee a ete bend $ 1.00
PAs GW TS Bynes Bier, Pie ohee Go Nene ian ees Sena 20
upryapine. ote be oe Baek a eke Lee eee ae AO
ine OMe) aor oe oY Sian roe Depths eck tat et 25
S112) lahat eid Seat ER ats eS) ee NE, nT ce 50)
Erarvesting: 3). 0s acces 22 Ok ae eee 3.00
SAG Siee ee tic te AA ray hac dat ee aN ese eae riod 1.00
$ 6.35
The value is very liable to fluctuate for brokers
have a failing for speculating with it. If the price
is two cents a pound, the value of a 1,200 lb. crop
sg JUS 0) ewe PE A POM DAP AME ee Clue) oe cas 1 RS $24.00
TRESS COSE and Hass cas Jaa hee a Last Re A aate 6.35
ISEAV ES =A PKGIE- OF 22,..4re chee Oe ee oe eee eae $17.65
In all these estimates good land and good quotations
for prices are used in order to make as fair an estimate
as possible. That these results are higher than usual is
evident from a glance at the United States Department
6
of Agriculture census. Here the average acreage crops
for the last ten years are:
Farm Value
Yield Price Per Acre
“ELEN FLT, Ah OTL ae ee aa ae 25.2 $ 371 $ 9.35
Wheat, DISH care Oe Saas eee 13:5 694 9.37
Oats, bus eee tg): Wee ae od 29.6 281 8.32
Barley, NS ee eet ye Zork ie 10.34
Wee TIS Soe oi oa: ova se, Moe gs 15.4 Doo 8.08
Bitciewhteat, DUS... 20... 3eesan 18.1 090 9.68
Peorieaeset 66 10 et Sates 84.4 499 43.12
blay ates so ts 2 te eee 1.44 8.070 11.62
Sugar beets are not included in these figures, but it is
only fair to state that the average for the whole United
States is 9.71 tons. Still at $5 per ton for the beets, they
would stand at the head of the “farm value per acre.”
But the average for the beets is lower than the usual
grower can afford to be satisfied. with. It takes the first
six to eight tons produced to pay the cost of raising the
crop and marketing it. The profit must come from the
tonnage in excess of this.
Summing up the examples given above shows:
Increased
Profit
from
Crop. Value. Cost. Profit. Beets.
CEES ie Se See ices & $85.00 $45.56 La SV Sa ea
EA UNS Rat ae Bee IS eae 20.00 7.15 12.85 $26.59
ares. fe bac, oes ate ee 36.00 8.65 27.35 12.09
POUatoes: Liste, athe ations 47.25 21.65 25.60 13.84
CAS Sst c5s < sre ee 24.00 6.35 17.65 21.79
And these figures presuppose the continuation of high
prices. If these should fall or if long storage must be
resorted to, the benefits of a prearranged price and direct
shipment from field to factory will stand out very promi-
nently. On the other hand, the price paid for the crops
listed, other than beets, must make big advances in prices
received to even equal the profits from an average beet
crop, to say nothing of the unheard of advance neces-
sary to surpass them.
Moreover, while the yields from a single acre stand
out so markedly, multiply the results by the yield of 100
acres. The gain, then, of beets over other crops is from
$1,209 to $2,659, while the ranch is left in better shape
than ever for future maximum production.
7
Soils for Sugar Beets.—Desirable soils for sugar beets
vary in both physical and chemical composition, but all
must be fertile, deep, moisture-retaining soils of loanf or
clayey loam containing enough sand or silt so that they
can be easily worked.
Physical Nature.—Tthis applies to the shape and size
of the soil grains, and the formation of the land both in
depth and area. Land made up of very fine grains will
prove to be too “cold” and heavy to work. Adobes are
in this class. When the soil grains are too large the
land will not hold moisture. Sands are examples. The
land which is best adapted to beets is fairly level, deep,
free from stones, loose sand and black alkali; not too
fine in texture on one hand, nor too coarse on the other.
Land, which will produce good corn, wheat, potatoes or
beans will grow beets if it has good depth. The best land
on the farm should always be selected for the beets.
New brush and timber soils will not produce good
beets at first, as being very rich they produce beets low in
sugar and purity because of the great amount of soluble
substances present in the soil, which the beet will absorb
in feeding. This effect will wear off in a couple of years.
If desired, corn, potatoes or other crops can be put in to
advantage for the first season or two.
The depth of the soil is important as the beets make a
deep growth and need plenty of room in which to de-
velop. There should be no impervious layer of soil above
a 4-foot depth. Even a greater depth is desirable. The
character of the land in this respect can be determined
easily with a shovel, a post hole digger or with a soil
augur.
The soil should be of the same general nature so that
movement of soil moisture will be fairly uniform. No ex-
tensive layers of sand or gravel should intervene to the
depth to which the plant 1s to feed and secure its water.
Further down they may be beneficial for drainage pur-
poses if of no great extent. They would prove especial-
ly valuable in using alkali water, as will be discussed
later on.
In short, at least 4 feet of fairly uniform soil is neces-
sary. Where ample spring and early summer rainfall
8
occurs 2% feet will do, but in arid or semi-arid sections
4 feet is the extreme limit.
The water table must in no case stand nearer the sur-
face than 4 feet. If it does, rotting of the tap root of the
beet will result. Best yields, then, can in no case be ex-
pected.
Plenty of humus is required. It makes the soil easier
to work, more retentive of moisture, less liable to bake,
crack and crust, and is richer in plant foods.
Stiff adobe or gumbo, and very stiff clays should be
avoided. These are very difficult to work and must be
caught at just the prope: stage of moisture to insure ger-
mination before the soil dries out. Moreover, unexpected
rains following planting will work havoc by crusting and
packing the soil, and by inducing root rot on the seedlings.
Soils approaching adobes are being worked to advantage
in many parts of the country and great crops have been
taken off of strict adobes but the chances for failure on
the very heavy soils are greater than for success, and it
is better to leave such soils alone. The best land is none
too good for beets and on such soil they will do their best
and be a source of profit to the farmer. A clayey loam,
rich in humus, is to be preferred. Such soils are a trifle
harder to work than the lighter soils, they must be han-
dled within shorter limits of time and moisture and the
seeders give more trouble in this class of soil. But the
final returns are greater, and as results are what count,
it is well worth the extra effort put forth. Moreover,
these soils hold their moisture better, as a rule are richer
in plant food, and will withstand greater demands from
the crop.
While the above may be the best type of soil to use, it
usually happens that soils vary from one extreme to the
other. It is usually necessary for the farmer to make the
best of what he has and to work out the questions of
handling, time of planting, and variety of beet to suit his
needs, whether the beet be a main crop or a rotator. For
the greatest benefit to both grower and factory the land
producing the greatest tonnage of fair-testing beets will
prove the most desirable in the long run rather than land
of less tonnage-producing power but greater sugar-form-
ing ability.
9
Chemical Nature.—It is extremely difficult, in fact im-
possible, to obtain a table of chemical analyses which will
apply to all beet soils. All agricultural chemists are aware®
of the presence of other influences aside from the amount
of chemical elements present. The physical condition
of the soil, the form in which the essential elements are
present, and the amount of available moisture play such
an important part and are so correlated with the chem-
ical factor that all must be considered in judging the
land. While a chemical analysis is not a sure guide in all
cases, still, for purposes of reference the following table
of analyses of profitable sugar beet soils is interesting:
TABLE SHOWING ANALYSES OF SUGAR BEET SOILS.
Humid sections.Arid sections.
Per cent. Per cent
PMSOMble. “Mathet srs... ce-aceyees oo ehde ek 84.03 70.57
SVE) (TE SRACTS (6 er aE rei a A AEN 4.21 C20
Oba 601k Sid oko eats dn ate ame e aces nee 22 iy
Sars SCs hee Ga es VS See OO ks .09 26
| ESE 7 (EAE Mees Cae Ree ge Ns oe NY eee Oe cht 1.36
| I ERTEG (PECTIC eMac EDR ge AOR a8 1.41
AIP ANES Cre ee ce ak og a ee a ache nue eee ae 13 .06
PEO See ee ene ieee oceee ce eee bees 3.13 3.75
PEUIDCOOUN UT: ee oe Ce ORE Sa TRL SNe ea a a ea Ae 4.30 7.89
SUM AGIGL a). jt 2 0608 AeRabits Shee ese 05 04
NO SWNORIC? CIC. 57420 bile sore Steck ete ae A! 12
WROTE POs oh. Se tele Se soa Se de A 1.32
Watervand “ereanic matter! 3.7 fs. fa. Se 3.64 4,95
PUEHIISS 6/5 hay Woes Ae eh ens Bak Calves Bk 2.70 15
NAEP EC eR iil, POILISts. 25 ae Won dents eb heat 5.45 15.87
WittGeen Wan SOl nt oo. one eae he 12 10
yeruscopiciowatenr on 5 noc. lets ee eee *4.65 6.28**
But even in this table the limits of fertility cannot be
taken as complete guides, because it is not the total
amount of each element present, but its availability,
which counts. In illustration of this point the availability
of the phosphoric acid depends on the lime content; if
the lime is low the phosphoric acid is only slowly avail-
able. This holds especially true with respect to arid
regions for where the lime content is very high usually
much less phosphoric acid is required.
The actual test of growing beets with a series of fer-
tilizer tests will prove the surest way of determining the
lack of any plant food.
“At 18.5 degrees Centigrade. **At 15 degrees Centigrade.
10
Alkali.—Alkali is a problem entirely confined to arid
or semi-arid regions, and is simply the accumulation in
the soil of those salts which form in the progressive
weathering of the rock grains comprising the soil. In
all parts of the country the soil particles are constantly
breaking down and liberating the salts contained in them.
From the standpoint of plant growth these salts are of
two kinds, one beneficial and needed for plant develop-
ment, the other of negative or even injurious character.
The first will be retained in the soil to a great extent, the
second is very soluble in water and in region of suf-
ficient rainfall will be taken into solution and pass into
the springs and brooks, and through these to the ocean.
But when the rainfall is light the salts are left in the
soil, and year by year, will accumulate until the total
amount present will be so great that ordinary plant
growth is impossible. The abundant faintall: of, fhe
eastern sections accounts for the absence of alkali. There
the rainfall is sufficient to leach out the soluble alkali
salts as fast as they are formed. But certain plant foods
also are soluble and these will be lost along with the al-
kali, so that while the injurious salts are retained in arid
sections because of insufficient rains to wash them out,
at the same time the soluble plant foods are retained.
This explains the great richness of the arid section when
brought under cultivation by means of irrigation, for
along with the accumulation of alkali salts are plant
foods which have been liberated and stored for the
future.
Alkali soils differ from soils containing salts laid down
in old sea formations, or from soils treated to an oc-
casional overflow from the sea. In cases of this kind
there is little present that the plant can use, for com-
mon salt, Epsom salts, and the like predominate, and
these are of an injurious nature and are far in excess of
the plant foods.
In order to determine the nature and extent of alkali
soils and their agricultural possibilities, a chemical analy-
sis is necessary. Such analyses when based on samples
secured by a systematic sampling of the field in question
to different depths and at different points show the ex-
tent and nature of the salts. It will prove a far quicker
11
and more reliable guide then the trial of growing crops.
For not only will the tests show conditions as they exist,
but the remedy usually will suggest itself from a study
of the land when sampling and from the results of the
analyses. For instance, if the salts are coming from beds
deep down in the soil through the action of water, the
analysis will be the surest way of finding it out. In con-
nection with the chemical work must come a study of
the soil formation, the general topography of the country
and the irrigation water. A little study of the conditions
which are bringing, or have brought about an excess of
alkali, usually will show the methods that must be adopt-
ed to offset them.
Alkali salts generally are of three kinds, common salt
(sodium chloride), Glauber’s salt (sodium sulphate), and
salsoda (sodium carbonate). ‘The first two are the so-
called “‘white alkalies,’ named from the white incrusta-
tions which they produce on the surface of the ground.
The salsoda is popularly known as “black alkali’ because
of the black spots or puddles which show where an ex-
cess of the alkali exists. In addition to these, magnesium
sulphate, calcium chloride, and magnesium chloride may
be present in sufficient quantities to prove injurious.
With the alkali salts are associated the three elements
of plant foods, potassium, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen.
These usually are present in the proportion of:
Potassium, 5 to 20 per cent of the total salts.
Phosphoric acid, .5 to 4 per cent of the total salts.
Nitrogen, .1 to 20 per cent of the total salts.
In white alkali the nitrogen is high and the phosphoric
acid low; in the black alkali the reverse is true.
Alkali salts do not remain stationary in the soil. They
move up and down in the soil layers according to the
moisture conditions. Hence, at different periods the
maximum amount of salts will be at different points.
Following heavy winter rains or applications of irrigation
water the salts are dissolved in the water and carried
down with it into the lower levels of the ground. When
the water begins to reascend and evaporate the salts are
carried up to the surface, or to the point where evapora-
tion is going on and redeposited. If, though, the water
passes into gravel layers or into streams the salts will be
carried with it away from the land. Where this condi-
12
tion occurs naturally, there is never alkali accumulations.
The presence of alkali salts comes about in two ways
on land which is being farmed, (a) in the water reach-
ing the land either as irrigation, seepage or underground
flow, or (b) from deposits of salts in the soil which are
brought up from below by the movement of the soil
moisture. In the latter case the salts can only move by
their own power to a height of about three to six feet (de-
pending on the character of the soil). In order to rise
from a greater depth, whether they be in the water table or
deposited in beds, communication with the surface can
only be brought about through several successive periods
of depositing and going into solution, the amount of wa-
ter being so regulated that it does not carry the salts
back to their original depth each time. The deeper the
salts are buried the smaller chance do they have to reach
the surface. Alkali below ten feet where ample irrigation
is given without swamping the land will successfully
guard against this.
A study of the extent of alkali shows that the quantity
of salts varies in different parts of the same field. Low
depressions where the rainfall gathers will cause much
more alkali to come to the surface than where there is a
less amount of water. In sloping valleys it occasionally
happens that the salts from the adjacent hills are de-
posited to such an extent that broad stretches of alkali
running to considerable depth will form, but these are
extreme cases and of infrequent occurrence. Often al-
kali hard-pans will form in the soil at the depth to which
the normal rainfall sinks, and will prove almost impervi-
ous when first brought into cultivation. These, however,
if of limited extent, will finally give way to the effects
of repeated irrigations. The seepage of irrigation wa-
ters, charged with alkali salts, from a higher to a lower
level has worked havoc in the case of over-irrigation.
Only a study of local conditions will point out the solu-
tion. The problem may be only to dispose of the salts
present in new land which is to be put in shape for crops.
Or the accumulation may be the result of cultivation,
such as over-irrigation, by which salts deep down in the
soil are brought into the upper levels; or it may be
caused by too large a percentage of salts in the irriga-
12
tion water, from seepage, or from some other local con-
dition. Often the question involves a district rather,
than a locality. When such is the case only methods aim-
ing to remove the cause will prove of permanent value.
Such a case requires deep study, much scientific work,
and is entirely outside the scope of the average beet
grower.
The first duty then in dealing with an alkali problem
is to determine its extent, whether local or general. If
local, each grower can, in many cases, work out the solu-
tion for himself.
Since the salts rise in the soil with the evaporation of
the soil moisture any method which will lessen evapora-
tion will lessen the rise of the alkali. When a given
amount of alkali is distributed throughout three or four
feet of soil it will not prove detrimental, whereas the
same amount brought up by evaporation of the moisture
and deposited in the first three or four inches of soil will
concentrate to such an extent as to interfere seriously
with the plant’s activities, and possibly cause them to
cease altoge’ her.
The quick growing of the plants to shade the ground
and the maintenance of a loose mulch by deep cultiva-
tion will do much to retard the concentration of the salts.
Deep preparation of the soil and thorough surface culti-
vation are the most important factors for securing re-
sults on alkali land.
When black alkali is present it is possible to change
it over into the su'phate form (Glauber’s salt—a white
alkali) by the use of gypsum (land plaster, or calcium
sulphate) if there is ample moisture in the soil. That
the Glauber’s salt is less injurious than the black alkali
can be seen in the resistance of barley. This crop can stand
five times as much of the white alkali, Glauber’s salts, as
it can of black alkali. The amount of gypsum to be used
will depend on the amount of black alkali present. Asa
general rule, one ton of the ordinary gypsum will be
required to neutralize 1,000 pounds of black alkali. All
need not be put on at one application. Enough to neu-
tralize the surface soil can be put on at first, adding more
later on until the desired total amount has been added to
the soil.
14
Moisture must be present to change the black alkali
into white. Chemically this is a conversion of sodium
carbonate and calcium sulphate into sodium sulphate and
calcium carbonate, (common lime stone). It takes a
few days for the action to be completed in very wet soils.
In soils with lesser moisture the change will be propor-
tionately slower. Where the black alkali is present in
spots the use of gypsum will give marked returns. The
hard, puddled condition will crumble into a loose mass
thus permitting good drainage, and humus will be once
more returned to the soil. To be permanently beneficial
the danger of swamping the land with an excess of wa-
ter must be constantly guarded against. The black alkali
is the only kind open to this method of treatment.
The removal of salts can be accomplished by scraping
off a few inches of the top soil at a time when the major-
ity of the salts are deposited there, that is, at the driest
time of the year. In this way often one-half of the total
salts present in the soil can be removed in one season.
Removal by thorough irrigation is feasible when the
under-drainage is good. The water will take up the salts
and carry them on down into the under-drainage of the
country far out of reach. To make this method entirely
successful ample water must be available, so that the soil,
previously checked for even irrigation, can be given a
thorough soaking. With this must be good drainage,
either artificial or natural. Subsequent careful irrigation,
constantly bearing in mind the danger of swamping the
land, will effectually keep the salts down indefinitely. even
if they should not be taken up by underground flows.
