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WAE DEPA'rtMENT FIELD MANUAL
ORGANK
FIELD ARTILLERY
AIR OBSERVATION
WAR DE. ARTMENT • 30 AUGUST 1944
MHI
Copyl
WAR DEPART MET^T FIELD MAN'UAL'
FM 6-150
ORGANIC
FIELD ARTILLERY
AIR OBSERVATION
WAR DEPARTMENT • 30 AU GU ST 1944
United States Government Printing Office
Washington : 19 UU
WAR DEPARTMENT,
Washington 25, D. C., 30 August 1944.
EM 6-150, Organic Field Artillery Air Observation,
is published for the information and guidance of all
concerned.
[ A.G. 300.7 (7 July 44).]
By order of the Secretary of War:
G. C. MARSHALL,
Chief of Staff.
Official:
J. A. ULIO,
Major General,
The Adjutant General.
Distribution:
Sv C (5)
Base Comds (5)
Island Comds (5)
Defense Comds (5)
Major Bases (5)
Depts (5)
H D (5)
Armies (5)
Corps (5)
D (5) except D 6 (10)
B 6 (10)
R 6 (10)
Bn 6 (10)
For explanation of symbols, see FM 21-6.
,ViAY 9 - 194t U F
+ 07
CONTENTS ^
fi. ■; . Page
2. Scope I H ^
3. Terms ' 1
4. Organization 2
5. Equipment 4
6. Air traffic regulations 6
CHAPTER 2. Training, General.
Paragraph 7. Responsibility for training 7
8. Scope of training 7
9. Conduct of training 7
10. Inspections 8
CHAPTER 3. Individual Training.
Paragraph 1 1 . General 9
12. Selection of landing fields for
individual training 9
13. Ground handling 9
14. Communication 15
15. Flight training 19
16. Observer training 24
17. Maintenance training 25
CHAPTER 4. Tactical Training and Employment.
Paragraph 18. General 27
19. Staff relations 27
20. Reconnaissance, selection, im-
provement, and operation of
landing fields 28
21. Air security 34
22. Displacements 37
23. Locating targets 39
24. Adjusting artillery fire 40
25. Reconnaissance of position areas
and routes of march; march
control 40
26. Obtaining information of friendly
and hostile forces 41
27. Security patrols 42
28. Camouflage checks 43
CHAPTER 5. Special Operations.
Paragraph 29. General 44
30. Night operations 44
31. Amphibious operations 46
32. Operations in the jungle 51
33. Desert warfare 52
34. Mountain -warfare 53
CHAPTER 6. Supply, Administration, and
Maintenance.
Paragraph 35. General 56
36. Supply 56
37. Administration 57
38. Maintenance 62
APPENDIX I. Local air traffic and landing field
regulations 65
APPENDIX II. Check sheet for inspection of
air OP 71
APPENDIX III. Flight maneuvers 76
APPENDIX IV. Loading field artillery liaison
airplanes for shipment 82
APPENDIX V. Installation of radios in air-
planes 96
APPENDIX VI. Puff target range 103
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL
1. ROLE.
a. The primary mission of organic field artillery air
observation is to supplement ground observation by:
(1) Locating appropriate targets.
(2) Adjusting artillery fire.
b. Secondary missions include:
(1) Reconnaissance of position areas and march
routes.
(2) Security patrols.
(3) Camouflage checks.
(4) Obtaining information of friendly and nearby
hostile forces. (Reconnaisance flights should not be
conducted over enemy territory where dangerous ground
fire may be expected.)
(5) Maintaining liaison for control of march col-
umns.
2. SCOPE. This manual describes the training, tacti-
cal employment, administration, maintenance, and sup-
ply of organic field artillery air observation. It is
intended to meet the needs of commanders of air ob-
servation personnel.
3. TERMS.
a. Air OP. The liaison aircraft of a unit together
with the personnel assigned to operate and maintain
them are designated as the “air OP.”
b. Landing strip. A narrow piece of land suitable
for the landing and take-off of aircraft.
c. Landing field. A landing stiip complete with in-
stallations necessary for the operation of the air OP is
designated as a “landing field.”
1
d. Pilot. In this manual, a field artillery liaison pilot
is referred to as a “pilot.”
e. Unit commander. In this manual, the term “unit
commander” designates the commander of a field ar-
tillery unit which has a headquarters and headquarters
battery, such as a battalion, group, or higher field ar-
tillery echelon. When other unit commanders are spec-
ified, they will be designated by the title of the unit,
such as headquarters battery commander.
4. ORGANIZATION.
a. General. Air OP personnel are a.ssigned to the
headquarters battery of each field artillery battalion
(with the exception of observation battalions); head-
quarters, field artillery group; headquarters, field artil-
lery brigade; headquarters, infantry division artillery;
headquarters, armored division artillery; headquarters,
light division artillery; headquarters, cavalry division
artillery; and headquarters, corps artillery.
b. Artillery air officer.
(1) General. An artillery air officer is included on the
special staff of the commander of army artillery, corps
artillery, field artillery brigade, division artillery, and
field artillery group. He should be a highly qualified
field artilleryman. In addition, he will hold a currently
valid liaison pilot rating, be physically qualified for
flying duty, and be required to participate regularly
and frequently in aerial flights. He has no command
function. The corps artillery air officer, as an assistant
to the corps artillery commander, carries out such in-
spections of air observation installations and training
within the corps, including subordinate divisions, as
are directed by the corps commander.
(2) Duties. The artillery air officer will be prepared
to assist the commander and staff by;
(a) Advising on all matters pertaining to organic
air observation.
2
{b) Inspecting for compliance with applicable reg-
ulations and directives concerning air traffic, the op-
eration of aircraft, and the maintenance of flight records;
the maintenance and repair of aircraft, and prescribed
forms and records.
(c) Preparing, coordinating, and supervising plans
for training air observation personnel.