This means that in lands where the water table is so deep
that it is not feasible to reach it with the irrigation, it is
possible to so thoroughly soak the land that the salts,
with future ordinary precautions, can be kept deep down
in the soil, out of reach of the surface. Where danger
of excess water exists, on the other hand, under-drains
must supplement the work of irrigation.
Flushing the land with water with the object of taking
off the salts, by means of a big rush of water across the
ground is not successful, as the first water is bound to go
rather slowly and sink into the ground to a certain extent.
This carries the salts down into the soil beyond reach of
the swifter water which follows.
15
The plowing under of stable manure and the use of
potash salts are generally of little value in ridding land.
of alkali.
The amount of alkali which can be resisted by the
sugar beet varies with the kind of soil. In sandy soil
its tolerance is much higher than in clay lands, because
in the latter the alkali exerts an injurious effect on the
tilling qualities of the soil, and moreover, evaporation is
so much greater that the depositing of salts at the surface,
with their attendant increased corroding effect, is much
enhanced. This applies to all farm crops as well.
Beets grown in soil impregnated with common salt,
sodium chloride, are wholly unfit for sugar purposes.
However, after being grown for several years on salty
land they will so reduce the salt content that eventually
really good beets can be grown. Beets grown on land
heavily charged with Glauber’s salt are, on the other
hand, well fitted for sugar purposes, good yields of high
grade beets being obtained regularly from land contain-
ing as high as 12,000 pounds of this salt per acre.
The actual percentages of each of the salts when alone
which the sugar beet can withstand and still make a satis-
factory growth has been found to be, in the first three
feet of soil (in depth) :
Pounds
Sidphatess (4. ec. “Glauberssalt i... sean cklitiee eee: aes 70,000
Gurbotaiesn Gk. ee “(black walkalt)t, a yc 2, ciate ang pales woe a eee 4,000
Citlesides (i.e). Common Salt) 20. s es oe ace we ee ae 4,500
As to the amount when two or more are present, the
proportions can vary in an infinite variety of ways, so
that a general rule is all that can be satisfactorily given.
It is certain, however, that of the chlorides and suiphates
(common and Glauber’s salts) the chlorides are by far
the most injurious, .2 of I per cent is a dangerous limit,
while .15 of I per cent is apt to yield uncertain crops. In
other words while the total amount of common and
Glauber’s salts may equal one per cent, not over .2 per
cent must be common salt.
With black alkali a very much less amount is injurious
than with either of the other two. The following table
shows the limits of resistance for all plants, if all the
salts are concentrated in the first foot of soil:
Black alkali, .1 of 1 per cent, or 4,000 pounds.
Common salt, .25 of 1 per cent, or 10,000 pounds.
Glauber’s salt, .6 of 1 per cent, or 20,000 pounds.
16
It should be clearly understood that the amounts given
in the preceding paragraphs are but general guides. A
less amount may prove injurious if kept constantly con-
centrated, and a greater amount can be withstood if it
remains scattered throughout a great depth of soil at
all times. During one period of the year a definite
amount of salt will be injurious when at other times it is
harmless. Beets have done well in soils containing great-
er amounts, while on the other hand a smaller amount has
been sufficient to work havoc with other soils. This dif-
ference often can be traced to the intelligence of the men
doing the farming, as the effect of the salts largely can
be regulated by the farming methods. In addition to
this, local climatic conditions, the soil formation and the
source of the alkali salts all have an influence.
In the case of the sugar beet the greatest danger from
alkali lies in the danger of retarding germination by cor-
rosion or erosion, or in the actual destroying of the young
seedling after it starts. When once established the sugar
beet is immune to alkali. In fact it is one of the crops
usually recommended by writers on alkali for growing
on soils heavily charged. Coming in early times from
the banks of the Mediterranean, the beet still retains its
resistant nature to alkali action, in spite of the decades
of civilization through which it has passed.
In the majority of cases the danger to germination
and young seedling is slight if the beets are put into
deep, well prepared soil at a time when the bulk of the
alkali is well distributed through the layers of soil, either
from the preparatory irrigation or from the rainfall. By
the time a new accumulation of salts has occurred the
beet will have reached a state of immunity. By their
quick growth the leaves soon cover the ground and in
shading it reduces surface evaporation to a minimum.
The roots take the moisture from deep down in the
soil and evaporate it through the leaves, so that in this
way the salts are held deep down in the soil, Moreover,
the beet takes up large quantities of salts in feeding,
which are bodily removed from the soil in harvesting the
crop. So in many ways the beet prepares the soil for
the better reception of such other crops as are to follow.
It keeps the salts so deep down in the ground that the
following winter rains or irrigation can carry them still
deeper, and it removes large quantities bodily from the
17
soil. In this way the land is better fitted for the subse-
quent planting of crops more sensitive to alkali.
In disturbing plant growth alkali works in two ways:
The first is the corrosive action at the surface of the
ground, already spoken of, which results in a brownish
tinge showing on the stalk or stem of the plant, while
the outer epidermis (bark) becomes soft and easy to peel.
The alkali in this case actually girdles the plant. While
it may not die, future growth usually is slow and un-
profitable. Black alkali acts worse by far in this respect,
and also burns out the humus to such an extent that such
lands are difficult to work and develop tough, impene-
trable hard-pans, which seriously interfere with drainage.
The second method of poisoning comes from a disturb-
ance of the activities of the feeding roots. Plants gain all
their food by taking up the soil moisture containing them
in solution through the walls of the tiny, threadlike hair-
roots. There are no openings. The plant has no power
of selection and must take up everything that is in solu-
tion. The passing of the salt-charged moisture from the
soil into the root depends on the difference in density be-
tween the moisture outside and the sap inside the root-
lets. It is greater in the root. When the density on the
cutside approaches that on the inside, passage of the
water into the root is checked, and the plant starves.
Where alkali is giving trouble a study of the problem
will reveal the cause. With a little knowledge of what
constitutes the source of the trouble, methods for preven-
tion can be undertaken based on the character, extent and
nature of the salts, and on their source. Alkali lands are
very rich in all plant foods and possess good moisture-
retaining powers so that when the total quantity of solu-
ble alkali is reduced to a point where it 1s no longer in-
jurious great crops can be raised. For this reason money
spent on reclaiming alkali lands or in checking increasing
accumulations of salts will be money well spent, pro-
vided the initial cost 1s not too great.
In Europe several investigators hold that the sugar
beet will actually respond to a light dressing of salt. The
salt seemingly has the power to interchange bases with
the potash salts in the soil, thus making the potash more
available. For soils rich in unavailable potash, the use
of small quantities of salt (150 pounds per acre) has
been suggested. The water drawing and retaining power
of the salt has been cited as a possible valuable asset on
light, sandy soils.
18
CEEAP PERSE
CULTURAL WORK.
In taking up the cultural work of the sugar beet it is
assumed that the grower will avail himself of the ser-
vices and experiences of the factory field superintendent.
Local conditions to a large extent determine the best
methods to follow in order to reap the maximum results,
or in other words, the biggest crops. Guided by per-
sonal efforts, and coming constantly in contact with the
experience of others, the mill agriculturist can advise to
good advantage. The interests of the grower and the
superintendent are one—the biggest yield for the acre-
age—and both should endeavor to work in perfect ac-
cord. Questions as to the best time to plant, the best
method of handling the labor problem, the variety of seed
to plant and the time of harvesting must be determined
largely by local conditions.
Plowing.—The depth and time of plowing will de-
pend on whether the land is new and going into beets for
the first time or whether it is old cultivated ground.
Fall plowing is to be recommended in either case. By
fall plowing alone, I have increased the yield of sugar
beets 44 per cent. The reason for this is to be explained
in the better mechanical condition, for in its openness
the soil will absorb all the winter rainfall, and through
aeration the soil permits the natural agencies (fungi,
bacteria, etc.) to work to the best advantage.
New land should not be plowed very deep. Seven or
eight inches is enough. Neither should land which has
never been deeply plowed be turned up to the final depth
at once. Better to run the plow furrow only an inch or
two deeper than the old depth at first, gradually in-
creasing this at each subsequent plowing until the final
19
depth is reached. This does away with the danger of
bringing a lot of raw soil to the surface of the ground,
thereby decreasing crop yields for the time being. The
final depth should be as far down as it is possible to work
the land. Many sugar companies who are farming their
own land go regularly to a depth of 24 inches by the use
of power engines. The man depending on horses should
have sufficient stock to plow twelve inches deep, and im-
plements heavy enough to stand the strain.
Alfalfa land which is to be prepared for beets should
be plowed in the fall very shallow, not to exceed 3 or 4
inches deep, the aim being to cut off the old alfalfa plants
just below the crown. The plowing is followed with a
spring tooth or spike harrow to bring the crowns to the
top of the ground, where any sprouting will be killed by
the sun and wind. Alfalfa must be given proper atten-
tion or it will regain its hold and tend to choke out the
beets during the succeeding year. If the land is plowed
deep the crowns will be turned under. They will then
remain alive and start to grow again in the spring. When
the crowns are thoroughly dry, the land can be plowed
more deeply.
In new land any leveling that is necessary should be
done before the plowing. With alfalfa land it should
follow the first plowing and precede the second. More-
over, when winter or previous irrigations are given they
should precede this plowing, in order to give the weeds
a chance to grow. The bulk of them will then be dis-
posed of by the plowing.
Grain land should be disked or ringrolled before plow-
ing in order to break down the stubble and even the sur-
face of the land.
For all land which has been handled for beets, or other
crops demanding a deep preparation of the soil, there
may be a deviation from the above. The land should
then be plowed to the required depth as soon as it is dry
enough after the irrigation or wet enough from the nat-
ural rainfall to put it into condition. When the soil will
fall away from the mouldboard of the plow without
sticking, and still retains sufficient moisture so that it
can be molded in the hand it is safe to work it. By this
time the weeds will have started. Following the plow-
20
ing the land should be lightly harrowed. If the ground
is rough from harvesting a beet crop the year before,
from stubble, or from any cause a ringrolling or a slab-
bing before the plowing will greatly assist.
Throughout the winter the land may lay idle with only
occasional treatment of the weeder or cultivator, should
the weeds get a bad start.
For putting the land into shape in the spring, the han-
dling of both new and old land is essentially the same.
Putting the Land Into Shape——Farly in the spring the
land may be given another plowing, shallow this time, 3
or 4 inches deep. This will not be needed unless winter
rains have interfered with the use of the weeder so that
the weeds have a good start. If the weeds have been held
in control the land can be cultivated down and the plow-
ing omitted. If the land has not been packed by the
winter rains and snows it is necessary to do this with
the farm tools. The aim should be to cultivate to the
depth of plowing in order thoroughly to firm the land
from surface to depth of plowing. When the land is
naturally well settled the deep cultivation may be dis-
pensed with and only a shallow one given. Following
the cultivator, will come the harrow, drag, ringroller or
roller, the kind of implement and the order and amount
of work each must do depending on the nature and con-
dition of the land.
During the spring work any plowing or deep cultiva-
tion must be worked down immediately, so that by night-
fall no rough land is left. In other words stop plowing
or cultivating early enough to run the implements for
fining the surface soil before the day’s work is consid-
ered complete.
Under no conditions should the land be handled too
wet as the danger of packing the land too solid is great.
Should this occur and no rains follow, the decreased
crop will be a striking lesson. As the rains may fail
and as irrigation is expensive, where available, it is bet-
ter to avoid all risk in the first place. As stated before,
when the soil will crumble away from the mouldboard of
the plow, and not ball up on the cultivator and harrow
teeth, still retaining enough moisture to hold together,
or when the soil can be molded in the hand and still
21
crumbles on pressing, showing no sign of excess mois-
ture, it is in the best possible condition for working and
can be handled to the best advantage. .
By keeping the land constantly worked down depend-
ence need not be placed on late rains. It is much better
policy to hold the moisture until time for planting by an
occasional harrowing or dragging, than to leave the land
rough until the last moment.
The final operation should be a harrowing. Leaving
the land dragged tends to make it crust if a rain comes,
and also causes too excessive evaporation from the soil.
But if moisture is needed for the sowing, a dragging
just before planting will cause the rapid movement of
soil moisture to the surface. For this purpose dragging
is good.
Once the land is in shape it should lay for a week or
ten days to settle and to enable the moisture conditions
to equalize throughout before being seeded.
Adobe or gumbo soils should be given as little work-
ing as possible in the spring, and not opened up at all.
Seeding should be done a day or so after the land is
ready, and every effort made to get the land into shape
and planted at the earliest opportunity. Once such soils
dry out, re-establishment of the moisture is almost im-
possible unless they receive more water.
The whole idea in preparing the land is to secure a
well-fined, well-packed, well-stirred seed bed, and any
method which will bring about this condition will be well
repaid in the better growth of the beet.
Subsoiling is not practiced on old soils as much as
formerly and, where no plowpan or hard subsoil exists
near the surface, is hardly necessary. After a crop of
beets has been raised the deep plowing out at harvest
time is practically a subsoiling.
However, where shallow plowing has been the rule
and beets are to be put in for the first time, it is well to
follow the plowing with a good, deep subsoiling or cul-
tivation to the depth needed for the beet’s development
as the plowing must go but little deeper than formerly at
first.
Seeding.—As the future of the crop depends to a great
extent upon the stand secured, too much care cannot be
22
exercised in the matter of seeding. At least 14 pounds
of seed should be used to the acre, and even more if the
land is not in the very best condition for sowing. Most
farmers use too little seed and the result shows in the
final stand. Heavy seeding gives extra plants for insect
and fungus depredations and while it entails a slightly
increased expense, will, at thinning time, permit the se-
lection of robust specimens.
That the greatest stress must be laid on the stand for
the final returns is shown in the following example:
A square acre is approximately 209 feet on a side. If
the rows of beets are twenty inches apart there will be
125 rows. If the beets are thinned to ten inches apart,
and at harvest weigh 38 ounces the yields according to the
stand will be:
Percent Number Yield Per Acre
of Perfect Stand. of Beets Tons.
31,350 39.19
99 31,036 38.80
98 30,723 38.41
90 28,215 35.27
80 25,080 Bl tek bs
60 18,810 235.51
As the average stand which looks good comprises but
80 per cent of a perfect stand in the majority of cases, it
can readily be seen what opportunities there are for im-
provement just along this line. It may be well to state
that with the poorer stands the individual weight of the
beet increases somewhat so that, in the field, the decrease
in yield will not be as uniform as that given in the table.
However, it is great enough to approach the figures
given.
From seven to fourteen days after the seed is planted
the young plants begin to appear. And then another
advantage is to be noted from the heavy seeding. If
the ground is of a clayey nature or becomes packed the
multitude of seedlings are much better fitted to lift the
soil and break through than are fewer seedlings scat-
tered at irregular intervals. Their combined effort may
be compared to men lifting a steel rail. Four or five la-
borers will experience great difficulty in lifting it even if
they are strong men. If weak they cannot budge it. But
twenty or thirty men, even if not up to the limit of
strength will pick it up and carry it off with compara-
tive ease. 23
In a field where rains follow the sowing and crust the
land just as the seedlings are coming up, the amount of
seed sown may make all the difference between a fair
stand and no stand. Reseeding will be necessary in the
latter case, at greater expense than the originally larger
amount of seed. And if the season is getting late the
time lost in regaining a stand may seriously curtail the
crop.
The Time of Planting will be largely determined by
local conditions, but in every case, once the land is ready,
it should be planted whether it be fall, winter or spring
sowing. The soil should be settled, warm, and fairly dry.
A frost or two will make no difference. I have seen beets
with two true leaves stand 18 degrees F. The same beets
when they had twelve leaves were subjected to 110 de-
grees F., and stood the cold extreme better than the heat.
Early sowing reduces the danger of damage from a num-
ber of insect pests.
While late planted beets sometimes look greener and
have larger and more luxuriant tops, the actual tonnage
is, as a rule, greater in the earlier plantings. Cool weath-
er when the beets are coming up causes them to develop
small compact foliage, but the greater supply of mois-
ture present in the soil helps them out in the roots.
In planting, allowance must be made for late spring
rains. In most sections the Equinoctial storm can be
counted on in late March. As heavy winds are apt to
follow, which rapidly crust the soil, planting (if plant-
ing is at all possible that early) should be delayed until
the storm is past, or else put in early enough to permit
the seedlings to be well above ground when it arrives.
Early planting has its drawbacks. Rains to the extent
of an inch or more before the plants have four leaves are
not desirable because of their crusting tendencies. The
soil, however, plays an important part in this respect.
Beets in adobe or clay lands suffer less than those in
sandy land as the former will crack in drying and give
the beets a chance to come up. Plantings in cold, wet
soils will develop root rot, the conditions inducing this
trouble being excess moisture and cold soils. Early
planting may mean more weeds and consequently entail
more crop cultivation.
24
But on the other hand, early planting means more
freedom from insect pests, an earlier harvest, a longer
growing period and more natural moisture for the crop’s
needs.
In the humid sections these remarks are not as applic-
able because the rains come at intervals frequent enough
to prevent the formation of any great amount of un-
favorable conditions. The rainfall is gentle as a rule.
But many of the beet growing sections are in semi-arid
regions and when it rains it comes right down. In hu-
mid sections when drouths follow the rains the described
results will exist, and give a state of affairs similar to
those of the west.
But whenever planting is to be done, the land must
first be put into shape, and until this is brought about,
sowing must be delayed. It is essential that the land be
well pulverized, as clods seriously interfere with germin-
ation by obstructing the advance of the sprout and by in-
terfering with the movement of the soil moisture. Such
soils dry out badly. One-quarter to one inch of soil is
sufficient to put over the seed. When the seed will ger-
minate evenly at this depth it means that the land has
been properly prepared and the moisture kept right at
the surface. If a greater depth is needed to get an equal
germination it indicates that the soil is not in the best
possible condition. Fineness of soil is the greatest factor
in securing a stand. When the soil is right the seed will
come up well whether it is put down one-half inch, one
inch, two inches, or even more, or whether shoes or
wheels are used on the seeder to cover the seed. Moisture
to germinate the seed must rise from below fast enough
to start germination and to compensate for evaporation
from the surface of the ground. The finer the soil, the
better is the proper moisture content maintained. There-
fore, as germination depends on moisture, and the
amount of moisture is directly dependent on the fineness
of the soil, we may sav that germination depends on the
fineness of the soil, or soil preparation.
The seed must be placed where it will receive a con-
stant supply of moisture until it has a chance to start.
This depth should be carefully determined. By scraping
away the soil with the foot, or by digging down with a
25
penknife the boundary of moisture and dry soil will be
quickly discerned by the change in color from light to
dark where the moisture begins, unless the soil is yni-
formly moist to the surface. The seed must be put into
the moist soil.
As the seed should not be covered over one inch deep,
when the moisture is lower than this depth clod removers
must be used on the seeders to scrape away enough of
the dry soil so that the seed will be placed in the moist
soil. The seed is then covered one inch deep. It is desir-
able to keep the land as flat as possible, not in hills or
ridges, and everything should be done to make this pos-
sible.
The rut in which the seed is dropped is comparatively
narrow, so that large seed balls will not reach clear to the
bottom. Care must be exercised when using a brand con-
taining a large number of big seed balls to run the seeder
deep enough so that they will be placed at the proper
depth. The seed balls should rest on a well-firmed soil.
It is better to do this and cover with dry soil, than en-
tirely to surround the seed with loose, moist soil. This
tends to dry out before the seed has time to germinate.
For drawing the soil over the seed, shoes are to be pre-
ferred to wheels when the land is dry on top. They pack
the soil over the seed, draw soil to it, regulate the depth
better, can be weighed to better advantage, and the seeder
draws easier.
On moist land, especially that of a sandy nature, wheels
are best, for the shoes tend to smear the land so that it
bakes into a crust as it dries, even without rainfall. The
wheel does away with this disadvantage. The author is
only considering the wheel with the concave rim—the
kind with the flat rim is not so good. In land of this
nature it presses the soil firmly on each side of the row
of seed, but leaves a fine line of unpacked earth down
the center, which will absorb water if rains come and
allow the seedlings to reach the surface without difficulty.
The size of the seed ball is unimportant—it is the size
of the seed which counts. The larger the seed the great-
er amount of nutriment is stored in it, and as it is this
nutriment which gives the impetus to the seed, the more
there is the better will be the resulting growth. Seed con-
26
taining the greatest amount of medium sized seed balls
containing plump, well-filled, bright-colored seed is pref-
erable. It will sow more evenly, will sprout quickly and
evenly, and the resulting stand therefore, will be more
uniform.
The large seed balls usually contain more seed but the
germination is slower as the thick wall requires more
time to absorb moisture, hence it is the last seed to sprout.
Moreover the large seed balls are usually the exception
rather than the rule so that smaller seed is also present.
It will, therefore be difficult to regulate the seeder prop-
erly to take care of all sizes. Because of the irregular
rate of germination, and different distances from the sur-
face the stand will appear uneven and the seedlings will
not assist one another in breaking the soil away to reach
the surface.
The presence of green or black seed often causes ques-
tion as to its desirability. But if the seed itself is plump
and full (the seed ball must be cut open and the seed
picked out to ascertain this) the germination will be
found to be equal to the rest of the seed.
Distance of Rows.—The distance between the rows
will depend to a large extent on the character of the land.
They should never be closer than 18 inches nor further
than 30 inches. Twenty inches is perhaps the best aver-
age. Lands deficient in fertility or poor in moisture-re-
taining power cannot stand close planting.
The nearness of the rows to some extent, will deter-
mine the space to be left between the beets in thinning—
a matter which will be taken up later on. The greater the
thinning the nearer the rows can be.
For all around purposes 20-inch rows with 10-inch
thinning will serve as a general guide.
Seedling Growth—From the time the seed ball is
planted and gathers the necessary moisture to burst its
walls, until it reaches the surface of the ground, the
little sprout makes its growth entirely on the nourish-
ment stored in the seed. Not until the cotyledons (seed
leaves) are unfolded above ground does it draw on the
soil for support. The rootlet appears from the seed ball
first and grows downward, often to a considerable depth.
Dr. Briem reports an experiment in which the growth of
ra |
the rootlet made a daily average increase of .55 inches.
The total growth on the nourishment of the seed was 3.27
inches, and covered a period of six days. .
Different rootlets grow to different depths during this
period depending on the amount of food stored in the
seed cell. This is shown by the size and weight of the
seed. The greater the amount of food stored the longer
is the possible growing period and the deeper the root
will reach. For average conditions the roots go down 3
to 3% inches. The stalk does not start until four days
after the root tip shows. But it makes a rapid growth
in order to reach the surface quickly and begin to supply
the young plantlet with a supply of food independent of
that stored in the seed, and it is necessary that this be
accomplished quickly for the stored food will last but a
very few days at the outside. The deeper the seed is
planted the longer will be the period consumed in reach-
ing the surface, and the greater the drain on the seed re-
serves. After the sixth day from the time the first tip
appears growth will cease, and if the seedling has not
reached the surface in that time it is in danger of dying
from starvation or suffocation. As has already been
shown, the character and preparatic:. of the soil plays
an important part in this respect and will either help or
retard the advance of the plantlet stalk. Crusting or
packing over the young seedling will seriously hamper
its growth and may retard it to such an extent that it
will die before reaching the surface. Even if the strong-
est plants do reach the surface under such adverse condi-
tions they will not have the capacity for growth which
otherwise they would possess.
To show that the depth of planting is ve:y important
experiments were conducted to show the number of
seedlings which reached the surface of a series planted at
different depths, for the deeper the seed is planted the
poorer are its chances for reaching the surface. It was
found that with the beet seed planted at depths of ap-
proximately three-fourths, one and one-half, two and a
quarter, 3 and 4 inches, the seedlings appeared above
ground after five days for the shallow depth; six days
for the next; eight days for the 2%, after ten days for
the 3-inch and none at all for the 4-inch. Of the differ-
28
ent amounts, 100 per cent came up of the first two:
75 per cent of the 214 depth; 50 per cent for the 3-inch
and o per cent for the 4-inch depth.
Therefore, the more shallow the seed can be planted
the better chance it has for producing a perfect stand.
Beets planted too deep are yellow and sickly on reaching
the surface if they come up at all, and never make as
good a showing at the end of the season.
Crusting—The course to be advised when rains fol-
low seeding so closely that a crust forms before the little
plantlets have a chance to reach the surface, depends on
the stage to which germination has progressed. If the
seedlings have reached the crust. “spider: ” (wheels with
spikes in the rims), must be employed as these will break
the crust without disturbing the young plants. If the
seedlings have not reached the surface the use of a har-
row with the teeth driven back or thrown so that they
will drag lightly over the ground, or a brush harrow, will
break the crust and let the plants through. This work is
only possible after the land has dried sufficiently to hold
up the work stock.
The spiders travel directly on the rows, the harrows
are run across them and work up the entire land. A
few plants may be destroyed but the loss will not be great.
Seedlings which have reached the crust, curled down,
and turned yellow are too far gone to save. For such
fields replanting is the only remedy.
Selection of Varieties of Beet Seed.—The selection of
the proper brand of beet seed to use is important and
will, to a large extent, determine the crop receipts.
In the development of the sugar beet from the com-
mon garden variety two lines of improvement have been
followed by commercial seed growers, with the object
either of increasing the tonnage yield, or increasing the
sugar percentage of the beet. These are two opposed
physiological characteristics and the highest state of de-
velopment of both cannot be found in the same beet. If
the type is of high sugar content it will be reduced in
weight; or, on the other hand, if heavy weight is desired
a certain amount of sugar must be sacrificed. Commer-
cial brands of seed run to neither extreme, as, to serve
both grower and mill, there must be a combination of
29
sugar and tonnage. However, within certain limits, types
have been placed on the market and dealers list their seed
with a short statement of its capability, as: .
Type A—For highest sugar content.
Type B—For highest tonnage.
Type C—For high tonnage on poor land.
Type D—For highest sugar per acre, etc.
In general, the two extremes may be considered as
quick-maturing and slow-maturing. The quick-maturing
is usually rich in sugar, rather light in weight, and ripens
early. The late-maturing is of slower growth, but be-
cause of its longer growing season is heavier than the
other, ripens later, and does not carry the sugar content.
Early-maturing varieties lose considerable sugar if not
harvested at time of maturity, although, when ripe, they
are higher in sugar. Late-maturing kinds, on the other
hand, are apt to be deficient in sugar if harvested too
early, that is before fully ripe. For this reason it is well
to plant part of the land to each variety when the harvest
must extend over a considerable period. Here again lo-
cal conditions may enter which may cause one type to be
pre-eminently better adapted to the section, but when
both are equally good in their respective ways the use of
an early-maturing type for the first of the harvest and
late-maturing type for the last half is well worth consid-
ering. By this means a steady supply of high-testing,
mature beets can be delivered throughout the harvest
season, even though the period covers several weeks.
This shows the value of being posted on the characteris-
tics of the kind of seed planted, for it 1s just as impor-
tant to give the beets the right length of time to mature,
as it is with potatoes, grains or any crop where differ-
ent varieties require different times for maturing. Only
in this way can the maximum sugar and weight be ob-
tained.
The farmer can best leave the selection of the proper
kinds to the mill agriculturist whose judgment and ex-
perience better fit him to determine the relative merits of
each.
The amount of seed grown in the United: States is
limited, practically all we have coming from Utah and
Washington. The high cost of labor seems to be the con-
30
trolling factor in this respect, for the seed produced com-
pares very favorably with imported seed—the fact that
it is somewhat acclimated no doubt accounting for this
to a large extent. As a rule it is somewhat freer from
weed seed.
Germany, Austria, Holland, Poland, Russia and
France are producers of beet seed. Most, if not all,
mills import their own beet seed direct from the foreign
grower, thereby gaining a number of advantages not
open to the individual grower. For instance, the initial
cost of the seed is less in large quantities, freight rates
are reduced, while the possibility of redress in case of
error is much greater. Moreover, it is very essential to
know the existing conditions in Europe for the periods
the beets are growing which are to produce the seed,
and while the seed itself is developing. Poor keeping of
the mother beets, extreme hot or cold spells of weather
at critical times, drouth during the growing season, in-
sects, disease, rain at harvest or frosts may cause en-
tering factors well worth considering in the purchase of
seed.
To make a profitable run the mill must have the beets
to work, and the selection of the proper seed is of para-
mount importance to them. Their purchase of brands 1s
based on careful compilations of field work from their
own and government experiments followed up with care-
ful germination tests, and examinations for weed seeds
when the seed arrives.
It requires several years of field testing to determine
with accuracy the seed which will give the best results
year in and year out. Not only must climatic conditions
and variations be taken into account, but different soils
require different brands. To determine these factors
requires accurate voluminous records, a knowledge of
the section where the seed was grown and its pedigree.
When the work is supplemented by comparative tests
of different brands handled exactly alike in the field—a
local test not at all unusual—it is evident that the work
of trying out the value of different brands can be han-
dled much more properly and profitably by the mill than
by the individual grower.
The germination tests refer to the starting power of
31
the beet seed and is similar to the methods advocated
for seed testing in general.
In this connection a discussion of the relation of the
mill to the kind of seed may well be considered. As
the mill buys beets at a set price per ton, or on sugar
percentage, and as the mill has the opportunity to select
seed, it has been stated that the mill has a chance to regu-
late the crop to suit itself, by choosing brands which
will give the required results at the least cost to them-
selves. But anyone familiar with the details of sugar
beet districts is aware that mills cannot afford to do so—
at the present time anyway. All the mills require a large,
steady supply of raw material, more than they obtain as
a rule, and to secure this supply thev are only too will-
ing to institute such systems of payment as will make
beet raising an inducement. The system of payment
adopted is the one which gives the most satisfaction- to
the greatest number of growers. The system also car-
ried the bonus idea. If greater acreage is wanted the
tonnage basis is offered; if more sugar the percentage
basis 1s used, while in many cases a choice of the two
systems is given. In each case, however, the system is
intended to accomplish the mill’s desires by offering an
increased rate of payment.
Most factories buy two or more brands of seed for
distribution and the grower who complains that he re-
ceives a brand which favors the factory has several re-
courses open. First, he should compare the returns from
land in his section of the country with yields from other
beet growing sections using the same brand of seed and
determine if the difference is not due to his soil condi-
tions or to his faulty methods of growing. He should
also inform himself concerning the brands carried by the
mill and choose the one which fulfills his needs most per-
fectly. And, lastly, any factory is willing to permit a
grower to buy his seed elsewhere if he wishes to pay the
higher price, provided it is sugar beet seed and the re-
sulting crop comes up to the mill requirements. . The
farmer gets protection, however, in the fact that if dis-
satisfied with his beet returns he can and will turn to
some other crop, and as this is possible in all sugar beet
localities because of the agricultural possibilities of the
a2
section which makes it suitable for beets it behooves the
mill to cater to the wants of the farmers for, as stated
previously, one of the biggest problems of the average
sugar mill of the present day is to secure more beets.
The mill must have beets, not only for one season but for
years to come. The investment of capital is great and
can be repaid only by many consecutive sugar making
campaigns. The supply of beets must be steady to bring
up the sugar output and for that reason alone if for no
other, the mill could not afford to adopt a short sighted
policy which would be bound to result in discontent
among the farmers. For in times of high prices for
other farm products, such as grains, hay, potatoes, beans
and the like, the tendency would be for the farmer to
decrease his beet acreage at the first opportunity at the
least hint of ill treatment.
Growing Beet Seed.—The growing of beet seed is be-
yond the scope of the farmer unless he devotes all of
his time to the work. It is a special problem, requiring
time, capital, experience and knowledge of breeding prin-
ciples. For this reason combined with the scarcity of
cheap labor seedsmen have been slow in taking up the
work in this country.
While in many instances it may pay the mill to grow
its own seed, the amount of capital involved and the
number of years to produce a sufficient quantity, means
that forethought is necessary before embarking on the
enterprise. The following will outline roughly the rou-
tine for securing a steady supply of seed.
To locally grow a constant supply of seed for a section
requiring 60 tons per year, 10 acres are first planted with
the best seed obtainable. A yield of about a 120 tons of
beets will be secured from this planting, 13 of which will
be removed and siloed, while 107 tons are marketed. The
second year the same thing is repeated. In addition the
last year’s beets, the mother beets, are tested for sugar
percentage, and those coming up to a required standard
of sugar are planted out. Only about one acre is needed
for this, as not more than two tons will come up to the
requirements.
In the fall the seed from these mother beets is har-
vested, cleaned, graded and stored. The beets from the
other field are treated as were the beets the year before.
33
The third year the operations of the first two years are
repeated in the successive way in which they were done
before. The seed of the second year is planted ono
acres of fertile ground to produce very small, rich beets.
The fourth year, the cycle is repeated and continued as
in all previous years, as the aim is to keep a constant
supply of seed coming in all the time. The small “steck-
lings” grown from mother beet seed in the third year are
planted in 100 acres of land and these produce the seed
for the factory’s use.
To produce this amount of seed will require about 600
acres of land, taking crop rotation into account, but the
60 tons of seed will be worth from 10 to I5 cents a
pound, or $12,000 to $18,000, a sum probably far in ad-
vance of the cost of producing the seed.
Treated or Decorticated Seed.—This is seed treated
with some process (involving the use of sulphuric acid)
which removes much of the outer coating of the seed
ball. This makes the cell walls thinner so that water is
absorbed more rapidly by the seed and germination 1s
promoted. Germination with this seed is increased, be-
ing forty-eight hours ahead of the untreated, but on the
other hand the hull of the seed seems to contain a certain
amount of nutriment available to the young seedling, and
as the number of seed to the ounce between the treated
and untreated is about the same, the use of this sort of
seed would be confined to special situations, requiring
quick germinations. Further disadvantages are the
greater liabilty to germinate when stored, and to rot in
the soil if germination is delayed after planting.
Hulled or Shelled Seed is seed with much of the ball
removed by mechanical means. The remarks under
“Treated Seed’? are applicable here. Some seed is on
the market which has been treated with a combination
of the two methods.
Single Germ Seed.—tIn order to do away with much
of the hand labor incident to thinning, the United States
Department of Agriculture is working on the develop-
ment of beet seed which will contain but a single sprout.
Should such seed be secured in quantity, true to type
and vigorous in character, it may prove a most important
aid in lessening the cost of thinning, although heavy
34
planting must still be considered the rule in order that
the seedlings may aid one another in coming through
crusts and the like.
Thinniug Beets—When the beets have from four to
six leaves they are ready to thin. Thinning must. be
done promptly. If the undertaking is large it is better
to begin when the beets are too small rather than to let
them go so long that in thinning the last beets the work
will have been so delayed that these are suffering for
want of attention. The larger the beets the more the
roots of those to be left will be disturbed and the harder
the condemned ones will come out. If they pull hard
the tops are apt to be broken off, and the roots will add
forth new foliage so that double beets are the result.
As to the spacing of beets, no definite law can be
formulated which will cover all conditions. The Ger-
man recommendation of 144 square inches usually must
be doubled, if a 1% to a 2-Ib. beet is desired.
When the rows are 20 inches apart the results from
close spacing are usually the most satisfactory. The
thinning must be suited, however, to the character of
the soil, the amount of water available throughout the
season, and to local conditions. For lands rather apt to
have insufficient moisture from either the available sup-
ply, or from the naturally poor moisture-retaining power
of the soil greater distance between the beets is necessary
than in the heavier class of soils receiving a more bounti-
ful supply of water. The beets must be near together
if it is desirable to shade the land as quickly a spossible
to prevent the sun overheating the soil.
Near thinning (4 to 8 inches) will give the greatest
total yields, but the beets mostly are too small for easy
topping and handling. Contract labor will neglect many
of these.
The supply of moisture and the retaining power of
the soil, its natural strength as regard plant foods, and
the distance apart of the rows are the factors to be con-
sidered. In sandy, open land distances of from 10 to
18 inches will prove best, while 6 to 12 inches will be
enough on rich, well moistened land.