(d) Acting as a coordinating agency to insure rapid
procurement and distribution of aircraft supplies, parts,
and equipment.
e. Senior battalion pilot. In addition to his duties
as observer and pilot, the senior battalion pilot func-
tions as artillery air officer on the staff of the battalion
commander. He will be prepared to assist the battalion
commander in those staff functions outlined in b (2)
above which are applicable to battalions.
d. Duties of key personnel. Principal duties of key
personnel of the air OP are to:
INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
Pilot Operate aircraft and supervise
their maintenance; act as observer
for firing, reconnaissance, and
other air missions; complete nec-
essary forms and records; select
and supervise landing strips.
(Senior) Mechanic,
army airplane and
engine Perform airplane maintenance and
repair; prepare and maintain land-
ing strips; assist in completing nec-
essary forms and records. In group
and division artillery, the senior
mechanic assists the artillery air
officer in technical inspections and
is charged with the care of spare
parts.
Mechanic, army air-
plane and engine. . .Assist the senior mechanic.
3
5. EQUIPMENT.
a. General. The equipment of the air OP is shown
in appropriate tables of equipment. In general, it con-
sists of two liaison-type airplanes, special equipment
pertaining thereto, radio, communication equipment,
transportation, and a caliber .50 machine gun provided
for the defense of the landing field. Equipment needed
for training, not specifically listed in tables of equip-
ment, must be improvised.
b. Performance of liaison-type aircraft.
(1) Based on practical performance tests, the L-4 air-
plane is considered superior to the L-2 and L-3, for the
purposes intended. The L-5 is superior to the L-4 in
the following respects: Take-off performance, especially
at high altitudes; rate of climb; and ease of handling
under high wind conditions.
(2) A landing field of approximately 300 yards with-
out excessively high barriers will normally accommodate
the operation of all present types of liaison airplanes.
Under full load the L-2 will require 75 percent more
take-off distance than the L-4, while the L-3 will require
40 percent more than the L-4.
(3) Other essential characteristics
are as
follows;
*
L-2
L-3
L-4
L-5
Weight of plane (lbs.)
Carrying capacity including
. . 824
727
740
1472.5
fuel and accessories (lbs.) .
. . 478
430
430
662.5
Power (h.p.)
. . 65
65
65
183
Cruising time (hrs.)
2.5 2.5
2.5
3
Cruising speed (m.p.h.) ....
. . 75
lb
70
105
Landing speed (m.p.h.) ...
. . 40
38
38
50
Fuel capacity (gals.)
Maximum safe operating
. . 14
14
12
36
headwinds (m.p.h.)
Maximum safe operating
. .25-30
25-30
25-30
35-40
crosswinds (m.p.h.)
. . 15-20 15-20
L5-20
20-25
4
5
FIGURE 1. Field artillery liaison airplane (L-4H, standard type).
6. AIR TRAFFIC REGULATIONS. The control of air
traffic on the landing field is the responsibility of the
field artillery commander to whom the field is assigned.
Except under tactical or simulated tactical conditions,
all extended flights will be conducted in accordance with
Army Air Forces Regulations 60-16. In addition, the
field artillery commander will publish and enforce such
local air traffic and field regulations as are necessary
to prevent careless or hazardous flights. An example
of instructions which might be included in such local
regulations is included in appendix I.
6
CHAPTER 2
TRAINING, GENERAL
7. RESPONSIBILITY FOR TRAINING. The unit com-
mander is responsible for the proper training of air
observation personnel and that adequate first and sec-
ond echelons of maintenance for the aircraft and equip-
ment are properly performed. Individuals assigned to
air observation should be examined promptly to deter-
mine the type and amount of training each will require
to complete both the basic training program of the unit
and the individual and tactical training programs of
the air OP. Since there will usually be a wide variance
in the previous training and experience of new person-
nel, the training program of the air OP must be flexible
and progressive.
8. SCOPE OF TRAINING.
a. Enlisted and officer personnel of the air OP should
be thoroughly trained as field artillerymen prior to, or
concurrent with, specialized training in air observation.-
b. Programs for specialized training of air observa-
tion personnel should distinguish between individual
and tactical training. In this manual:
(1) Training of air observation personnel as mem-
bers of the air OP team is termed individual training.
(2) Inclusion of the air OP in the tactical exercises
or field problems of the organic unit is termed tactical
training.
9. CONDUCT OF TRAINING.
a. Individual and tactical training should progress
concurrently. Tactical training should be conducted
under the direct control of the battalion commander;
7
it should parallel the tactical training of the unit. All
training of air observation personnel should be guided
by the doctrine that in combat the air OP functions as
an integral part of its organic unit. To the fullest extent
possible, therefore, training should be conducted by
battalions.
b. Because of limited landing areas, lack of qualified
instructors or adequate equipment, it may be necessary
and desirable to centralize the individual training under
the group or division field artillery commander. Such
centralization should not preclude the return of air
observation personnel to their respective units for con-
current tactical training.
C. When the individual training of air observation
personnel is centralized under group, division artillery,
or higher commander to take advantage of highly quali-
fied instructors, the commander centralizing the indi-
vidual training should also assume responsibility for
the application and examination phases of such train-
ing.
d. The tactical training should be conducted by unit
commanders concurrently with other training or should
be conducted as soon after completion of individual
training as practicable.
10, INSPECTIONS. Division artillery commanders, ar-
tillery group commanders, and commanders of larger
units should keep themselves informed as to the state of
maintenance and progress of training of air OPs in
their units. To this end, frequent inspections should be
made by their artillery air officers. A guide for such
inspections is inclosed as appendix II.
8
CHAPTER 3
INDIVIDUAL TRAINING
11. GENERAL. Individual training includes;
a. Ground handling.
b. Communication.
C. Flight training.
d. Observer training.
e. Maintenance.
12. SELECTION OF LANDING FIELDS FOR INDI-
VIDUAL TRAINING. A landing field selected for indi-
vidual training should be:
a. Located outside the traffic pattern of any field
from which high-performance aircraft operate. See fig-
ure 2.
b. Large enough to permit fully loaded airplanes to
take off under conditions of high temperature and no
wind.
13. GROUND HANDLING. To prevent injury to per-
sonnel and damage to the airplane, the ground crew
must be instructed in proper methods of ground hand-
ling.
a. Pushing and turning the airplane. The only parts
of the airplane to which pressure may be applied in
pushing and turning are;
(1) Struts, at either end.