As a general rule a space of 10 inches between the
a-
ao
beets, when 20-inch rows are used will prove a general
guide.
In thinning, care to select and leave the largest plants
will always pay. In a trial of this kind at the time of
harvest the beets where care was used in thinning aver-
aged 3 ounces more and tested 2.5 per cent more in sugar.
This is not surprising, as the largest beets having no
setbacks are most vigorous. The smaller beets are
slower in reaching the surface after germinating, and
consequently are not as vigorous when they appear, or
they are beets damaged by root rot or insects in their
earliest stages.
Cultivation. Frequent and thorough cultivation of the
beet field is desirable at all times to preserve a surface
mulch which will conserve moisture, destroy weeds, bring
about air circulation in the soil, destroy shallow hardpans
formed by working the soil and permit rapid and easy
making of furrows for irrigation.
Start the cultivators early, as soon as the beet rows
show, and keep them going later, whenever the moisture
conditions of the soil is such that the earth will not bale
or pack in working. Most successful beet farmers culti-
vate from four or five times, while a few cover the field
seven or eight times.
The kind of cultivator tooth to be used is one which
will thoroughly stir the soil to the greatest possible depth
—four, five, six or even more inches—without disturbing
the beet root. Sometimes narrow deer tongues, one to
the row and two rows to a team, will be all that can be
used. In other soils the duck feet, or the weed knives
doing four rows at a time will give the desired results.
Only a study of the actual field work of the different
implements will determine the kind to use.
Where the rainfall is the source of moisture supply
much can be done to alleviate unfavorable conditions of
excess or scarcity of water by providing good drainage
and giving thorough surface cultivation. |
Cultivation will serve a purpose but it must not be
counted on to take the place of proper soil preparation.
This is far more important than subsequent crop cultiva-
tion,
Growth of the Beet.—The handling of the land during
36
¥, sid Ai NN
wt ) Wiis
27 TONS TO THE ACRE.
preceding years has a marked influence on the growth of
the beet. The kind of crop, the depth of plowing, the
shape in which the land was left at time of harvest, the
number of irrigations and the amount of water applied,
_ etc., all have an influence.
Beets will not do well on raw new land or on poor
lands, whether the trouble be lack of plant food, or too
much or too little moisture. Beets will not follow some
crops to advantage, a matter which will be discussed
under “Crop Rotation.”
The beet will stand periods of hot weather if there is
ample moisture in the ground, but when the moisture
decreases, especially in the first few inches of soil so that
it heats up badly the plant is apt to suffer. The outer
leaves turn yellow and die and the plant begins to wither.
The beet may, and usually does, revive over night and
appear vigorous the next morning, yet if the hot weather
continues and no supply of moisture is forthcoming, it
turns woody, dries out, and if small, burns up in the
ground. Beets will wilt and show a yellow leaf here
and there in land with plenty of moisture if the top soil
becomes heated, but under such conditions will seldom
suffer seriously and always make a good crop.
Because light soils dry out quickly the beets are apt
to suffer more than in the better moisture retaining lands.
While beets will survive these sudden hot spells of
weather, they are not desirable and the effect will be seen
in a drawing out of the leaves and a yellowing in the color
of the foliage, a condition which is overcome, however,
with the coming of normal weather. If such spells can
be counted on at certain periods, early plantings to get
the beet as far ahead as possible before they come will
prove very advantageous.
In general, the conditions governing the plant’s growth
with reference to sudden change of weather may be
summed up as: (a) Cool weather forces growth; (b)
hot weather forces ripening.
Harvesting —The time of harvest depends on the num-
ber of acres, the amount of help available, the weather
and other local conditions. To secure the best results on
large tracts it is advisable to grow both early and late
beets. If the work extends over a long period and only
38
early maturing beets are grown the last of the harvest
will result in beets of a lower sugar percentage—as quick
maturing beets are at their maximum sugar content when
first mature. Ten days after a slight decline sets in
which, although not great, will reduce the total sugar
output. This is important to the grower who sells on a
percentage basis. Moreover, should wet weather set in
after the beets mature and before they are harvested,
secondary growth may start preparatory to the formation
of seed and will be accompanied by a decrease in the
sugar content.
If all the beets are of the late maturing kind the great-
est returns will not be secured at the beginning of the
harvest either with respect to tonnage or sugar content—
if early plowing out is necessary.
A well balanced planting of each type will give the
best returns to both grower and mill.
Plowing out should be delayed until the beets are ripe.
Maturity will be indicated by a yellowing in the color
of the leaves after the beets have been in the ground four
months or more, accompanied by a slackening of growth
and a ring of dead or dying leaves around the outer
circle of the beet. Sometimes drying out is confused with
ripening but this occurs where the moisture conditions are
unfavorable. Where this occurs the seemingly ripe char-
acteristics will appear more or less abruptly and the root
will be soft, dry and rubber-like. Mature beets are solid,
brittle, juicy and with a sweetish taste.
In addition to the appearance of the field sugar tests
of the beets themselves are sure guides to the degree of
ripeness. For testing, a sample of ten beets should be
selected. The individual variation of the beets is so
great that never less than ten beets should be taken. In
taking samples a rough estimate first should be secured
of the different types of beets in the field, and an attempt
then made to proportion the number in the sample to
correspond as closely as possible with the field conditions.
Beets should contain at least 12 percent sugar. The
sugar content rests largely with the grower. The mill
cannot make sugar—it can only extract it. The. sugar
is put into the beets in the field under the influence of
the conditions surrounding it. While the grower cannot
32)
SLAdd ONVTOIVH
control the weather conditions, he can, to a great extent,
influence the crop by providing proper conditions of seed-
bed, thinning, irrigation, cultivation and harvesting.
The purity of the juice refers to the amount of sugar
in it as compared with the total amount of salts present.
Contained in the juice of the beet are substances in solu-
tion other than sugar, present in quantities of from 10 to
40 per cent or more of the whole, such as proteins, nitro-
genous matters, and the like. It is the presence of these
substances which make sugar extraction expensive—the
cost being several times increased over the increase in
amount of foreign substance, because of the gelatinous
nature of these impurities which makes separation much
more difficult. They also decrease the amount of sugar
which can be extracted. If these impurities pass into
the sugar they impart disagreeable odors and discolora-
tions, thus seriously impairing the market value of the
sugar. As only a small percentage of these impurities
is necessary to obstruct mill operations, a comparatively
pure beet is the only kind fit for sugar making purposes.
lor this reason the factory must insist that beets tesi
at least 80 per cent purity. In other words, it means
that of the total substances dissolved in the juice of the
heet four-fifths must be sugar. In speaking of the sugar
content of the beet, however, reference is made to the
percentage of sugar based on the weight of the whole
juice. That is. a beet testing 15 per cent sugar has fifteen
hundredths of its juice pure sugar. Based on the total
weight of the beet as it comes from the field the sugar
content is from 93 to 96 per cent of the amount in the
juice—or an average of 94 per cent.
Purity is dependent on a number of factors in the
field, such as the amount of sunshine, fog, soil moisture.
strength of the land, uninterrupted growth of the plant.
temperature of air and soil, and so on. Any condition
which will prolong the time of ripening will keep the
sugar down. A thoroughly ripe beet is always satis-
factory in point of purity.
The time of ripening is influenced by: (a) Cold nights
or days; (b) foggy spells: (c) hours of sunshine: (d)
moisture in the soil; (e) character of the soil; and (f)
newness of the land.
41
Usually orders for harvesting come from the mill,
based on tests of the grower’s beets. A steady supply
of beets is required to run the mill to advantage and*at
the same time avoid an overstock because an excess is
liable to decay in the bins if left too long. Such beets
are worthless for sugar purposes. The superintendent
is obliged to gauge the receipts of beets according to the
mill’s requirements. In favored localities the beets can
be left in the ground until the mill can receive them but
where severe spells of weather occur with alternate freez-
ing and thawing the beets must be given protection. The
added cost of handling, however, is borne by the mill,
by paying more for such beets. The mill men are
shouldering their share of the burden.
Siloing.—The usual method of protecting beets which
must be dug and cannot be delivered at once is by siloing.
If siloing is found necessary, any method which will pre-
vent decay and drying out is good. An atmosphere not
too dry with proper circulation of air will do wonders
in keeping beets 1n good condition. Good results in
siloing are secured by leaving the top of the silo open
and covering with a light coat of beet tops while the
beets go through the usual sweat and while cold weather
comes, when they can be safely covered with soil. Old
straw can be used between the beets and the soil to good
advantage. If the soil surrounding the silo is dry it can
be wet sparingly but thoroughly. The idea is to equalize
moisture conditions so that the earth will not draw from
the beets in order to bring up its moisture content. This
is done away with by wetting the soil. Experiments run
in Colorado show a loss of only a little over 2 per cent in
weight in beets put in a silo of this kind which was pre-
viously moistened, while the beets in a similar silo left
dry lost over 5 per cent during the same period.
Long, rather low, wide piles of beets are preferable to
high conical piles.
Handling the Beets in the Field.—The easiest way to
handle the beets after they are plowed out is to gather
nine rows together in a long windrow with the roots
extending all in the same direction. The topper then
comes along on his hands and knees. The usual method
of cutting with a knife can be facilitated by clamping a
42
small pick extending one inch below the blade on the
end of the knife. The next beet to be topped can be
picked up with this without the necessity of bending over.
The use of this presupposes that they will be worked up
immediately at the mill before there is danger of rot
setting in at the exposed place. Beet knife tips are some-
times objected to, however, on the ground that they open
a certain number of sugar cells from which the sugar is
lost during the beet washing process at the mill.
As the beets are topped, an improvement over throwing
them into piles is for the topper to stand them on end
right by his side. This will take less time and effort
than throwing into piles, reduces evaporation from the
cut end, and greatly facilitates loading by hand when
the wagon comes along. The beets can be picked up by
the tails and two rows of topped beets will be loaded at °
once. The saving in energy and time on the part of the
laborers will well repay the effort spent in breaking them
in to this method if they are not already accustomed to it.
The preceding recommendation applies, of course, tc
half-pound beets or larger.
Topping Beets—A question often puzzling to the
farmer is where to top his beets. Shall it be just below
the leaves, half way to the ground line or at the ground
line?
The answer to this question is to be found in an
analysis of the beets.
It has been found that a crop of 20 tons of roots per
acre will analyze as follows:
Phos-
Yield per phoric Nitro-
acre. Potash. Acid. gen. Lime. Total.
Section of the beet. Ibs.) Ibs: = lbsé 2 bss dhe: Ibs.
WWiholecheet 2 oc. eaocs 72,000 387 1216 .1%38 224 1,350
Tops cut at ground line. 32,000 235 80 6861138 «©6208 )~=—s«i1,063
ROGES By oae tone. oe at 40,000 182 36 60 16 287
The figures represent the number of pounds of the dif-
ferent plant foods taken and used up by the different
parts of the beet and the beet as a whole from the soil
in one acre of ground.
A glance will show that the smallest loss to the land
will consist in topping at the ground line, as the “tops”
in the table refer to the growth above ground, while the
“roots” is the part underground.
43
The sugar in the beet is all that the mill can use. This
sugar is “concentrated sunshine’ —not plant foods. There-
fore, it stands the farmer in hand to sell as much gun-
shine and as little plant food as possible. Moreover, the
mill will deduct a certain percentage for green tops as
they contain the very salts in largest proportion which
makes the extraction of sugar difficult. This deduction
is really a protection to the farmer, although few farmers
fully appreciate the fact. They keep on sending in beets
with green tops receiving a 4, 6 or even a greater percent
reduction on them, thus not only receiving nothing but
paying the freight and hauling on them and robbing the
land of its most valuable ingredients.
This represents on a 20-ton crop of roots:
Nitrogetnat 14 cents. Ss ozs hick Hon ae ee $15.82
Phosphoric acid’at 442. cents: 2.026. . 20) 2%. 3.60
PGasis atria; Geis: 2. o> anes safeties sk eee Gee 11.75
SE Otello os eerie son ieee Cr oe Iara ake came $31.17
All of this is not sold with the beets, of course, but it
is a sum of money which need not be drawn on at all
and will then prove more satisfactory to both the farmer
and the mill.
With certain classes of labor it is almost necessary to
stand over the workers with a club (figuratively speak-
ing) to insure proper topping, but this pays if it results
in correct topping.
The disposition of the tops after the harvest is often
a pertinent question. From the analysis it is plain that
the tops should never be hauled off the land and fed un-
less the manure is returned intact. Constant hauling off
with no return will mean the eventual purchase of com-
mercial fertilizers.
The best method is to scatter the tops and plow them
under green. This returns humus and all the plant food.
Green tops will contain three times as much humus as
dry tops or as the manure resulting from feeding. Next
to plowing under green is plowing under dry. Third, is
feeding to stock on the ground. As long as the soil re-
mains dry so that the tramping of the soil will not puddle
it and put it in poor physical condition, feeding is very
nearly equal to plowing under the dry tops as the manure
contains about 80 per cent of the total plant foods re-
44
moved by the crop. More will be said of stock feeding
under the consideration of “Feeding By-Products.”
Schedules of Payment Determine the Beet to Grow.—
A beet weighing two pounds, symmetrical in outline,
well-ripened, with small crown and compactly placed
leaves, containing a high percentage of sugar of excellent
purity is the ideal beet to grow. But the kind of beet the
farmer will grow depends on the character of his land
and on the mill requirements. This is shown in the
schedules of payment offered by the mill. They are
based on, first, a desire to stimulate interest and to insure
the growing of sugar beets; and, second, to influence
the grower to raise the sort of beet desired by the mili.
If raw material is wanted the mill offers a flat rate per
ton; if sufficient raw material is forthcoming and the
mill wishes to raise the quality of the beets it does so by
paying for beets on the sugar content basis. In this way
a bonus is offered for high testing beets. Often a mill
offers a choice of the basis of payment.
By tonnage payment is meant the flat rate payment
offered for beets by the ton. This varies from $4 to $6,
and even more for siloed beets. By sugar content pay-
ment is meant the payment for the beets on a plan based
on the sugar content of the beets. In other words, the
mill recognizes quality. Rates vary considerably at the
different mills for quality payments. An example is the
following: Beets testing 12 per cent sugar will be paid
for at a rate of $4.25 per ton, with an increase of 25
cents for every additional percent of sugar over twelve.
By this method, for beets testing 18 per cent the mill
would pay $4.25 for the first 12 per cent and $1.50 for the
extra percentage, or a total of $5.75 for each ton of
beets.
Whether the mill specifies payment on a tonnage basis
or on the sugar content, or gives a choice of either meth-
od, the grower should first of all do everything to get
the tonnage. He should, therefore, select his strongest
and best land. A study of yields from the different
lands quickly will prove this point. For instance, say,
the light lands on your ranch will produce Io tons of
beets per acre testing 18 per cent sugar, while the heavier,
better land will yield 20 tons testing 12 per cent. Sup-
45
pose the mill pays $4.25 a ton for 12 per cent beets with
an additional 25 cents for every per cent increase in sugar
over the 12 per cent; in other words, pays on aysugar
percentage basis, then the light land would bring in from
the rich beets $57.50 per acre ($5.75 per ton). The
heavy land would bring in $85 ($4.25 a ton).
If the beets were paid for on the flat rate basis, the
rich land would bring in, supposing the rate to be $5 a
ton, $100, while the light land would bring in only half
that or $50. Of course the cost of producing the crop
would vary, the big crop costing more because of
greater expenditures for labor, hauling and freight.
Based on actual figures, however, this would be, say
$27.85 for the crop on the light land and $49.35 for the
heavy crop. Therefore, it would pay to select the heavy,
rich, fertile land because on a tonnage basis two and
one-fourth times greater profit would be made over the
light land; while on a sugar basis it would give one and
one-third the profit of the light land.
Carrying the point one step farther, leaving aside the
question of choice of land and confining attention to a
choice of payments it is evident that on the light soil
greater profits can be secured from the sugar basis while
the reverse is true on the heavy land. Here the tonnage
receipts are in excess, being $85 against $100. In each
case the cost is the same.
The foregoing example illustrates the importance of
a proper selection of land for beet growing and of study-
ing the payment schedules. A mill wanting sugar makes
inducements to get it, while a mill in need of raw material
will make it worth the grower’s time to raise quantity
instead of quality.
Generally, warm, light lands will produce early crops,
rich in sugar and only fair in tonnage. The heavier type
of lands, as clay loams, will run to tonnage production
and less to sugar.
Labor Problems.—Every sugar beet grower who 1s
raising beets to any extent at all is confronted with the
labor problem, for beet growing requires much hand
labor, especially at thinning and harvesting times.
Scarcity of labor and high wages are doing much to stifle
the industry. When a man puts in only enough land so
46
that he and his family can do all the work themselves the
work is taken care of automatically. But for large acre-
ages requiring much hired help the problem grows in
extent as the acreage increases.
Best results come from hiring labor on a time or ton-
nage basis. To have the labor done by piece work, that
is, by the row or field, is not at all satisfactory. The
time work has its objections as well, but is an improve-
ment over piece work. For best results with a fairly
intelligent class of labor, the sliding scale tonnage basis
of payment is proving the most satisfactory. The ton-
nage basis alone fixes a set price to be paid for the hand
labor based on the yield of the field and is offered to con-
tractors (Chinese, Japanese, Mexican or the like) who
guarantee to furnish all the help needed for properly
thinning the beets, hoeing weeds from the rows, cleaning
irrigation ditches, handling the irrigation water, and at
harvest for pulling, topping and loading the beets onto
wagons. This scheme has worked fairly well for a long
time, especially in California, but the wily contractor soon
began to discriminate between the fields on different soils.
A growing scarcity of labor made this still more ap-
parent, and also forced the contractor to pay higher
wages so that he was compelled to ask more money for
his work in order to protect himself. A farmer then
raising beets on poor Jand or by poor methods suffered by
the greater price asked of him, supposing he was able to
get some one to handle his contract at all. To equalize
matters for both contractor and grower many sections
adopted the sliding scale tonnage basis. In this scheme
the different vields per acre are recognized and the pay
proportioned according to the vield. In fact, the method
merely brought to a uniform plane the methods being
practiced in a haphazard manner by the labor contractors.
Thinning is as expensive on one kind of land as on an-
other where the stand and soil preparation is the same.
Then at harvest the work in handling the beets is propor-
tionate to their weight, being greater for the smaller
beets. This scheme is worked out on actual cost of the
work and gives a high rate for low yields and a low rate
for big yields, the rate thus decreasing as the yield in-
creases. In this way a basis of payment mutually sat-
47
isfactory to all concerned can be worked out for all
conditions.
Where labor conditions are especially bad, care in
working the land to make it as smooth as possible and to
destroy the greatest number of weeds will aid materially
in cutting down the cost of maintenance. If the surface
of the ground is cloddy the time and fatigue of thinning
is greatly increased. If cultivations are neglected the cost
of extra weedings must be borne by the crop.
The use of the best types of farm implements is worth
mentioning in this connection. Money spent in the pur-
chase of improved modern sugar beet machinery or for
any other kind of farm work for that matter is well
invested.
Irrigation.—There is nothing equal to natural rain-
fall for beets. Not only does it soak into the ground
better than irrigation water, but it soaks levees, ditch
banks, and other necessary high spots which are inac-
cessible to irrigation. Rainfall also lessens evaporation.
This is accomplished not only by the fact that moisture
is gained from the clouds during rainy weather, but also
because evaporation from the fields is reduced to almost
nothing. Moreover, when evaporation does again set in
the drain from the beet land is not as great as it other-
wise would be because the whole surrounding country is
soaked. When any portion of the country is dry it heats
the atmosphere, and as dry air makes big demands upon
the soil for moisture, the irrigated fields are forced to
give up more in proportion than they would otherwise
be obliged to do.
On the other hand, the opportunity to put water on
the fields when the crop is in need of it, the less danger
of rains interfering with the farming operations, or with
the crop during maturity are big advantages in favor ot
irrigation.
Preparation for Irrigation.—The construction of irri-
gation facilities will pay in many localities even when,
in general, the rainfall is sufficient. The use of a small
quantity of water at just the time the plant requires it
will mean an increase in the final returns. Should the
rains come nothing further need be done, but if no rain
does fall when the beets are in need of water, then the
48
supply of irrigation water will be appreciated. I believe
that in many sections where full dependence is now
placed on the rainfall that a judicious amount of irriga-
tion facilities will prove to be a paying proposition.
To put in an irrigation system is by no means a very
difficult job, although it is a subject requiring fore-
thought and study. Various factors enter into the plan-
ning of a system and each must be considered, not only
separately but in connection with the scheme as a whole.
A few of these are:
(a) The source of the water, whether stream or well ;
(b) The necessity for storing ;
(c) Whether a sufficient quantity is available; this de-
pends on: the distance it must be carried; the character
of the soil in the field and in the ditch; the amount of
land to be covered; the number of men using the water ;
the height of the stream above the land (if a stream is
the source) at the time when water is required ;
(d) Whether the water is secured by gravity fall or by
pumping.
(e) If pumped, the height to be raised; and the
amount of water needed.
(f{) The slope of the land,
(g) The amount of money available for the purpose.
Accurate determination of all the foregoing is neces-
sary in order to arrive at an estimate of the cost and
possibilities which will in turn determine the system to be
used both as regards securing the water, and for proper
preparation of the fields for the reception and handling
of the water when it gets to them.
In most of the beet growing sections irrigation has
been so instrumental in developing the industry that the
systems for applying the water are well worked out. On
a large scale, involving much water and considerable
land, the services of a well trained, competent irrigation
engineer are necessary. His training and experience will
mean the installation of the most efficient system at the
minimum cost.
How the water shall be put on the land once it arrives
can be determined by the farmer for himself, whether
his supply comes from a small private plant or from a
big mutual canal. This will depend on a number of fac-
49
tors, such as the amount of labor available for handling
the water, the lay of the land, the quantity of water avail-
able, and the amount of acreage to be covered. m
When the water supply is to be developed for tracts of
small area, the problem often can be worked out by the
farmer himself, if the development of the project in-
volves no serious problems in the selection of machinery
or in field surveying. Even if the farmer should under-
take the work himself it will usually pay him to secure
the services of a good surveyor for two or three days in
order properly to plan the line of ditches and the location
of the checks. It is practically impossible to determine
the direction and amount of slope of the land with the
naked eye, when the amount of fall is but two or three
feet to the hundred, or even less.
In arid sections where beet growing is an established
industry or in new districts of the same nature where
sugar beets are to be grown, the water supply is one of
the first factors determined by the mill people. The
many thousands of dollars which must be invested to put
up a sugar mill means that great care is exercised in in-
vestigating the water resources and in developing a sup-
ply where one does not already exist. In such localities
the grower need not concern himself with the develop-
ment of the water supply, as it is brought right to the
land. All he has to do is to take care of it after it ar-
rives. It is beyond the scope of this work to more than
hint at the results to be gained by developing the irriga-
tion possibilities of a country. Many factors enter into
the profitable utilization of water which cannot be
touched upon at this time. But it is a fact that many
advantages result from a constant, ever-ready reserve of
water, which can be drawn upon when needed, even if
irrigation is not an absolute necessity.
The discussion of the ways of preparing the land for
the irrigation of sugar beets may well be discussed, as it
is the aim of every grower to get the greatest returns
possible from the use of the water. Irrigation is expen-
sive work, and anything that will reduce the cost of
handling the water will redound in greater profits on the
crop. One of the most economical ways of saving is by
the proper preparation of the land in the first place for
50
the reception of the water. There are several different
methods which can be used in irrigating beets, or any
other general farm crops, for that matter, each of which
has its advantages as well as certain disadvantages.
Which shall be used largely must be determined by the
prevailing conditions of the section as well as by the
object sought.
In this connection the different methods must first be
discussed and then the proper way of preparing the land
for these methods.
Methods of Irrigation. A number of methods are
practiced such as:
I. Flooding, by means of
(a) Slip pipe,
(b) Contour level checks,
(c) Rectangular level checks,
(d) Sloping checks.
2. Furrows.
3. Ditches.
4. Underflow.
5. Subirrigation.
The slip pipe method consists in the use of galvanized
iron pipe made in 12-foot lengths with the ends so fash-
ioned that one joint will fit into the next and make a
fairly tight connection. The pipe is laid to the part of
the field to be irrigated, and as fast as a piece of land 1s
irrigated successive sections of pipe are slipped off until
the line of pipe is exhausted, or until the section of the
field to be watered is completed.
With the check system, the land is surveyed, graded,
and leveled, the water being run into basins of varying
sizes (usually not over two acres being in one check).
The checks either follow the natural contour of the land,
following the rise and fall, or if the land is level they are
made rectangular in shape. In either case the bottoms of
the checks are level. The water is held in these basins
by either temporary or permanent earth borders or
levees.
A variation of the level check system is the sloping
check or “blanket” check. These checks are from 200 to
1,000 feet long, and from 50 to 100 feet wide, with a
fall af from 3 to 6 inches to the hundred feet—the greater
51
fall for the sandy land, the lesser for the heavy soils.
With any of the flooding systems, the checks are some-
times placed in series so that the water can be drawn
off from one to another, after it has stood in the first
check long enough to penetrate to the required depth.
When im series the fall of the land determines the posi-
tion amd size of the checks.
Furrow irrigation consists in running the water down
little ditches scraped or cultivated out between the rows of
growing plants. The water is allowed to flow slowly
down these little ditches in tiny rivulets. The furrows
have a fall of three to six inches to the hundred feet, and
water is allowed to run in them until the soil is moistened
by the percolation of the water down to the required
depth.
Diteh irrigating consists in plowing out temporary
ditches, 4 to 10 inches deep, right in the beet fields, for
use in guiding the water in a general direction.
Underflow irrigation is accomplished by a series of
underground pipes which carry the water to the various
parts of the field and release it underground.
Subirrigation is irrigation by means of a natural sup-
ply of water under the soil where the beets grow, ac-
complished by raising the water table or by utilizing hard
strata of soil for holding up the water and permitting it
to spread throughout the mass of top soil.
All of these methods have their advantages and disad-
vantages. Around the sugar mill where the waste water
must be taken care of the use of large checks are the first
consideration so that large quantities of water can be
handled cheaply and quickly. The irrigation serves the
double purpose of disposing of the waste water from the
mill, and of supplying needed moisture to the fields. It
is put on at a time when the land is unoccupied so that
large quantities of water can be used. This is the pre-
vious-to-planting irrigation of the crop. In many sections
this one irrigation will suffice to carry the crop through
the season without further application of water.
The method to employ depends on the individual case.
The amount of water required by the crop, of course, is
the first consideration. If crop irrigations are needed the
frequency and quantity required must be taken into ac-
52
count, and whether the summer irrigation is united
with a winter application. We can count on three condi-
tions, winter irrigation alone, summer irrigation, or crop
irrigation, alone, or winter combined with summer. By
winter is meant the previous-to-planting irrigation; by
summer the crop irrigations. When the winter irrigation
alone will suffice, the best method is the one which will
cover the most area in the shortest possible time. When
crop irrigations are required, the method will depend on
the climatic conditions and the amount of help available.
In countries where beet culture is a new industry, con-
siderable experimenting to determine the proper method
of irrigation will be necessary. By actually growing the
beets in the field under different periods of irrigation, the
requirements as regards the application of water can be
determined. On this basis the subsequent scheme for
preparing the land can be worked out. This is something
that is usually done in determining the value of a country
for a sugar mill. Once the needs of the crop are known,
the method of irrigation can be planned. If the crop re-
quires one or more applications of water when growing,
the method must take this into account.
In general the advantages and disadvantages of the
various systems are rather sharply defined.
The slip pipe method requires but little preparation of
the land and the water can be taken to any point without
loss. With high priced water this method has its ad-
vantages, but at best is costly to install and handle. For
sugar beets it has but a limited use.
The check system must be based on the character of
the land. Where the grade is very nearly uniform the
rectangular check can be used. Otherwise the contour
check is necessary. In no case can the check system be
used where the land does not slope evenly for from three
to fifteen feet to the mile. When the grade is steeper, high
levees are required close together, and these tend to be-
come of such height that farming operations are difficult
and the cost of construction is almost prohibitive. The
advantages of a properly constructed system of this kind
is the opportunity to irrigate with a large volume of wa-
ter and the cost of applying is less than in any other sys-
tem. The cost of maintenance is small after the first year,
and, with certain soils, it is often the only method which
53
will give satisfaction. This is especially true on sandy
lands where the seepage is so great that a big body of
water put on all at once will prove to be about the only
‘vay to reach all parts of the field and checks alike. With
ilooding the distribution of the water is more even, and
the amount put on can be readily gaged both by gates
and by borings made in the field. The last advantage is
a distinct one as the need of accurate knowledge concern-
ing the movement of the soil moisture is of vital impor-
tance in determining the needs of the crops.
The method has its disadvantages. Surface soil must
be removed for levees, the levees do not receive water
equally with the rest of the field, in the heavier soils per-
colation does not reach beneath them, and they prove an-
noying when using the farm machinery. Its first cost is
high, a large volume of water is necessary, and care must
be exercised in using water on lands which are liable to
suffer from oversaturation. In many cases this may mean
the proper installation of drainage facilities. The sys-
tem cannot be used in countries where excessive dry tem-
peratures will heat the water to a point involving danger
of scalding the beets.
With the furrow system the advantages consist in a
saving of water from seepage and evaporation, the doing
away with levees, the convenience in handling the water,
the absence of soil crusts after irrigating, and the possi-
bility of using a small head of water.
The greater length of time required to spread the wa-
ter, the unequal flow which usually occurs, the uneven dis-
tribution of the water in the furrow and soil, the neces-
sity for making the furrows each time, and the danger
of using an insufficient amount of water, especially when
trying to cover a large tract of land in a short time, are
the disadvantages of furrow irrigation.
The ditch method has little to recommend it. It is a
scheme which can be used on land requiring an unfore-
seen irrigation for which there is inadequate preparation.
It is cheap to construct, the ditches do not interfere with
farming as they are put in only when needed, and it per-
mits the deliverance of water in continuous sheets. Its
disadvantages are the difficult and excessive labor in
handling, the difficulty in controlling the water, the un-
54
even distribution, the loss of the beets in plowing out the
ditches, and the necessity that the land be of such texture
that sideways—as well as downward—percolation will
readily take place. |
Only passing reference need be made to subirrigation
and subflow. With the former initial outlay is
heavy, and will seldom pay with a crop like beets. It does
away with surface cultivation, but this is a doubtfui gain.
Both of these methods are feasible only in special and ex-
ceptional situations.
Underflow or “‘natural subirrigation” consists in rein-
forcing the natural country drainage. It is available only
where a cheap, large supply of water can be obtained and
where the soil rests on a hardpan or the previous clay
layer, which will hold up the water. Where natural sub-
irrigation occurs, it can be made good use of, but for a
general scheme of development it does not compare with
others.
From the results obtained in sections using irrigation
extensively the sloping check or the furrow systems will,
I believe, offer the most universal satisfaction. Which of
these to choose will depend on the labor available for put-
ting on the water, the slope of the land, the amount
of water obtainable, the periods when the water must be
applied, and the amount of acreage to be covered in a
given time. The flooding method gives the ground a
more uniform soaking, and is rapid. Therefore, it re-
quires a big head. The labor is less in handling. The
furrow requires less water but necessitates more help.
Where the soil tends to bake or crack, or when there is
liability of scalding the plants with the water, furrowing
will be the preferable method to use. If there is much
irrigating up of the seed to do furrowing methods are pre-
ferable.
Preparation of the Land for Irrigation.—The first
work to be done in actually preparing the fields for irriga-
tion is to determine the direction and rate of fall. The
most profitable way to do this, in the majority of cases, is
to hire a surveyor to run the lines and from these deter-
mine the location of the ditches and levees. This applies
to even comparatively small tracts—2o or 30 acres. This
work is especially necessary when the slope is slight.
SI
Methods have been evolved for a small amount of work
by which the farmer can run his own lines. An example
is the use of a spirit level, or something of that nature.
Descriptions of these methods can be obtained from the
nearest experiment station or from the United States
Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Sta-
tions, Washington, D. C.; but at best these methods are
crude and unless the farmer understands something of
surveying he will find the descriptions rather complicated.
The main fact to bear in mind in getting the land in
shape is to put it in as good condition as possible at the
start. Reworking, to correct initial mistakes, is costly and
unsatisfactory.
To properly prepare it, the land should first be plowed
or cultivated to a depth of 8 inches. Dead furrows and
headlands should be avoided as far as possible. Follow-
ing the plowing, such implements as are required to put
the land in a finely pulverized condition should be used.
The aim should be to work the land at the right degree
of moisture in order to put it in as good shape as for a
crop of alfalfa. After the soil is properly fined it should
be allowed to settle and to dry on top. Leveling and
grading come next.
Leveling to cut off slight irregularities on the surface
will be required in every case. For this purpose a stand-
ard well made grader, wooden float, or leveller made of
timber can be used, the kind which will pay best depend-
ing on the amount of the work which is to be done.
Once the land is in good, smooth condition, the actual
work on the irrigation system will go forward. First of
all comes the placing of the network of ditches which are
to convey the water to the different parts of the field.
These will be placed in accordance with the original plan
of irrigation decided on. The size to make the ditches
depends on the amount of water which is to be carried in
them. They should be large enough to carry all the water
with an additional depth sufficient to offset silting or sand-
ing up which is bound to occur with muddy waters or
where the fall varies in different parts of the same ditch.
The shape of the ditch and its grade will affect its capac-
ity. The shape will be determined largely by the imple-
ments used in making it. As a general rule it will be
56
more or less rounded out. The grade will be determined
by the character of the soil—the danger of scouring out
the ditch being greater in sandy soils—and by the voluine
of water required. The greater the grade the more wa-
ter it will carry. A fall of from one-fourth to one foot
per 100 feet is usually correct.
The initial point where the water is received should be
at the highest point of land under which the farmer ever
expects to irrigate, and from there carried to the differ-
ent parts of the farm. By winding around hills, by using
flashboards, by siphoning, fluming or filling in depressions
ditches can he made to carry water almost everywhere
but uphill.
After the ditches are put in the character of the work
will change to suit the method which is to be installed. If
the land is to be furrowed, no further work beyond the
making of the field ditches will be required until it is time
to fix the land for the proper reception of the water,
whether this be before planting or after the crop is in.
Furrows are then made from two to five or six inches
deep with smooth firm sides. This is most easily accom-
plished by means of a furrowing sled, or by attaching
regular furrowing shovels to the beet cultivator frame.
The sled is made of two 6x6 or 8x8, forty-two inches
long. These are the runners. They are spaced and well
braced far enough apart so that each runner will run in
the center on either every row or of every other row of
beets. The runners travel on edge and are sharpened
at the forward end to a vertical wedge shape. The parts
coming in contact with the soil should be faced with iron,
especially at the forward ends.
The furrows are made between the rows and end in a
head ditch which is plowed out parallel to the main field
lateral ditch. In irrigating with these ditches and fur-
rows only a small amount of water is turned in at once.
This is made to run slowly and to penetrate deeply. The
furrows should be between 300 and 500 feet long, the
lesser distance for the greater slope. But in no case
should the grade be greater than 6 inches to the hundred
feet in light lands and 3 inches in heavy soils if the best
results are to be obtained. Improvements over the usual
methods of regulating the water by means of a shovel-
37
ful of earth placed in the head ditches, consist of short
wooden sprouts made of four pieces of lath nailed to-
gether, which is placed in the ditch bank. These regulate
the flow in each ditch and do away with all danger of
washing out the temporary ditch banks. <A more elab-
orate scheme is the replacing of the head ditch with a
wooden flume having 2-inch holes bored to correspond
with the position of the furrows, and fitted with galvan-
ized iron gates so that the water can be shut off at will.