(2) Propeller hub (caution should be exercised be-
cause an engine, hot from recent operation, sometimes
will “kick” due to preignition).
(3) Wing bow tips. In the vicinity of obstructions, a
member of the ground a-ew should be at each wing tip;
he should be capable of correctly estimating clearances.
(4) Tail lift handle should always be used in lifting
the tail or turning the airplane by hand.
9
FIGURE 2. Example of location of a landing strip.
FIGURE 3. Length of landing strip.
b. Tie-downs. The airplane should never be left
unattended unless tied down. The purpose of a tie-down
is to secure aircraft from high winds. See figure 4 lor
illustration of proper tie-down.
IRON ROD WITH
RING. SET IN
CONCRETE. USED
FOR PERMANENT
MOORING.
LONG EYE bolt
THROUGH 2X4
BOARD OR LARGER.
SEMIPERMANENT.
MAY BE MADE UP
AND CARRIED IN
TRUCK.
DEADMAN:
LOG 6"DIA.0R
LARGER. ROPE.
CABLE.OR CHAIN
ATTACHED.CROPE
MAY ROT OUT IN
MOIST SOIL.')
DEADMAN:
5 GALLON CAN
CRUSHED SUGHTLY
IN CENTER TO
PREVENT ROPE
SLIDING off:
GOOD IN LOOSE
SOIL OR SAND.
fill CAN WITH
DIRT OR SAND.
PORTABLE MOORING
KIT FURNISHED WITH
AIRPLANE, FAIRLY
DEPENDABLE EXCEPT
IN LOOSE SOIL OR
SAND. DRIVE ON
SAME SLANT AS
ROPE.
12
FIGURE 4. Types of tie-downs.
c. Control locks. See figure 5.
d. High wind precautions. Units should make ar-
rangements with higher headquarters to provide ad-
vance information of any forecasted high winds. To
secure aircraft against unusually high winds, the follow-
ing precautions may be taken;
13
FIGURE 5. Control locks.
TACKED TO 2“X4
,te: ^ — AILERON
MAXIMUM SPOILER EFFECT IS OBTAINED IF 2"X4" IS PLACED 12" TO REAR OF LEADING EDGE
(1) To lessen the angle of attack and reduce the lift
effect of the wind, head the airplane into the wind, with
the wheels dug in and the tail raised approximately to
the level-flight position. Unless proper drainage can be
established, wheel pits should be no deeper than 8
inches, to prevent accumulated w'ater from entering the
brake mechanism of the wheels.
(2) Block out the force of the wind by placing a truck
or sandbags on the windward side of the airplane.
(3) The lift effect obtained by wind moving past the
wings may be minimized by the application of a set of
“spoilers.” Spoilers are pieces of lumber, 2" x 4" x 12',
padded with burlap, canvas, or similar material, and
tied with ropes to the upper surface of each wing along
the front spar.
e. Refueling.
(1) Before the airplane is refueled, electrical bonding
should be effected (fig. 7).
(2) Fuel should be strained through a chamois
whenever possible.
(3) Fuel cans should not be left partially full over-
night but should be refilled to prevent condensation.
If excess water is known to be in gasoline cans, the last
half-gallon in each can should not be used.
f. Starting engine. All members of the ground
crew should be trained to start the engine using correct
procedure. Wheel chocks should be applied before the
engine is started. (See app. I, par. 2f.)
g. Taxiing. All members of the ground crew should
be trained to taxi the airplane.
14. COMMUNICATION. All personnel of the air OP
must be thoroughly trained in the following means of
communication:
a. Radio. Since radio is the normal means of air-
ground communication, training should include:
(1) Radiotelephone procedure as covered in FM 24-9.
15
FIGURE 7. Electrical bonding.
(2) Installation and operation of the radio to be used
in the liaison airplane. (See app. V.)
(3) Operation of all types of radios that may be used
as base sets at the landing field.
(4) Frequent practice by the air OP with the fire-
direction center to develop teamwork.
b. Wire. Wherever practicable, a telephone line is
installed between the battalion command post and the
landing field. All air observation personnel should be
competent to install, maintain, and operate telephone
communication.
c. Visual signals. Units should be trained in the
following system of visual signals, to be used between
the airplane and the ground in the event of a radio fail-
16
urc while fire missions are being conducted. Air OP
personnel, individuals detailed as observers, and key fir-
ing battery personnel should be familiar with the
system.
AIRPLANE SIGNALS
Signal Meaning
Zoom 100 Over (repeated for each 100
yards).
Dive 100 Short (repeated for each 100
yards).
Dipping right wing 100 Right (repeated for each 100
yards).
Dipping left wing 100 Left (repeated for each 100
yards).
Fishtail Repeat range.
Tight circle Fire for effect.
Peel off to right , . Cease firing or mission accom-
plished.
GROUND SIGNALS
Panel Signal Meaning
(Removal of panel) Battery has fired.
Roger, wait; or battery is ready.
Repeat message.
Mission accomplished, go home.
Danger; enemy aircraft.
NOTE: Standard issue panels are used for these signals.
d. Drop message and pick-up message station.
When radio cannot be used, a drop message and pick-up
message system is valuable for the transmission of single
messages.
17
FIGURE 8. Pick-up station, message bag suspended from
poles.
18
(1) Air OP and message center personnel should be
familiar with the operation of the system as outlined in
FM 24-5. For reasons of safety, the grapnel weight will
not be used on the pick-up line. Any weight of a pound
or two will suffice as a substitute.
(2) An approved method requiring less equipment
is shown in figure 9.
(a) The ground station is operated by two men. The
message is attached to a long cord which has a small
sandbag at each end. The two men throw the message
line up so that it is caught by the airplane pick-up line.
(b) The crew on the ground can adjust their position
to the flight path of the airplane, greatly simplifying
the procedure for the pilot. The station can be operated
in some uncleared areas where the ground crew can toss
the message cord above the height of trees and other
obstructions.
(c) This system will be used only with light, low-
speed aircraft.
15. FLIGHT TRAINING. (For detailed flight maneu-
vers, see appendix III.) Pilots must be prepared to fly in
combat under varying conditions of weather, terrain,
and movement. To insure the necessary high standard
of flying proficiency, pilot training should be continuous
and progressive; it should include:
a. Ground school. Pilots must be thoroughly fa-
miliar with the following subjects and references:
(1) Navigation. Before making extended flights, pi-
lots should know the pertinent material covered in FM
1-30 and TM 1-205.