A further improvement over the wooden flume is one of
concrete similar in construction to the wooden one.
In preparing the land for sloping checks, each check
is enclosed with a levee which restrains the water put
there. Where these levees shall be placed is determined
by the difference in elevation of the land, as the degree of
slope should not be any greater in the check than in the
furrow system, i. e., 3 to 6 inches fall for every hundred
feet. Levees should not be over a foot in height and,
therefore, cannot include in their area more than 6 to 9
inches slope for any one check. On the other hand, with
the exception of soils of too loose a character, the bottom
of the check may be nearly flat. For quick, thorough ir-
rigation some fall is desired up to the limits just stated.
Broad, flat levees are to be preferred to narrow, abrupt
ones. Less land will recetve water when the former are
employed, but the ease in working the fields is much
enhanced. The levees should be built a bit higher than
actually desired, as the loose soil which is scraped up
to make them is bound to settle considerably through
future farming and irrigating operations.
Once the planning of the levees in done the work will
progress rapidly by driving the scrapers which throw up
the levees across each check. These will pick up soils
from the knolls and high places, carrying it to the levee,
dump, pass over, fill, travel to the next levee, and so on
the length of the field. This does away with turning
around, and where too much cutting away is not required
will work to perfection.
Whether wooden or concrete head-gates shall be used
to regulate the direction of flow in the ditches, depends
on the choice of the farmer, the cost of the raw material,
and the amount of money available for this branch of
58
the work. The use of the “tappoon’’—a movable piece of
heavy sheet iron to be driven into the ditch and extending
a bit into each bank—is used in many cases for effectually
shutting off the flow in the ditch and forcing the water
onto the land. It will facilitate the handling of the wa-
ter when using small streams. For large streams the
canvas dam is finding almost universal approval. The
top end of a sheet of canvas is turned down and sewed,
leaving an opening through which passes a 2x4 or a 4x4
timber of sufficient length to reach from ditch bank to
ditch bank. Plenty of canvas is used so that it will extend
a few inches along the bottom of the ditch when the dam
is in use. A few shovelsful of soil are then placed on
this lap and along the sides of the canvas to hold it in
place and to prevent the water working its way under-
neath.
All of these structures are used to back up the water
so that it will flow into the checks or into the head ditches
of the furrows.
Where the banks are not liable to crumble and wash,
openings to the checks and head ditches can be made di-
rectly in them. To close, only a few shovelsful of earth
are then necessary. Care in opening the bank so that the
cut is only the width of the shovel is good, as one shovel
can be placed to close the opening while another is used
to fill in when shutting off the water.
In loose, crumbling soils the use of gates into the parts
to be irrigated will be required. Here, as with the head-
gates, the choice of wood, concrete or cement is possible.
The tappoon can be used to advantage here.
In conclusion, emphasis must be placed on the point
that whatever land is checked, the work should be well
done. Better to do a little well than to do a whole lot
badly, for poor work is sure to entail subsequent increased
maintenance and handling expense.
Drainage.—In close relationship to irrigation comes the
matter of drainage. Much land which would otherwise
be valuable suffers from a constant over-supply of mois-
ture. This may be due to the fact that the field is low
and consequently receives water from land higher up,
faster than it can be disposed of, it may be due to exten-
sive impervious hardpans, or it may be the result of over-
59
irrigation. In any case, permanent relief will consist in
draining the land or removing the contributing causes.
Drainage has a number of advantages which, in_out-
line, can be summed up as: :
(a) Removal of surplus water ;
(b) Increased available moisture ;
(c) Prevention of washing (to a certain extent) ;
(d) Improvement of soil conditions ;
(e) Production of early soils, better for plant growth
and easier to till;
(f) Aeration of the soil.
Several methods of drainage are possible but before
deciding on what to use a study of the conditions which
produce the excess of water is required.
Often in irrigated sections excessive applications of
water on high lying lands will result in a swamping of
those on a lower level. For these a ditch or drain placed
along the upper edge of the field to be protected will
often prove an effectual protection. It will intercept the
seepage and do away with the trouble if the ditch can be
placed deep enough to reach the layers of soil which are
carrying the water. If hard layers definitely determine
the seepage the matter is an easy one to control.
When the condition producing the trouble is not open
to some such remedial measure as that just given, open
ditches or tile drains placed in the field must be used to
carry off the excess water, unless the cause is to be found
in impenetrable hardpans which can be opened to permit
the water to go through. How such drains shall be run
depends on the topography of the country. Each case
presents a problem in itself. Sometimes where the land 1s
valuable and there is no cheap possible outlet, it will prove
a good investment to construct a sump where the water
can be collected from the drains, and then repumped onto
higher levels for irrigation purposes.
The discussion of laying tile drains is a subject in it-
self. They offer the best final solution of almost any
drainage problem. A discussion, however, of their con-
struction and cost can best be found in literature relating
directly to this subject. Beyond mentioning their possi-
bility little can be given in a work of this scope.
In discussing the relation of drainage to beet growth
60
two facts stand forth. One is the need of a deep soil for
the plant’s development. If water stands within less than
4 feet of the surface drainage is well worth considering.
The other fact is the use of drains to aid in alkali work
and to supplement irrigation.
Before undertaking the draining of a large tract the
final character of the soil to be obtained should be care-
fully looked into. The author has in mind a tract of
several thousand acres which were fitted with open
drains at a great expenditure, as the manager of the work
believed he could produce good beet land out of it by
simply draining off the excess water. The result was a
mass of adobe, sticky in winter, and flinty in summer.
The “improvements” did not improve, for while the wa-
ter was successfully removed, the resulting soil was ill
adapted to beets. This fact could have been easily ascer-
tained before the money was spent by consulting any
farmer familiar with sugar beet culture.
Drainage for good land will pay. Poor land, on the
other hand, cannot be turned into good land simply by
drainage, unless by “poor land” is meant an excess of
moisture, or alkali.
As in many other problems of ranch work, the deter-
mination of a drainage system is very important. In a
country of great extent, unless the conditions which pro-
duce the swampiness can be proved to be local, a drain-
age scheme is apt to be of considerable extent and involve
many farmers. Therefore, before any work is done a
careful inquiry into the cause, extent and remedy should
be made.
Practice of Irrigation. There is no general rule for
irrigating sugar beets which will be applicable to all sec-
tions, or even to all parts of the same section. Local
conditions play a very important part and to a great ex-
tent determine the irrigation. The time of planting, the
amount and periods of rainfall, atmospheric tempera-
cures, fogs, winds, previous irrigations, the character of
the land, and the kind of beet desired are all influences
which must be taken into account. In no particular sec-
tion of great extent will any universal practice be equally
good under all conditions. While the difference will not
be as pronounced, perhaps, as between one section and
6l
another, it will be great enough to require different meth-
ods of irrigating different lots of beets.
In irrigating a man must know his soil. Not onlyeis it
absolutely necessary for him to be acquainted with its
nature to the depth to which the plow goes but away on
down to the depth to which the roots feed if he is to
practice irrigation to the best possible advantage. This is
more important with the sugar beet than with most crops
because, for its best development it needs a deep soil ana
ample moisture. When the soil contains no impenetrable
strata of clay, limestone, coarse gravel or dry soil the
beet will go down deeply after water—i12 feet or more,
so that with soils having the water table at 4 to Io feet,
the beet will finally reach this supply of moisture, a con-
dition noticeable in the gradually quickened growth and
treshening of the beets as they secure the moisture in
quantity from this source.
In order to know how much water the land will hold
a study of the nature and extent of the layers of soil and
the depth of the water table is absolutely necessary. Soil
formations are not only apt to differ greatly from one
section to another, from one man’s possessions to an-
other’s in the same section, but also on different fields
farmed by one man.
Close clay layers take water slowly and if these lie
near the surface of the ground the application of large
quantities of water will only result in saturating the soil
to an extent too great for the best results. In fact, adobe
subsoils, clay layers and cement hardpans are dangerous
unless their existence and extent are understood by the
irrigator. Such formations determine the amouni of soil
available for farming operations. Gravel layers are not
as serious; in fact if thev exist at a considerable depth, 6
or 7 feet or deeper, they are actually beneficial for they
will then serve as drains for excess water.
The location of the water table should be ascertained.
If this is within 10 feet of the surface with no obstruct-
ing layers between, the beets can secure water directly
as they grow older. When they reach this water further
irrigation is of no advantage. If, however, for any rea-
son the plant roots cannot reach this ground water, timely
irrigations must be given. In this connection it may be
62
well to state that the moisture which the plant can use is
that which comes from the water table by capillarity—the
plant does not go into the standing water and drink sim-
ilarly to an animal. Capillarity is the same principle of
physics applied to the upward movement of water in the
soil,-as that which causes the upward movement of oil
in the wick of a lamp from the container to the flame.
The height to which water can be raised by this means
depends on the nature of the soil—heights of over 6 feet
have been recorded. For ordinary beet soils, however,
the average height is from 2 to 4 feet, depending on the
layers which make up the soil. Clay soils will raise
moisture much higher than sand soils. The final height
which will be reached by the moisture is greatly influ-
enced by intervening layers of sand or gravel. The mois-
ture will pass from the finer to the coarser soils but the
total height reached depends on the extent of each kind
of soil and the height to which the moisture will rise in
each independently. Eighteen inches of river sand will
effectually shut off capillary rise. So will 2 inches of
gravel the size of a pea. In actual practice the height
to which the water will rise from the water-table is not
very important. Knowledge of the depth to which the
plant naturally goes and the possibility of encouraging it
to reach this supply of moisture is sufficient.
Every irrigator should post himself on the depth to
which the irrigation water sinks, the danger of over-irri-
gation and the possibilities of the water table as a supply
of moisture.
A couple of true examples will illustrate this. In a
clay loam, with a few intervening sand layers, the wa-
ter table was found to be at 8 feet in winter and 10 feet
in summer. The plants grew to the water table. In this
case it was found that one winter irrigation in an amount
sufficient to unite the surface and soil moistures, in order
to guard against the formation of a dry layer through
which the beet would not go, was sufficient. This made
the required irrigation light as the rainfall of 14 inches
falling during the time when the irrigation was given was
almost sufficient to do this unaided. The combined rain-
fall and irrigation started the beets and provided moisture
for the greater part of the season, but the gradually de-
63
creasing amount forced the beet to go deeper and deeper
until finally it reached the supply coming from below
which was more than ample to carry the crop to
maturity. The failing supply in the upper layers pro-
duced the right conditions for ripening the beets. The
crops averaged 20 to 25 tons for fields of from 60 to
100 acres and tested over 18 per cent sugar and 85 per
cent purity.
A second field of light sandy loam with a sand sub-
soil at a depth of 4 feet, interspersed with clay layers,
had the water table down as deep as 26 feet. A supply
of water from the water table for the beets therefore, was
out of the question, as the beets could not grow down
deep enough to reach this water even though the soil
was thoroughly moistened down by early irrigation. To
produce beets in quantities great enough to be profitable,
several irrigations were necessary, the aim being to keep
the soil constantly moistened to a depth below to feet
during the growing period of the beet with a withholding
of the water for six weeks before harvest in order to
produce a beet rich at maturity. The beets were planted
in February, the land having been given a previous light
irrigation for preparing the land. Combined with the
natural rainfall (9 inches), the land had the proper mois-
ture content to put it into shape and to start the crop.
Two further irrigations were given, both crop applica-
tions, one the first of May and the other the middle of
June. The beets were harvested the first of August.
That proper attention to the needs of the beets will pay
shows in the yields. Twelve to 14 tons of beets were
secured to the acre testing 20 per cent sugar and go
per cent purity. Yet this land could not be considered
strong beet land.
A third case which came to my attention was the diff-
culty one man had in getting his land into shape with
the resulting poor yields of small-rooted beets with very
large tops. Investigation showed promiscuous winter
irrigation. Examination of the soil developed the fact
that the water table was but 4 feet beneath the surface
of the ground and amply able to supply all the moisture
needed by the plants at any stage of their growth, except
possibly for germinating the seed. The soil was not a
64
good beet soil, being heavy adobe, but after following
out the recommendation to withhold all irrigation, the
far better results which were obtained in ease of working,
stand and yield were little short of astonishing.
In each case cited flooding was the method employed,
but the same would hold true with any method of irriga-
tion. They show the need of determining the require-
ments of each particular lot of land. No arbitrary rules
can be laid down which will cover all conditions. Caution
is urged against using an over-supply simply because it
is available, or an under-supply because of scarcity. The
time and amounts to apply will be determined entirely
by local conditions which in turn will gauge the needs of
the plant. How the plant signals its needs and the prop-
er way of applying the remedy will be discussed a little
further on. From this discussion I believe many of the
points at present not fully understood, or at least not in-
sisted upon emphatically enough, will be cleared up, and
that the subject of proper irrigation will not have quite
the mystifying aspect it now has in many sections.
From the big mass of data which can be compiled re-
garding the irrigation of sugar beets two facts stand out
forcibly, and a correct understanding of both will be of
material benefit to the grower of beets. One is the
need of varying amounts of water from one period to
another in the beets’ development while the other is
the ability of the plant to indicate a lack of water suf-
ficient for its needs.
The growth of the beet from germination to maturity
can be divided into three periods as regards its moisture
requirements. During germination only a moderate
amount is needed. But as soon as the beets have grown
six or eight leaves they can use enormous amounts of
water, and at this time it seems almost impossible to
drown them out. During the third period, when the beet
is maturing and sugar is being stored up less moisture
must be applied. This means that there are really two
times when the water can be applied to the best advan-
tage, before the crop is put in, and when the beets have
from six leaves until six weeks before maturity. During
either period water can be put on as often as it is needed.
The plants themselves indicate a failing supply of mois-
65
ture by the appearance of the foliage and are themselves
a good guide to go by with the possible exception that
beets in too wet soils will sometimes show signs of,dis-
tress similar to beets suffering from a lack of moisture.
But by taking the foliage indications in connection with
an investigation of the soil conditions as regards mois-
ture content to a depth of 5 or 6 feet a true insight into
the condition of things can be obtained. Once familiar
with the action of the soil as regards moisture, the plant
itself is a never failing indicator. When the growth be-
gins to slacken a bit, when the light green, normal color
changes to a glossy, varnished purplish or bluish green,
and when the normal crisp texture gives way to a flab-
biness which is not overcome during the night, then the
beets need water, and need it quickly. If allowed to go
beyond this stage they again turn light green, but rapidly
assume a yellow, sickly shade while a dead and dying
outer leaf shows here and there.
The quick going back of beets once they show the need
of water emphasizes the necessity of putting on the water
as soon as the first signs of distress appear. Ten days to
three weeks is sufficient time to check growth, depend-
ing to a large extent, of course, on the nature of the soil
and the climatic conditions in the regulation of the move-
ment of the moisture. For this reason, where there is a
large area to cover with water, an early start should be
made in order to insure reaching all the beets before they
pass the critical stage and begin to actually suffer. It is
far better to start a bit early on beets which are not
actually in need of water than to delay so long that the
last beets to be irrigated are actually suffering. More-
over when the character of the soil varies the aim should
be to reach the poorer moisture-holding soils first.
In hot, dry, windy weather the going back will be
more rapid than during cool, calm, foggy spells. Beets
in sandy land will not suffer as much as those in heavier
soil once the moisture content lessens to the danger point,
but this point will be reached much more quickly in the
sandy land.
Yellowing in spots on low land, which hold much wa-
ter in winter, is brought about by the packing of the soil
under the weight of the water, so that an environment is
66
produced unfavorable to beet growth and favorable to
excessive evaporation. Taught to receive water close at
hand during its early growth when the bulk of it is gone,
the plant seems incapable of seeking further and actually
suffers for want of it. Moreover, in those wet spots root
rot plays considerable havoc. The same thing holds true
with beets grown in land which has been badly tramped
by working down when too wet on top or a few inches
underneath,
Beets which have gone until they are very yellow are
beyond the stage where they will give the greatest re-
turns from an application of water, but even then irri-
gation will pay. The sugar content, brought up by dry
conditions, tends to go down but if several weeks of
warm, sunny weather follow this will be regained.
The watering of beets drying and withering for lack
of moisture will cause them to make a fresh start and
make a satisfactory growth. While not wise to let mat-
ters reach that stage, still, if it does happen water can
be applied to advantage. (This applies to beets which
are drying for lack of water. The condition must not
be confused with approaching maturity. In the former
case the beet root will be dry, tough, easily bent and
springy. When the beet is maturing the beets will be
brittle, juicy, and snap when bent).
The action of water on maturing beets cannot always
be foretold with accuracy. When there is quite a period
of summer weather to follow, hot, dry and sunny, little
good as well as little harm will follow the application of
water. But when a heavy watering is given and is then
followed by cool, moist, or simply cool weather, the beet
tends to stop the formation of sugar and to turn to the
production of seed. In most cases the irrigating of ma-
turing or matured beets is to be condemned. While a
gain in weight follows it is usually nothing more than
water taken up by the plant. The sugar drops not in
actual amount, apparently, but in its proportion to the
weight of the beet, so that while as much sugar is pres-
ent it appears to be less when the weight of the root is
taken into account. If good maturing weather follows
the application of water the excess moisture will be evap-
orated from the beet and soil, so that the sugar once
more gains in proportion to the weight of the root. This
67
seems to be due to an actual lessening of the weight of
the root as the water is given off, or to sufficient new
formation of sugar taking place in the plant’s leave§, so
that the sugar is increased enough to equal the final slight
gain in the root. But should moist, cool weather fol-
low application during maturity, it will work havoc by
inducing seed formation. As soon as second growth
starts the sugar content is drawn upon by the plant, and
constantly decreases as growth continues. Water applied
to mature beets during the hot summer weather tends to
preserve them and assists in loosening the ground so that
plowing out is attended with much less difficulty than
otherwise. The water, however, will not increase the
tonnage to any appreciable extent and may induce the
seed formation with its attendant detrimental affect on
the sugar content of the beet.
The yellowing of beet foliage is often a topic of much
discussion among beet farmers, each maintaining his own
particular views on the subject. The truth is that yel-
lowing may be due to several causes, as:
(a) Too much moisture in the land in winter.
(b) Preparing the land when too wet.
(c) Maturity.
(d) Low spots receiving much seepage.
(e) Actual lack of moisture.
(f{) Later effect of root rot ravages.
(zg) Disease.
By combining an investigation of the moisture condi-
tions in the soil, an examination of the beets and taking
into account their age, a pretty close estimate of the
cause can be determined. Beets four months old or over
are ready to mature and the yellowing then will be nor-
mal. When the yellowing is abnormal the causes will
show in the soil and in the beet. If on digging or boring
down to the depth in which the plant is growing, the
earth is found to be so dry that it cannot be molded in the
hand or lacks the characteristic dark color imparted by
water, if hardpans are encountered, or if an excess of
standing water is present, then the presence of such
undesirable conditions naturally will be the cause.
From the preliminary study of the soil conditions much
of the season’s methods regarding the probable need of
68
water will be determined and the outline of the work
can be quite definitely mapped out. Moreover, when the
soil conditions are understood their influence on the
plant’s needs can be more closely watched and by this
means larger and better crops can be produced at no
greater expense.
Too much or too little water will result in reduced.
crops. With too little water the beet fails to gather the
necessary food elements for best growth and in conse-
quence remains dwarfed. With too great an amount the
beet runs more to foliage and less to root where condi-
tions are otherwise favorable, while the danger of a still
greater supply lies in the waterlogging of the soil by
driving out the air from around the roots. Roots breathe
and therefore need air as well as moisture. Never of
their own accord do they enter soil saturated with water.
When too great a quantity of water is given it forces out
the air and results in “killing” the soil.
Of times in irrigated sections there will be an actual
saving in the use of water. Where plenty is at hand the
temptation to use it often and in large quantities proves
too strong. Let the grower learn to read the needs of
his crop, then, and then only will there be no further
temptation in this respect.
As to the amount of water to apply and the time to ap-
ply it, a study of local conditions again will prove the
best guide. In general from 24 to 36 inches of water
is needed to produce a full crop of beets, and all this
should come within six or eight weeks previous to the
harvest time. It may be stored in the soil during the
winter and held by the usual methods of retaiming crop
moisture, or it may be put on at intervals. More than
12 inches of water in flooding at any one time is to be
advised against, either to the growing crop or to the fal-
low soil. The amount at each time, however, must be
varied to suit the conditions of soil and water supply.
To provide the best conditions for the growth of the beet
it is desirable to give the amount best suited to the plant’s
growth throughout the season, and to the depth within
which the plant secures its food and water. Irrigations
should in every case be sufficient to penetrate below the
depth occupied by the plant, or to impervious iayers if
such exist. Where these are present the water must just
69
moisten to the layers so that there will be no danger of
saturating the soil. If an excess be used the plant will
suffer until enough evaporates to permit the entrancesof
air into the soil, for neither air nor water should occupy
the soil to the exclusion of the other—for longer than a
very limited period at any rate. In open soils where the
beet can go down almost unlimited distances the land
should be thoroughly moistened to a depth of 8 or Io
feet by each irrigation.
The danger of oversaturating the soil is slight if an
oversupply of water is put on lands with good drain-
age, which take water readily. Under these conditions
the excess water is simply lost. This means greater ex-
pense in irrigating and also a leaching out of certain sol-
uble plant foods. These plant foods are carried to depths
beyond reach of the plant and lost. In clayey soils an
excess of water will cause the beets to produce extensive
foliage without a compensating amount of root. In other
words the tonnage will be reduced.
Excessive irrigations promote evaporation by packing
the soil and in a very few weeks after the water is put on
there will actually be less moisture present than in soil
not over-irrigated.
The size of the beet at the time the water is put on
makes little difference. The larger the beet, the greater
are its demands on the soil moisture and, consequently, the
older the plant is the less leeway exists for delay in ap-
plying the water when it is needed. But if the amount of
moisture falls below the plant’s requirements water must
be supplied no matter what the age of the plant is.
So many graduations occur of good, bad and indiffer-
ent methods of applying water as regards the time and
amount that a careful study of this point is well worth
while on the part of every beet grower. The whole aim
is to provide a constant supply of moisture in the soil
during the growing period of the beet, avoiding an ex-
cess on one side and a deficiency on the other with a
diminishing amount as maturity approaches. Only by
keeping the beet growing steadily from start to finish can
the maximum returns be secured.
In all irrigation work the final crop desired is the point
to keep in mind. High sugar content and heavy tonnage
are opposed to each other and the maximum of each will
70
not occur in the same beet. A happy medium must be
obtained in order to produce a good sugar content in
marketable beets, large enough to handle economically.
If the tests are very high the weight will be low. On the
other hand, when the tests of beets over four and one-
half months old range low, a large overgrown beet will
be found responsible. Find out which type of beet pays
best to raise and then work accordingly.
Use of Alkali Waters. There is danger in using alkali
waters for irrigation purposes unless a_ preliminary
knowledge of their nature and effect upon the ground is
understood.
Under the subject of alkali lands the nature of the dif-
ferent salts comprising alkali was taken up. It is these
same salts carried in solution which gives to strong,
salty-tasting waters the name of “alkali” waters.
In judging the value or danger of alkali streams or
waters the sense of taste cannot be relied upon as an
accurate guide. A chemical analysis of the water in
question is necessary. This will determine the nature
and amounts of salts present. To put water strongly
charged with alkali on good land is in most instances an
unwise course. But there are exceptions to this rule and
if the land is of the proper nature and a few precautions
are observed in using the water no harmful results will
follow. |
When the land is of a deep formation and takes water
easily without waterlogging, or in other words if the wa-
ter table is many feet from the surface (20 or more),
and the soil itself is of a loose, open, more or less sandy
nature, with layers of sand or gravel to provide good nat-
ural drainage and no impervious layers of clay or hard-
pan to hold the water back, then, and then only, may a
grower consider the use of alkaline waters. By strongly
alkaline I mean waters containing over forty grains per
gallon of mineral content. If the land is heavy in nature,
takes water but slowly, has a standing water table near
the surface. has hard layers of clay or hardpan, or is in
any way different from the broad conception given above, -
the land better not be irrigated with questionable waters.
It is not easy to give hard and fast rules as to what
constitutes a good and a poor water for the nature of
71
the salts plays a most important part. When they are of
calcium or magnesia (the latter having an excess of cal-
cium present with it) no objection can be offered, to
the use of the water. When on the other hand the bulk
of the solids are alkalies—carbonate of soda, sodium
chloride, and the like, to an amount greater than forty
grains to the gallon, precaution advises against their
continual use.
Should it become necessary to use saline water for
temporary purposes, or as a general procedure under
favorable conditions as given above, copious applications
must be given, sufficient in fact to moisten the land to a
depth of 10 feet or more each time. Should the applica-
tion be temporary fresh water should be turned on as
soon as it can be secured in order to flush out the salts
deposited the first time. To prevent accumulations in
the surface soil, by continual use of saline waters, through
evaporation, frequent and copious irrigations are neces-
sary. These will carry off the excess salts in the natural
drainage of the country.
Any farmer can determine the value of his water for
irrigation in a general way by evaporating a tablespoonful
of the water in a clean, bright, silver spoon, using care
to evaporate the water by steaming and not by boiling.
The amount of residue will roughly determine the quan-
tity of salts present in the water. Should there be but a
thin film the water may be considered safe for use but
should a definite crust remain it shows a high percentage
of salts. If on the application of a little water these salts
will redissolve it is fairly conclusive that they are alka-
lies. If such be the case it will be necessary to exercise
care in the use of the water, and a chemical analysis to
determine the exact status of the water should be made.
It is absolutely necessary in using alkali waters that
they penetrate. Constant tests with a pointed steel probe
several feet long, made of square steel one-fourth inch
on a side and fitted with an adjustable cross-handle
should be made. When the probe can be forced with
ease into the ground, there the water has gone or will go
if sufficient is used. By this method the presence of
hardpans can be quickly determined.
When the irrigation is done by means of furrows it is
advisable to use deep furrows and to give large amounts
72
of water. Special care must be used to see that the water
actually penetrates as deeply as it is supposed to go. As
soon as the furrows dry out sufficiently to work after
the irrigations they should be cultivated deeply and every
attempt made to create and preserve a well fined mulch.
Land laid down by alkali streams will often be found
valuable for agricultural purposes provided it is laid
down by running water and not where pools cf water
are standing. The salts being soluble are carried off by
the stream while the soil, having been subjected to the
leaching power of the water, is freed of the salts. Un-
less other causes enter to recharge the land, little of an
injurious nature will be left.
The Soil Auger. In addition to the soil probe de-
scribed in the preceding paragraph, every farm should
have a soil auger for use in determining the character of
the soil at different depths. This does more efficient
work than a shovel. It is a labor saver in time, and will
reach depths otherwise inaccessible.
Two kinds of soil augers give satisfaction. The first
is the King auger. This consists of a brass tube having
an inside diameter of one inch. It is reénforced at the
top with a collar so that blows can be struck to force
the tool into the ground. The bottom is fitted with a
bright tool-steel hollow point, tempered to a stone cut:
ter’s edge of 34-in. bore. A heavy core fits loosely in-
side the tube, which, rimmed with a broad collar and
topped with a handle, is used to drive the auger into the
soil. The tube is driven down one foot at a time and the
samples of soil can be taken out in sections and compared
one with another. For use in dry soils and hardpans
this is an especially fine instrument.
A cheaper implement consists in welding an ordi-
nary 114 or 2-inch carpenter’s bit to the end of a five-
foot % or 34-inch round iron rod. An adjustable han-
dle is then added, somewhat similar to that of a posthole
digger. To go to deeper depths other sections of rod
can be made to screw on to the first one, being fitted with
matched holes at the joining with a pin to go through so
that in turning the rod the parts will neither unscrew
nor tighten up so that they cannot be easily separated.
In moist soil this will do excellent work. For dry soil it
needs a piece of brass tubing fitted around the bit, after
73
grinding down all but the lower end so that the tube and
bit do not exceed the original size of the bit. In very
hard, dry soils the tool will not equai the King auger. By
pouring a little water into such holes the work will often
be greatly facilitated when the examination is simply to
determine the character of the layers of soil, and not for
the purpose of determining the moisture.
Other types of augers are on the market. Most of
them will do excellent work.
Fertilizing the Sugar Beet.
What the beet uses—In order to arrive at the needs
of the beet as regards plant foods an analysis of the
different parts of the plant is given in pounds per hun-
dred pounds of leaves, crowns and crownless roots.
Phosphoric Total
Nitrogen. Potash. Acid. Lime. Ash.
Bea Vesia cern int chr 0.64 1.09 0.114 0.41 4.30
Crowitte sce. (0.43 0.45 0.120 0.05 1.35
Crownless_ roots...0.28 0.36 0.112 0.03 0.84
This table shows several things, prominent among
which is the small amount of ash (plant foods) removed
from the land in the part sold to the mill. The leaves
and crowns contain 87 per cent of the total substances
taken up by the plant in feeding.
Expressed in pounds of mineral matter removed, a
crop of 36 tons (counting both tops and roots) will take
out :
Roots Ae tons). Tops ee tons). Total.
OLAS cicl nidteniw het ttt tales 387
Sas Orde xcranne Mh yee Seah er 109 223
TRIE bo ac a trons 16 208 224
Maoriebia 1. stick Uinevad oo ates 24 172 196
Phosphoric dei 35543 .ici2. 36 80 116
INFEROG@ OTIS ars nein de ane 60 1138 is
Other yields will withdraw plant foods in proportion
to these amounts as they are greater or less than 36 tons
in weight.
Use of Commercial Fertilizers ——lf{ $10 worth of fer-
tilizer will increase the profits of the beet crop to a great-
er extent, obviously it pays to fertilize. But if no actual
gain in money follows the use of fertilizers the amount
expended on them is only thrown away.
At present there is no method by which the needs of
the soil as regards fertilizers can be determined except
by actually trying out the fertilizers in the field. Chemical
74
analyses or other laboratory methods fail at this point,
but a trial in the field will give actual results. Each
farmer must do this for himself on each particular type
of soil represented on his farm.
Soil is derived from rocks and its character will, there-
fore, be largely determined by the nature of the rocks
from which it was formed and by the agency which
brought about the disintegration—rock weathering, wind,
stream, volcano or glacier. A study of this question is
a problem too deep for the average farmer as it involves
time as well as a knowledge of geology, physics and
chemistry. Moreover, the final results would be doubt-
ful gains from a practical standpoint. In any soil the ele-
ments which are apt to be found wanting are nitrogen,
Phosphoric acid, potash and lime, either singly or in
combination. Which is needed, if any, to increase the
beet crop can best be determined by laying off plats
in the beet field which will contain, when planted, twelve
rows of beets 88 feet long. This is equal to one twenty-
fifth of an acre when the rows are 20 inches apart. The
plats should be placed side by side, the fertilizer sowed
on each just before planting, and each plat carefully
marked with corner stakes.
The following plats should be run: —Amount
Per acre, Per plat,
pounds. pounds.
1. Nitrate of soda (before planting) 730495 200 8
2. Nitrate of soda (before summer irrigation, if
one is given, or when the beets have eight
leaves if dependence is placed on the natural
GAUECM Te Porat Cy ee ot ee Nes erent es 200 8
de unerpnosphate ts! gift neh eet he 12
Sep Sulphate OF pplAashe <wined \oisg rk on cledd p 2 co 200 8
epee reeGu@l Sola. sikh ay bc ea Ok meen oe 200 8
SUPELBNOSHNALE 2002.0)... 00. oe Nee ee 300 12
Supnitee Ok HOtasit.... Corr. fo lessee eee ee 200 8
aah titel on sould wt ac) hires wee Ae SL, 400 16
SHUR DINOS (bos ona etal ebioyesy hte 600 24
iipiate: GF TWerAshy calc sca. Seal. feet 400 16
Rr ecei Meet. Sorts Pe he yee het eee Stor
The plats must be prepared, planted and subsequently
handled exactly alike.
When the crop is ripe sections of a couple of rows.
about 200 feet each are dug or plowed up from differ-
ent parts of each plat and a total of 400 or more well-
75
preserved, unmutilated, representative beets are selected,
topped carefully and weighed.
On comparing the figures, if the total weight of*the
beets in plat No. 5 is greater than in No. 7, it is evident
that fertilizing paid. Then if No. 1 and No. 3 grve
greater returns than No. 7, while No. 4 1s about the same,
it is plain that the nitrate of soda and the superphosphate
are what produced the increase, and are the ingredients
needed.
A comparison of No. 5 and No. 6 will broadly deter-
mine the amounts needed, while No. 1 and No. 2 will
show the best time for applying the nitrate of soda if
this is to be used.
This simple experiment will determine very closely
the needs of the plants.
But the increase in yield must be sufficient to more
than offset the cost of the fertilizer, or at any rate to
equal it. Suppose the fertilizer in No. 5 costs $10 and
in No. 6 $20, and the yield of the plats, calculated to an
acre (figuring 20,000 beets to the acre), 1s increased in
No. 5 by 25 per cent over the normal yield in No. 7 and
by 30 per cent in No. 6. Then if $5.50 per ton is re-
ceived for the beets, and No. 7 goes 12 tons, we shall
. have:
Nox wallyieldvilia tons wOtti, 6.25 chcuece seks ot tees Seah $66.00
Nea will wield lo fOUs WOntll «264006 «-6@ cca wis Ge Neen: 82.50
Nosibowill yield “kG toms worth. t.ho eee se eos Ree 88.00
In round numbers the fertilizer would cost $10 in
No. 5. It returned $16.50, consequently it paid. But
the fertilizer in No. 6 cost $20 and thus only returned
a profit of $2 over the expenditure. Hence we may con-
clude that No. 5 is the best amount to use.
Then, again, if the plats receiving a single kind of
fertilizer show that the benefit was from only one or two
then the useless ones can be omitted and the returns will
be increased that much more.
Lime may be tried by running an eighth plat or by
putting a strip crosswise of the other seven so that all
receive a lime application with the fertilizers. By de-
termining the yields from the two parts of the plats sep-
arately, the need of lime on the soil can be determined
both as regards a plant food and as a means of bettering
the mechanical condition of the soil.
76
The use of fertilizers will often pay where they are
not at present being used. The author has increased the
yields of new light loam soil from 8 to 13 tons per acre
simply by an application of nitrate of soda put on before
the first summer irrigation. The plants had nine or ten
leaves at the time. Applied earlier it did not give as good
results. This meant an increase in profits of $26 for an
expenditure of $5.
As to the forms of fertilizer to apply. When a com-
plete fertilizer is needed probably nitrate of soda and
tankage for the nitrogen, superphosphate for the phos-
phoric acid, and sulphate of potash for the potash will
fulfill all requirements. In general when the land re-
quires potash it can be supplied in: (a) 75 lbs. of sul-
phate of potash; (b) 75 lbs. of muriate of potash, or
(c) 300 lbs. of Kainite. Of these the first one is best as
the second has a tendency to make watery beets.
If phosphoric acid is needed it can be obtained from:
(a) 200 lbs. of acid phosphate; (b) 175 lbs. of dissolved
bone, or (c) 250 lbs. of bone meal. .Of these, the first
will usually prove to be the most desifable. Of the first
two, one-half the quantity put on will become available
the first year, and the other half the second. The third
will become only slowly available the first year.
These amounts are based on the usual content of
commercial fertilizers.
Green Manure Crops—Green manure crops are
crops grown on the land and turned under green for the
purpose of improving soil conditions. With certain
crops, such as alfalfa, it is sometimes possible to take off
a crop or two, but the majority of them are turned under
without harvesting any part.