(2) Meteorology. Since he will usually be his own
weather forecaster, the pilot must have a working know-
ledge of appropriate sections of TM 1-230.
(3) Pilot’s Information File. The pilot should know
applicable information in his Pilot’s Information File
(published by the Army Air Forces).
19
FIGURE 9. Pick-up station, message bag tossed up by two
men.
20
b. Basic flight maneuvers (TM 1-210). Pilots must
be expert at;
(1) Take-offs and landings.
(2) Coordination exercises.
(3) Level turns.
(4) S-turns.
(5) Rectangular courses.
(6) Eights around pylons.
(7) Climbing and diving turns.
(8) Slips.
(9) Two-turn power-off spins.
(10) Lazy eights.
(11) Chandelles.
c. Special flight maneuvers.
(1) Take-offs and landings to panels.
(2) Take-offs and landings over harriers.
(3) Take-offs and landings on roads.
(4) Crosswind landings and take-offs.
(5) One-wheel landings and take-offs.
(6) Contour flying (when specifically authorized and
in specified areas only^
(7) Landings from contour approaches.
(8) Evasive maneuvers.
d. Extended flights. The unit commander should
designate the local flying area, and report its location
in accordance with AR 95-15. Any flights outside this
area are extended flights. Tactical operations require
long and short extended flights.
(1) Scope of training. Extended flights should begin
with short trips to air bases at which the traffic is not
too heavy. As pilots become more proficient, they should
make long flights at normal altitudes above 500 feet.
Finally they should make low-level extended flights
to qualify them for the long, low-level displacement
flights necessary in combat. Each pilot should make from
two to four extended flights each month.
(2) Requirements. Extended flights should be gov-
erned by the following conditions:
21
(a) They should be made only when specifically
authorized by unit commanders.
(b) They should be authorized only when the pilot:
1. Is thoroughly familiar with Army Air Forces Regu-
lations 60-16.
2. Is familiar with Army Air Forces Forms 15, 17, and
23.
3. Has demonstrated a knowledge of ground school
subjects, covered in a above.
4. Has submitted a complete flight plan. (See
appendix III for suggested form of flight plan.)
5. Has a knowledge of control tower light signals.
(c) Except in cases of emergency, pilots should land
only on fields under the jurisdiction of the Army of the
United States or on established civil airfields.
(d) If the pilot remains away from his home field
overnight, he will notify his unit commander by tele-
graph or telephone.
e. Night flights. The usefulness of the air OP in
combat is greatly increased if it is capable of performing
night operations. See paragraph 30.
(1) Night flying involves the following additional
hazards:
(a) Take-offs and landings are more difficult to ac-
complish because the ground and obstructions are less
visible.
(5) The pilot is subject to momentary blindness from
bright lights.
(c) There is more danger of becoming lost.
(d) Collision with other aircraft is more likely.
(e) It is sometimes necessary for the pilot to resort to
short periods of instrument flying due to unforeseen
conditions of poor visibility and light.
(2) Training in night flying should begin only when
the following conditions can be met:
(rt) The pilot must have had sufficient previous ex-
perience in night flying and must be reasonably pro-
ficient in basic instrument flying using rate instruments.
22
FIGURE 10. Lighting of training field and boundaries for
night flying.
{b) The airplane must be equipped with proper
position lights, luminous or illuminated instruments,
and a bank and turn indicator.
(c) The training field should be approximately twice
the size of that required for day flights. It should have
clear approaches; boundaries and high obstructions in
the vicinity should be adequately marked with lights.
(3) Scope of training. Training in night flying should
begin with elementary flight maneuvers such as take-
offs, landings, and gentle turns at dusk and on moon-
light nights when illumination from half-moon or
23
better is available, and visibility and ceiling con-
ditions are abov'e contact minimum. This training
should progress to darker nights as ability and pro-
ficiency of the pilot increase. The pilot should continue
training until qualified to make simulated combat
flights at night.
16. OBSERVER TRAINING. The success of the air
OP depends principally on the proficiency of the air
observer.
a. Personnel to be trained as air observers. The
pilot must be a trained observer; often he may have to
fly missions alone. In addition, as many selected officers
and enlisted men as available should be trained for this
duty. Those selected for training should weigh less than
170 pounds (stripped). If practicable, one or two officers
should be detailed as principal air observers.
b. Training phases. The training of the air observer
may be divided into two phases and conducted concur-
rently.
(1) Ground training should include:
(a) Nomenclature, characteristics, and functioning of
the airplane.
(b) Ground handling, cockpit procedure, and safety
precautions.
(c) Conduct of fire; daily use of the terrain board
with emphasis on forward observation methods.
(d) -Advanced training in the use of maps and air
photos.
(c) Friendly and enemy tactics and materiel, to enable
ready recognition and facilitate analysis of what is seen
from the air.
(f) Radio operation and procedure.
(2) Air training should include:
(a) Orientation to accustom the observer to the air-
plane in flight and to preserving his sense of direction.
He should practice estimating ground distances and
altitudes from the air.
24
(b) Simulated fire missions and frequent use of a
puff target range (app. VI).
(c) Fire missions during service practice. Even when
he is not firing the problem, the observer can gain
knowledge and facility by watching from the air the
conduct of fire by both ground and air observers. When
radio is used, the air observer can hear all traffic in the
net; when telephone is used, the sensings of the ground
observer should be relayed to the air observer by radio.
(d) Local and extended flights which will give him
practice in performing the air OP missions enumerated
in paragraph 1 .
(e) Comparison of terrain features with maps and
air photos of the area.
(/) Team training with the pilot. Because of engine
noise, conversation in the cockpit is carried on with
difficulty. Pilot and observer must be able to anticipate
each other’s needs and problems in the air. Example-.
During a fire mission, the pilot must know when to turn
so as to avoid blocking the observer’s view as the burst
appears.
(g) Frequent flights from the “enemy” side of the
impact area to study movements, positions, materiel, and
gun flashes of the unit during its field exercises.
17. MAINTENANCE TRAINING.
a. Pilot. Since the senior pilot is charged with the
supervision of maintenance and repair of the airplanes,
his training must insure that he is qualified to;
(1) Direct the first and second echelon maintenance.
(2) Perform the required inspections to determine
serviceability of airplane and engine.
(3) Analyze mechanical failures.
(4) Accomplish emergency repairs in the event of a
forced landing.
b. Senior mechanic, airpiane and engine. Senior
mechanics should be thoroughly trained and qualified to
effect:
25
(1) Inspections:
(a) Prescribed routine visual inspections.
(b) Parachute inspections.
(c) Compass compensation.
(2) First and second echelon repairs.
(3) Erection of crated aircraft.
(4) Preparation of aircraft for shipment according to
Army Air Forces Technical Orders 00-25-8, 00-25-8A,
01-1-7, 01-1-31, 01-1-31E, and 02-1-1. (See also app. IV.)
(5) Loading aircraft on vehicles. (See app. IV.)
c. Junior mechanic, airplane and engine. By work-
ing with the senior mechanic, the junior mechanic must
acquire both technical knowledge and skill. His train
ing should be progressive and should include:
(1) Nomenclature, characteristics, and functioning.
(2) Ground handling.
(3) Inspections.
(4) Maintenance records.
(5) Repairs.
CHAPTER 4
TACTICAL TRAINING AND
EMPLOYMENT
18. GENERAL
a. The most significant characteristic of liaison-type
aircraft is their capacity for operation over long periods
of time, with a small quantity of fuel and supplies, away
from any fixed installation. It is this characteristic
which permits their employment as organic aviation
by field artillery.
b. Altitudes of flight missions. To minimize the
risk of detection and attack by hostile ground and air
forces, the air OP should fly at the lowest altitude con-
sistent with the success of each mission.
e. Tactical training includes:
(1) Reconnaissance, selection, improvement, and
operation of landing fields.
(2) Security measures.
(3) Displacements.
(4) Locating targets.
(5) Adjusting artillery fire.
(6) Reconnaissance of position areas and march
routes.
(7) March control.
(8) Patrol.
(9) Camouflage checks.
(10) Obtaining information of friendly and hostile
forces by flying over friendly areas.
19. STAFF RELATIONS. Each staff section should be
familiar with the needs, the capabilities, and the types
of employment of the air OP. All staff members should
27
be capable of selecting suitable landing fields during
ground reconnaissance.
a. S-2.
(1) Prior to the mission, the S-2 should familiarize
both the pilot and observer with the current situation,
friendly and enemy.
(2) On the completion of a mission, the S-2 should
always question the pilot and observer for information
of friendly and enemy forces.
b. S-3.
(1) To reduce the time of the flight mission, the
S-3 should brief both pilot and observer with all
information necessary for the accomplishment of the
mission. The maximum prearrangement of fires between
the S-.3 and the air OP will also help reduce the duration
of flight missions.
(2) During unavoidable delays in firing, the S-3
should permit the ^ilot to land.
(3) In order to fully understand and best utilize the
air OP, the S-3 should function as air observer on
occasion.
(4) At the completion of the mission, the S-3 should
question the pilot and observer concerning the effect
of the fire and for any other information pertinent to
firing or the firing chart.
e. Headquarters battery commander. In order to
provide proper I'eplaceraents and additional help when
needed, the commander of headquarters battery should
be familiar with the duties of air observation personnel.
He should facilitate the functioning of air observation
personnel as a team.
20. RECONNAISSANCE. SELECTION. IMPROVE-
MENT. AND OPERATION OF LANDING FIELDS.
a. Reconnaissance. Observers, selected personnel in
headquarters and service batteries, and air observation
personnel must be competent to make thorough and
speedy reconnaissance for landing fields to insure avail-
28
ability of the air OP for missions immediately following
the displacement of the unit. Before the actual ground
reconnaissance, personnel should make a map or photo
reconnaissance. Overlapping air photos provide valu-
able information of possible landing areas. Depending
upon the allotted time, reconnaissance for landing fields
can be accomplished by one of these general methods:
(1) Air-and-ground. When sufficient time is avail-
able, this method should always be used: The pilot and
mechanic (or observer) reconnoiter by air for several
suitable strips within the assigned area. Having thus
automatically eliminated any which cannot be readily
approached from the air, they repeat the reconnaissance
on the ground, selecting the most advantageous of the
previously located strips.
(2) Ground. When sufficient time for an air-and-
ground reconnaissance is lacking, the pilot, accom-
panied by the observer or a member of the ground
crew, proceeds by vehicle or on foot to the assigned
area, selecting a strip most suitable for organization
as a landing field. The ground reconnaissance may be
made by other trained personnel in conjunction with
the reconnaissance for battery or battalion positions.
(3) Air. Only as a last resort, when time cannot be
obtained for air-and-ground or ground reconnaissance,
the air reconnaissance may be used. In an extremely
fast-moving situation, it may be necessary for the pilot
and observer to fly forward, select a strip from the air,
and land on it. Since isolated mines, rocks, and small
holes can seldom be seen from the air, attempting to
land without prior ground reconnaissance is a danger-
ous practice.
b. Selection. Observers, selected personnel in head-
quarters and service batteries, and air observation per-
sonnel must be competent to select suitable landing
fields.
(1) A suitable landing field must meet the following
conditions:
29
(а) Provide a strip or clearing adequate for take-off.
This strip must be:
1. Sufficiently long. Temperature, altitude, slope of
the ground, and wind will cause the necessary length
to vary.
2. Comparatively smooth.
3. Capable of approach. The strip will have to pro-
vide additional length, to permit clearance under all
weather conditions, if barriers hinder take-off or land-
ing. If the strip is completely walled in, dead or turbu-
lent air may result, greatly increasing the hazards of
the take-off and landing.
4. Selected with consideration to the direction of the
prevailing wind. Strong crosswinds present a hazard.
(б) Clear of mines. In sodded or cultivated areas, the
pattern of a mine field may be detected from the air.
Air observation personnel must be prepared to locate
and remove mines from landing strips.
(c) Drainage must be adequate. The airplane can-
not operate from flooded or extremely muddy areas.