Green manure crops accomplish several objects. Their
main use, however, is to replace humus and nitrogen in
the soil. Two classes of green manure crops are recog-
nized—one with nitrogen-gathering power, and the other
without. Plants such as beans, peas, vetches, burr clover,
horsebeans, velvet beans, cowpeas and clovers are nitro-
gen-gatherers, that is they are able to gain their nitro-
gen from sources other than the natural supply in the
soil. It is gained by means of microscopic bacteria
which develop in the knob-like excresences or nodules
found on the roots of such plants. Plants which do not
Th
have the capacity to gather their nitrogen by means of
these bacteria are far less desirable green manure crops.
Of course such nitrogen as they appropriate from tHe
soil is returned when the plant is plowed under, but
there is no increase. For most purposes one of the plants
possessing the nitrogen-gathering property—a legume
in other words—should always be selected for green
manure purposes.
Most soils are abundantly supplied with the bacteria
needed by the leguminous plant. Once in a while, how-
ever, an exception occurs and it is then necessary to in-
troduce the required form of bacteria. Whether or
not bacteria are needed can be quickly told by examining
the roots of the growing plants upon which they are
desired. The plants should be carefully dug out—never
pulled—and the clinging soil gently washed off in a
stream of water. If on examination of the legume, which
has been taken up so carefully that there was no chance
of scraping off the nodules, none are found, it is a sign
that the land needs bacteria. The small roots should be
examined as well as the long main ones.
Several ways are open for gaining the needed bacteria.
The use of half a load of soil from fields where the
plants show the nodules can be resorted tc, or else a
supply of the bacteria in bottles can be secured from the
United States Department of Agriculture free of charge,
with full directions for using.
Nitrogen is one of the most necessary elements for
plant growth and its gain can be figured in dollars and
cents.
Humus is partly decayed animal or vegetable matter.
A green manure is not humus at the time it is turned
under. Various agencies of decay and disintegration
must work upon this mass of green stuff and break down
its composition. When the process has reached the
point where there is no resemblance to the original mate-
rial it is humus. Continued beyond this point it becomes
nothing but ashes. Humus is the black, earthy material
without definite form which gives soils their dark tint
on being moistened.
Humus plays a very important part in soil fertility as
it has the ability to keep the soil in a mellow, rich and
spongy condition, thereby preventing crusting and crack-
78
ing. It permits free circulation of air in the soil, gathers
and retains all moisture which falls, binds loose sandy
soils, and overcomes the close, retentiveness of clays.
Finally, in breaking down, it liberates plant food.
The value of a green manure crop depends on the
amount of humus and nitrogen which can be obtained
from it. This is based on the amount of green growth
produced, found by weighing the crop, and by the plant’s
ability to collect nitrogen from the air, which is deter-
mined by chemical analysis. For most practical purposes
the legume yielding the most tonnage will prove the
best manure crop. Just what plant to use will depend on
local conditions, one plant doing better in some sections
than others. For most localities the vetch, Canadian
field pea or alfalfa will probably be found satisfactory.
The following table gives an idea of the different yields
and the value of the crop in dollars and cents, based on
its nitrogen content. It means that if the nitrogen had
to be purchased in the open market, in the form of am-
monium nitrate, nitrate of soda, or the like, the cost
would be in the neighborhood of the sum set opposite
each crop.
TABLE SHOWING THE VALUE OF GREEN MANURE CROPS.
Nitrogen Yieldperacre Nitrogen Value
100 Ibs. in lbs. peracre. of Ni-
greentops. Tops. Roots. Lbs. _ trogen.
Common vetch .... 0:62 58,715 9,677 407.5 $81.50
airy wreteh .. e2.8 0.53 68,365 12,705 273.0 54.60
Horseheaht cic. ts : 0.48 37,812 17,545 244.2 48.84
Barr clover «6s .0: 0.51 54,873 1,075 285.0 57.00
[ielic Get i aie mere 0.70 24,000 1,044 167.0 33.40
Fenugreek. 2.0.25... 0.53 25,711 2,134 144.5 28.90
Rea ‘laver -.0'.: 2. 2. 0.53 *15,000 BE 79.5 16.00
Voune-alialfa <2.s:. 0.72 *11,000 oer 79.2 16.00
Crimson clover .... 0.48 *14,000 pe 60.2 12.00
BO ee er 0.27 *18,000 ray 48.6 10.00
White lupine ...... 0.44 *25,000 SAP? 110.0 22.00
Yellow lupine ..... 0.51 *15,000 re 76.5 16.00
Qrelrus pea 2... .5.: 0.58 *75,000 oe 435.0 87.00
Tangier spea.. Ji. ... 0.51 *40,000 Wece 204.0 41.00
Scarlet vetch ...... 0.60 *50,000 300.0 60.00
Some of these were eastern grown ea some western.
The yields cannot be accepted. as absolute because one
crop will succeed better in one locality than another.
*Tops and roots,
79
Only by experimenting with the different crops can
definite figures be obtained. The nitrogen, too, will vary,
although probably not enough to take into account. .
Green manuring ranks ahead of commercial fertilizing
in importance. It will not, however, replace anything
except nitrogen and humus. When potash and _ phos-
phoric acid are lacking, they must be replaced by means
of commercial fertilizers.
Three possible ways present themselves for growing
green manures for use in connection with the best crop.
The first is to plant early in the fall or late in summer
in order to gain enough growth in the fall and winter to
permit plowing under in the spring sufficiently in advance
of the beet crop that the mass of green stuff may be
well rotted. A second way is to grow only as fall crops,
plowing under before the winter “storms set in. This’ is
especially advisable under conditions existing in the East.
The third method is to utilize the ground for one regular
growing season, putting in the crop in the spring. The
climatic conditions of each locality will determine the
method. If there is a choice, either of the first two ways
is preferable as no time is then lost from the regmar
crops and numerous green manure crops can be grown
in the rotation.
The greatest inconvenience met with in green manures
will come at the time of plowing under the growth if it
is very heavy and tall. Fall and winter growths will
usually not be great enough to give trouble in this way.
But by first dragging the stuff down and then plowing, or
by using a chain in front of the coulter the work will
progress satisfactorily. The new style double-disk plow
which has just been put on the market is especially well
adapted to this work. The first disk cuts half the depth
desired and turns it well under. The second disk cuts
the rest of the furrow, turns it over and places it on top
of the first. These plows will go down to a depth of
16 inches with ordinary horse power. Plowing under
deeply is advised in order to put the green stuff down
where it will do the most good and where it will receive
the most moisture.
In order to hasten decay plenty of water is necessary.
Where irrigation facilities are available the water should
80
immediately be turned onto the land after the crop is
put under. Then following the drying out of the soil
after the irrigation a light harrowing should be given
as soon as it can be put on the land. This should not go
deep enough to bring the green stuff up. Warm, moist
conditions will greatly assist decaying.
When the water supply is limited, green manuring is
something of a problem as it is unwise to turn a big mass
of green stuff under if a drouth is liable to follow, as
this stuff will keep the land open and may fail to rot in
time to permit working the land for the next crop. Of
course with a summer crop this is not such a difficult
proposition. For use under such conditions a crop
should be selected which has the greatest nitrogen-gath-
ering capacity and at the same time makes a thick, fine-
textured, fibrous growth. Vetch is a good example.
Moreover, it may be well to consider the advisability of
cutting the first crop for hay—providing a hay plant is
chosen—then letting it continue its growth until enough
more has formed to pay for turning under. Or, instead
of cutting for hay, there is always the choice of pastur-
ing the land until it is fed down to the required amount.
Green manuring is a subject receiving much attention
in the more arid sections, and is certainly a subject well
worth all the time and thought spent upon it.
Barnyard and Stable Manure.—Stable or barnyard
manure must be applied with caution to the beet crop.
On light, sandy soils little harm wil! result from applica-
tions up to 10 tons to the acre put directly on the land
just previous to a beet crop. On beet soils naturally rich
and heavy, the large applications of manure will result
in a forcing of the growth so that a large, watery, dis-
torted, ungainly beet is the result. Under such circum-
stances the manure can be applied to the best advantage
on the rotation crop. Placed on the land in the fall for
spring beets the ill effects will be much less but even
then more than a very light dressing is apt to result in
damage to the beets.
Manure is very valuable when used in the proper
manner but its effects on the beet crop will be enhanced
if put on the year before. Based on analyses, the value
of common manure is about $2.34 a ton for the plant
81
foods it contains at prevailing prices for the ingredients.
This does not take into account the humus value of the
manure and its beneficial action in improving the téx-
ture of soils. In general, manure contains 10 pounds of
nitrogen, 10 pounds of potash, and 6 pounds of phos-
phoric acid. It is, therefore, rather weak in potash and
phosphoric acid. When these elements are lacking in
the soil, commercial fertilizers containing them must
supplement the manure. The greatest gain comes from
the nitrogen content and the humus value of the manure.
These are sufficient to more than pay the cost of hauling
it on to the Jand. When the manure must be purchased
the price to be paid will depend largely on the need of
the soil as regards the applications of humifying mate-
rial. The value of the manure in this respect must be
judged by the need of each particular soil and whether
the manure will prove a cheap and more effective method
than a green manure crop. The plant foods are worth
over $2 a ton and a price equal to this may be paid before
the humus value need be considered.
The care and disposal of the manure when removed
from the stables and yards determines to a large extent
its value. Proper care at this stage will greatly enhance
its value. The manure should either be protected at the
barn or else spread right in the field when fresh. The
latter way increases the efficiency of the manure and
lessens the cost of handling.
Mill Waste Water——The use of mill waste water is
very advantageous to the land as it carries all the im-
purities contained in the beets. The analyses of mill
waste water are variable, depending on what particular
method of sugar extraction is predominating in the mill,
on the distance from the mill where it is received, on
what is dumped into it at the mill (1. e., press cake), and
on the average composition of the beets going through
the mill. In general, however, it is very rich in fertiliz-
ing elements. Two typical analyses showed a variation
of from 2,584 to 3,088 solid parts per million of water.
Of this 50 per cent was sludges and organic matter and
about 20 per cent was lime. The high percentage of
sludges and organic matter shows the extremely high
fertilizing value of the water. In 12 inches of irrigation
82
of potash, 3 pounds of nitrogen, and over 100 pounds
of other salts.
Calcium carbonate is soluble only to a very slight ex-
tent in water, and its action will, therefore, be slow in
most soils. Hence, the danger of burning out the humus
of soils by the use of even large quantities of mill lime
is practically nil. I have used it at the rate of 200 tons
(86 tons actual calcium oxide) and produced no apparent
ill effects in the soil. The crop produced was slightly in
excess of that on the unlimed land. Lime is beneficial
in an indirect way, more than as a direct plant food.
When any of the following conditions exist, to the extent
of requiring a corrective, the application of some form
of lime is certain to prove profitable.
(a) Lime is a splendid correcter of the poor physical
condition of soils. With loose, sandy, blowy soils it
binds the coarse sand grains together; with heavy, im-
pervious soils it holds the clay particles apart. In each
case it enhances the chances of storing and retaining
moisture and makes both soils much easier to work. Im-
plements are much easier to direct and the land breaks
up much more readily. Crusting and cracking is never
as great on limed soils as on unlimed soils of the same
nature.
(b) Lime neutralizes the acids of the soil which when
present makes them “sour” so that many plants fail to
make a good growth in them.
(c) It prevents the formation of the more insoluble
compounds of phosphoric acid with alumina and iron,
taking up the phosphoric acid to itself, thus putting it into
a form more available to the plant. With the various
potash salts it sets potash free, so that it is much more
ready for the use of the crop. In other words it changes
the unavailable or only slightly available forms into
forms immediately useful to the plant.
(d) Compounds of iron and other substances of a
possible injurious nature are rendered harmless.
(e) The spread of certain rots is retarded by the
lime.
(f) By producing conditions better suited to rapid
decay lime hastens the decomposition of vegetable mat-
ter, first into humus, and later humus into plant foods.
One of the attendant results is the production of nitrogen
83
water, 2 total of 7,000 pounds of sold matter is put
on the lend of witch about 1.400 ts nme
The Ime 1s probably combmed with certam of tig
bodies so that it does mot actively atiack the
agent m causimg the natural plant foods stored m the
soil to become available, the great fertility comes from
the material m the water whitch ts put om
The heavy crops of beets taken off such lands. even
after bemg grown for 2 somber of comsecutive years, is
evidence of the value of the water. The author has m
mud 2 field of 35 acres winch bas been m beets every year
for the past eleven. The last two years it has averaged 23
amd 25 toms. respectively. fo the acre. And others can
call to mind cases of 2 bike mature. While this may be
_ Mill Waste Lime—The sugar beet delights im a well
Se aiikeanknpaiahe se peda ck calito I pound
so that lime indirectly gains nitrogen for the plant. This
characteristic is especially valuable on heavy soils or
when green manure crops are turned under.
The use of lime on many soils is a necessity, and the
value of a supply of sugar mill lime is great for not only
is the necessary liming effect secured but much valuable
plant food is put on with the lime.
Crop Rotation—As the land becomes less and less
productive, new methods must be taken up to stop the
decrease and gradually rebuild the soil up to its former
State of productiveness. The reduced yields are usually
the result of constantly growing one crop, such as corn,
wheat, oats or the like. Whether the reason for the
lesser yields is due to the actual reduction of the plant
foods in the soil, the removal of these foods faster than
they become available, to the presence of microscopic
parasitic plants in the soil, or to the actual giving off of
poisonous substances by the plants themselves is of little
importance to the farmer. He wants to get the yields
and knowledge of the methods which will produce those
yields. Scientific information is necessary, but the busy
farmer has no time to delve as deeply into the study of
the causes as a proper investigation entails.
The use of commercial fertilizers, summer fallowing
and crop rotation have been tried out and found to offer
the desired solution. Of these methods, crop rotation—
the growing of alternating crops—has been found of
greatest importance. On strong land, rotation will hold
off the day when fertilizers must be applied for a num-
ber of years, the length depending upon the crop grown,
the time the land has been under cultivation, and the
natural strength of the soil in the first place. Rotation
without fertilization is away ahead of fertilization with-
out rotation. This is especially true when the practice
of green manuring is introduced in the rotation. Of
course, neither rotation nor green manuring will replace
phosphoric acid or potash when there is a notable de-
ficiency of these, but when the supply is fair, rotation
and green manuring will greatly prolong the period for
receiving the greatest good from whatever is present.
That the sugar beet holds a high place in crop rotation
is now a matter of record. The old-time preju-
85
dice against it is giving away as the observing farmers
note the great increase of crops which follow the beet
crop. American farmers, in their headlong rush ,to
plant, cultivate, harvest and market, have neglected their
bookkeeping, and it is difficult to give definite figures
which show just what the effect is on crops following
beets. A few examples selected at random show an in-
crease of crops following the beets over the yield secured
on land not in beets as follows: Odats, 80 per cent; bar-
ley, 73 per cent; hay, 66: percent} wheat, 280,per.cent;
barley, 57 per cent; wheat, 75 per cent.
German figures carefully compiled from an average
of thirty-five farms show a very remarkable increase:
Before After
beet beet Increase,
culture. culture. lbs. Per cent.
Waters ads 1,848 - 2,292 444 24
IRV ee Nes emo 1,456 1,672 216 15
Bar ley eset saa 1,672 2,094 422 M5)
Dats hh ts re: 1.355 1,918 563 42
Beas be ee 985 1,834 849 86
Potatoes: sy.cnre es 6,716 13,500 6,874 102
How the Bect Benefits the Soil—tIt would be surpris-
ing if good yields were not secured after the beet crop.
The thorough preparation of the soil for the beets and
the subsequent excellent care given it are reflected in
the better physical condition of the soil and the suf-
pression of the weeds. Both of these benefits extend
over to the next crop.
The beet is a deep-rooting plant and brings up plant
foods from the stores deep down in the soil, and through
the rotting of the tops places these in the surface sot'
within reach of shallow-rooted crops. They are also in
a form more available for the plants—predigested, so to
speak. .
The rootlets of the beet, in decaying, form first humus
and then plant food. They also leave little channels run-
ning several feet into the ground, thus permitting drain-
age and aeriation to a far greater extent than is other-
wise possible. Roots of future crops will follow these
passages and thereby secure more moisture and reach
ereater stores of plant food. It has been estimated that
one ton of humus is put down into the soil by these root-
lets, And it is put deeply, where it will do the most good.
86
ih,
BARLEY HAY AFTER BEETS, 5.5 TONS PER ACRE.
PEAS FOLLOWING BEETS.
OAT HAY AFTER BEWTES, 3.5 TONS PER ACRE.
87
The land is plowed deeper than usual by five to eight
inches and just so much more land becomes available for
future crops. Most crops derive their nutriment from
within the space prepared by the plow. Moreover, in the
usual work the plowings are repeated to one depth. This
results in the formation of a plow pan which the deep
plowing for the beets breaks up.
When the beets are plowed out the land is given a
deep subsoiling.
There is nothing miraculous or difficult to understand
about this. The benefits are positive and easy to trace.
The source of income from the sugar beet is by no means
the total benefit derived. The beneficial effect on the
soil can be seen in following crops, often until the third
year after. The soft, mellow condition of the soil, the
freedom from weeds, and the actual increase in the size
and yield of the subsequent crops, point out the beneficial
action of the beet. In short, the beet offers wide oppor-
tunity for the systematic and economic rotation of crops.
To the farmer who is not already raising beets a trial
will convince him of the truth of these remarks. Fifty
acres, or, if that-is too much, twenty-five, or ten, or even
five put into beets will quickly furnish proof if the plow-
ing, seeding and cultivating is done right. Another year,
when the old stand-bys are planted on this place—grain.
potatoes, corn, alfalfa, or whatever the main crop is—the
greater yield and greater ease in handling the land will
prove an agreeable surprise. Incidentally and probably
more important, the life of the land will be prolonged,
thereby indicating the possibility of securing a guarantee
of lifelong returns, not only to the grower, but to his
children.
Planning the Rotation.—To obtain the greatest returns
from the land a definite rotation of crops should be
plann
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