(2) A suitable landing field should meet, as far as
possible, the following conditions:
(a) Conveniently located with respect to the battal-
ion command post. It is desirable that the distance be
less than a mile but it will vary with terrain and the
availability of landing strips.
(b) Natural camouflage for aircraft and installations.
(c) Space for dispersion of aircraft and installations.
(d) Defilade from enemy ground observation.
c. Improvement. Immediately after the field has
been selected, its improvement should begin: It must be
made ready for immediate use; detection by the enemy
should be made difficult.
(1) Development of the strip. Before aircraft are dis-
placed to a new field, the strip should be:
(a) Cleared of mines and booby traps.
(b) Pioneered. Within limits dictated by considera-
tions of flying safety, pioneer work should be restricted
30
to a minimum to avoid making the strip obvious. Rocks,
trees, heavy underbrush, and other obstacles should be
removed and all holes and ruts filled. If the strip is
dangerously wet or muddy, it may have to be graveled.
(c) Concealed. As illustrated in figure 11, vehicular
tracks may be used to extend the outline of the strip,
beyond its usable limits, into a road or group of trees.
The strip, thus extended, appears from the air to be a
road or trail.
FIGURE 11. Concealment of landing strips.
(2) Camouflage of installations. Before the equip-
ment of the air OP is brought to the new field, a com-
plete plan of camouflage should be drawn up. This
plan should take advantage of natural camouflage and
dispersal area. The principles of camouflage and cam-
ouflage discipline set down in FM 5—20 should be close-
ly adhered to.
(a) Airplane camouflage. A distance of 200 yards or
more should be kept between airplanes. This distance
should increase as natural camouflage decreases. Dis-
81
tinctive insignia of the airplane, pyralin, and shiny sur-
faces should be covered.
{b) Vehicle camouflage. Vehicles should be dispersed
and camouflaged in a location convenient to a road.
(3) Other security measures.
(a) Automatic weapons should be set up for protec-
tion against enemy aircraft.
(b) Alternate fields, if available, should be improved
so that the air OP may be readily displaced, preferably
to the rear of the main field, in the event of persistent
shelling or aerial attack by the enemy.
(c) Dummy fields, if cleverly organized, may deceive
the enemy and divert much of his fire.
(4) Supply route. If an existing route of supply can-
not be used, a new one must be organized, careful con-
sideration being given its concealment.
(5) Communication. Initially, radio communication
is established. As soon as time permits, wire is installed
to the command post or to a convenient switching cen-
tral.
d. Operation. The following principles govern gen-
erally the operation of a tactical landing field:
(1) Landing. When the airplane approaches, the
ground crew should be prepared to mark the landing
strip and to assist the pilot in taxiing the airplane to
cover.
(a) There are two accepted methods of marking the
strip:
1. The first few times a new strip is used, a “T” panel
is placed at the downwind end to indicate direction of
landing, wind direction, and one end of the strip. A
single panel is placed at the upwind end to mark the
other end of the strip. Panels should be displayed only
on prearranged signal; they should be removed as soon
as the airplane has landed.
2. After a few landings have been made, the ground
crew may dispense with the panel system; two men can
guide the pilot onto the strip (fig. 13).
32
COMMAND POST
FIGURE 12. Organization of a landing field.
FIGURE 13. Marking landing strips.
(b) As soon as the airplane is landed, the ground
crew lift the tail and turn the airplane around, thus
preventing a telltale loop at the end of the strip (fig.
11). The pilot taxis the airplanes to concealment, guid-
ed by one man at each wing tip and another at the tail.
(2) Take-off. Prior to each take-off, the airplane en-
gine should be warmed up and a communication check
made. Guided by the ground crew, the pilot taxis to
the downwind end of the strip. The airplane is turned
by the ground crew who lift and swing the tail. Local
antiaircraft defenses should be notified of the planned
mission and take-off time.
21. AIR SECURITY. While in flight, the airplane and
its occupants are most vulnerable to enemy attack both
from the ground and from the air.
a. Security from enemy aircraft. Although the air
OP may derive some measure of protection from friend-
ly fighters, the manner in which the mission is flown,
and evasive maneuvers, the most reliable protection is
provided by an advance warning system. A pilot who
is warned in time can usually avoid attack. Practical
34
operation of the air OP will be greatly influenced by
the air situation (relative air superiority held by the
enemy or friendly forces) and habits of the enemy with
respect to attacking air OPs in the local area.
(1) An effective warning system should include:
(a) Unit air warning net. Before the airplane takes
off, all radio stations of the unit should be instructed
to watch for enemy aircraft and to break into the net
with a warning if any are sighted (fig. 14).
(b) Air sentries. In addition to the air sentry sent
out from the landing field, battalion air sentries should
be in close contact with a radio.
(c) Antiaircraft artillery intelligence service. When-
ever possible, the unit should tie into the antiaircraft
artillery warning service net. Antiaircraft radar sets are
capable of locating aircraft at considerable distances
and can afford the air OP adequate warning.
(d) S-2 warnings. By informing the air OP of all
recent enemy air activity and of intended friendly air
operations in the sector, the unit S— 2 can help keep the
pilot out of the air when the risk is greatest.
(2) Liaison with air forces units. Information per-
taining to unusual operations, or changes in operations,
of liaison airplanes in a sector should be transmitted
through the air information and request radio net of
each army so that the appropriate tactical air command
can inform the air forces units concerned.
(3) Flying missions. The ability of fighter pilots to
detect liaison airplanes in flight depends primarily upon
two factors— the vertical distance between two airplanes
and the light conditions. When the vertical distance
between the two airplanes exceeds 5000 feet, the liaison
airplane is not likely to be seen by the higher flying
fighter. The shadow of a low-flying airplane can gen-
erally be detected much sooner than the airplane itself.
(4) Evasive tactics. Once aware of imminent attack
by enemy aircraft, the pilot’s safety depends on the ma-
neuverability of his airplane and the speed with which
35
36
FIGURE 14. Aircraft warning system.
he effects a landing. Because landing is normally a slow
procedure, he may prefer to dive for the ground and
fly contour. In contour flying, the pilot takes advantage
of stream beds, valleys, tree lines, and low hills for con-
cealment. The pilot may also fly near friendly antiair-
craft positions, thus bringing the enemy pursuit within
range of friendly fire.
b. Security from enemy ground fire. By varying
the locality in which he flies missions and by changifig
his flight path widely during each mission, the ■ pilot
may prevent hostile troops from anticipating the time
and position of his next appearance. Whenever prac-
ticable, the pilot should attempt to fly all missions out-
side the effective range of known enemy ground posi-
tions.
22. DISPLACEMENTS. The procedure for displacing
the air OP will vary with terrain conditions, distance,
and the time available for displacing. Senior liaison
pilots should be notified early of any intended displace-
ment of their unit so that they may have an airplane
ready for operation at the new landing field as soon as
the unit is in position. (See also chapter 5.)
a. General procedure in displacing the air OP.
(1) Field artillery commanders selecting a new posi-
tion should consider the availability of suitable fields
for the operation of liaison aircraft and promptly in-
form the senior pilot of the unit as soon as the new
position has been selected in order that landing strips
or temporary flying fields may be quickly located and
established.
(2) Whenever possible, pilots make the ground re-
connaissance; the observer or mechanic or other highly
qualified personnel may substitute if necessary. During
the reconnaissance, close attention must be paid to pos-
sible routes for guiding the vehicles of the air OP to the
new strip.
37
(3) Ground crews proceed to the new strip immedi-
ately and begin necessary improvements. The airplanes
may then be brought forward by:
(a) Radio to a pilot at the old landing field.
(b) Sending a member of the ground crew back with
the necessary instructions.
(c) Following a predetermined time of departure,
provided accurate estimates can be made of the time
necessary for reconnaissance and improvement of the
new landing strip.
(4) The airplanes displace one at a time, approach-
ing the new field at a low altitude to avoid disclosing its
location.
(5) Radio communication with the unit is main-
tained so that the pilot may be informed of any new
developments.
(6) When night displacements can be anticipated,
the pilot makes his reconnaissance during the day. The
ground crew displaces with the unit and improves the
landing strip that night or the next morning. The air-
planes can then displace early in the morning in ac-
cordance with prearranged plans.
(7) As soon as the landing field is ready for opera-
tions, the S-3 and the headquarters battery commander
are notified.
b. Example of typical displacement:
The senior liaison pilot has learned the hour of the
intended displacement and the general area for his land-
ing field. Accompanied by a mechanic, he flies to the
assigned area and, from the air, selects tentatively two
or three strips. On the return flight, they carefully
check the road nets for access to each of the tentative
strips. The mechanic makes a sketch of the routes. The
pilot and mechanic repeat the reconnaissance on the
ground, in conjunction with the unit reconnaissance.
At this time, they select the best of the tentative strips.
On returning to the old landing field, the pilot de-
cides on a prearranged time and interval for radio com-
38 .
munication as well as a code phrase for calling the air-
planes forward. Then, with their equipment loaded,
the ground crew proceed by vehicle to the new area and
begin improving the field. When ready, the mechanic
radios the pilot of the first airplane that the strip is pre-
pared for operation. The second airplane takes off 10
minutes after the first has departed. Each airplane is
camouflaged as soon as it is landed. The pilot of the
first airplane, which carries the observer, informs the
S— 3 and communication officer of the field location.
23. LOCATING TARGETS.
a. Air methods compared with ground methods.
Air observation differs from ground observation with re-
spect to the location of targets in the following particu-
lars:
(1) Air observation permits less time for study of the
target from any one position. The air observer must
rely largely on experience and training to aid him in
recognizing and locating targets without undue delay.
(2) The air observer is not limited to a small area
for observation. If the target cannot be located from
one position, the air observer can move rapidly to a
more advantageous position.
(3) Defilade seldom prevents observation from the
air OP.
b. Types of targets. The type of target which the
air OP will most frequently be called upon to locate is
the enemy artillery. Various tricks of spotting are used;
pilot and observer look for:
(1) The actual guns.
(2) Smoke and flash.
(3) Cleared areas in woods or tree clumps.
(4) Vehicles moving into an area.
( 5 ) Faulty camouflage.
(6) Activity of personnel.
(7) Vehicular tracks in fields and paths converging
on any point.
3»
c. Positions for locating targets. The best position
for air observation is that which permits adequate tar-
get identification and affords a reasonable degree of
safety. Positions may be sought directly above or at
either flank of the friendly battery. Unless it is necessary
to fly higher in order to avoid hostile ground fire, obser-
vation will prove most satisfactory from low altitudes.
d. All targets located are reported to the S-2 or fire-
direction center.
24. ADJUSTING ARTILLERY FIRE.
a. Targets. Since the position of the airplane with
respect to the target is constantly changing, the air ob-
server must make allowances for variations in the tar-
get offset. Visualization of the gun-target line requires
continuous practice. To prevent losing the target when
the airplane is turned, a well defined reference point
on the ground should be used.
b. Bursts. Location of bursts from the air may prove
difficult because, instead of the horizon, the terrain is
the background. Smoke shell will produce bursts which
are readily visible. As an aid to observer and pilot, the
fire-direction center may employ a signal, such as
“Splash,” to indicate the end of the time of flight. A
time-of-flight signal is especially necessary when long-
range artillery is being adjusted, as it gives the pilot
time to maneuver for a favorable position from which
to observe the burst.
c. Prearrangement and conduct of fires. See FM
6-40.
25. RECONNAISSANCE OF POSITION AREAS AND
ROUTES OF MARCH; MARCH CONTROL.
a. Reconnaissance of position areas and routes
of march. In addition to or in conjunction with infor-
mation obtained from ground reconnaissance, unit com-
manders may wish to secure information which is readi-
ly determined from the air, such as:
40
(1) Alternate routes of approach and departure.
(2) Condition of roads and bridges along the march
route.
(3) Assembly areas.
(4) Defiladed areas.
(5) Indications of mined areas.
(6) Areas offering heaviest natural camouflage.
(7) Broad view of the assigned sector.
(8) Possible position areas,
b. March control.
(1) Employment. In training, the commander can
supervise unit movements from the air. More effective
march control can be obtained by using liaison air-
planes. March control from the air provides valuable
training for personnel of the air OP and an excellent
vantage point for the comrnander who wishes person-
ally to check and control the movement. March control
from the air is not employed extensively in the forward
area of the combat zone.
(2) Requirements. For marches over great distance,
numerous landing strips must be available to permit
refueling the airplane and frequently to return the
commander or observer to the march column. The air
OP must carry sufficient fuel and rations. Radio com-
munication must be established throughout the march
column.
(3) Limitations in combat.
(a) Suitable landing strips may be unavailable.
(b) Adverse weather conditions.
(c) Hostile air superiority.
(d) One or both of the airplanes may be in use for
fire missions or in the process of displacing.
(e) Night marches cannot be controlled from the air.
26. OBTAINING INFORMATION OF FRIENDLY AND
HOSTILE FORCES.
a. General. Worthwhile information by air obser-
vation requires a definite objective, careful and frequent
41
study of the terrain, and knowledge of the situation.
The observer should at least know why he is being sent
aloft, what he is to look for, and where he may expect
to find it. Obviously, the individual best qualified for
this type of mission is the unit S— 2.
b. Information of friendly forces. The air OP is
capable of locating or identifying:
(1) Supported troops.
(2) Front lines and any fluctuations in enemy posi-
tions.
(3) Enemy-laid mine fields in newly occupied areas.
(The mine field pattern may be identified by low-alti-
tude observa.tion of suspicious areas).
(4) Progress and position of reconnaissance troops.
e. Information of hostile forces. Due to the mo-
bility of the airplane and the opportunity it affords for
viewing ground objects from many different angles, the
air observer can often provide better information con-
cerning the following items than can ground observers:
(1) Enemy front lines.
(2) Volume and direction of road traffic.
(3) Indications of attack or withdrawal.
(4) Signs of demolition work.
(5) Appearance of new routes.
(6) Condition of enemy-held roads and bridges.
(7) Condition of rivers and river banks.
d. On the completion of a mission the unit S-2 ques-
tions the pilot and observer.
27. SECURITY PATROLS. A security patrol differs
from a reconnaissance patrol in that the observer on
reconnaissance works towards a clearly defined objective
while the observer on security patrol has the broad
mission of noting and analyzing whatever may influence
the security of his unit. The range of the security patrol
is generally limited by the range of its communication
facilities. However, liaison airplanes can fly short dis-
tances beyond the range of their communication facili-
42
ties, obtain information, and reestablish communication
when they return within range of their communication
facilities. Weather conditions and enemy air and anti-
aircraft activities are important factors limiting the use
of the air OPs for security patrol missions.
Security patrols should be of short duration. They
can be used to best advantage -when the unit is moving
through a corridor or cross-compartment or when it is
fighting with an exposed flank. Example: An infantry
division was operating at the mouth of a corridor. An
exposed flank was anchored to a chain of hills which
extended for twenty miles to the nearest friendly rear
base. A one-hour patrol, three times daily, was organ-
ized to watch over the exposed flank. As a result, an
attempt by enemy infantry to infiltrate through the
hills was frustrated and effective fire was brought down
on the enemy supply route.
28. CAMOUFLAGE CHECKS.
a. GENERAL. The value of the air OP for checking
camouflage and camouflage discipline lies in its ability
to observe friendly troops and installations from the
angle of the enemy observer both on the ground and in
the air.
b. Procedure. Camouflage checks should be initi-
ated as soon as the unit is in position. Recommenda-
tions to the unit commander should be thorough and
prompt. The usual camouflage-check mission is flown
in three phases:
(1) Well forward and at about the same altitude as
known or probable hostile observation posts.
(2) Directly above the unit position, at considerable
altitude, to obtain the perspective of enemy aircraft.
(3) At low altitudes.
43
CHAPTER 5
SPECIAL OPERATIONS
29. GENERAL. As defined in FM 6—20, special opera-
tions are those in which terrain, weather, or nature of
the operation creates the need for special measures and
techniques. See also FM 100—5.
30. NIGHT OPERATIONS. Providing there is suf
ficient moonlight illumination, visibility, and ceiling,
so that prominent terrain features are indentifiable, the
air OP can be used effectively at night.
a. Employment. Missions are somewhat limited by
the number of terrain features identifiable at night.
All missions are flown at higher altitudes (2000 to 3000
feet).
(1) Fire ■ missions:
(a) Counterbattery. Active gun batteries are clearly
revealed by their flash. The observer must tie in the
location of the flash with respect to visible terrain fea-
tures so that he will not lose the target at each lull in
firing.
(b) Interdiction. Roads, road junctions, streams, and
bridges show up clearly enough from the air to be taken
under fire. These terrain features are generally visible
with the moon in a phase from half to full, provid-
ing there is no restricting cloud cover or restricted visi-
bility.
(c) Defensive fires. Fire can be laid down accurately
on possible enemy assembly areas and avenues of ap-
proach.
(2) Intelligence missions. General information con-
cerning movements and road traffic are obtainable.
44
b. Requirements for night operations. To over-
come the additional hazards and problems involved in
night operations, special arrangements must be made.
(1) Coordination with other units and the Air Forces.
(a) To minimize the danger of collisions in the air,
a higher headquarters such as corps will coordinate the
flights with the Air Forces. Different altitudes and sec-
tors should be assigned to the various units in the com-
mand.
(b) Arrangements should be made to inform the ob-
server of all friendly firing within his zone of observa-
tion. At night, shell bursts and gun flashes may appear
similar from the air. The observer should know where
friendly fire will be falling so that he will not confuse
friendly shell bursts for enemy gun flashes.
(c) Plans for all night flights will be coordinated
through air liaison channels of divisions and corps up
to army, which is responsible for coordinating with the
appropriate tactical air command.
(2) Landing fields. Approaches to fields should be
cleared of obstacles, as far as possible, and fields should
be defiladed from enemy ground observation, if possi-
ble, because landing lights will usually be used to guide
in the airplane. (Figure 10 shows a method of lighting
a combat field for night operations.) On bright moon-
light nights, very little landing light is needed. These
•should be used only for landings and take-offs. Ground
crews should be prepared to exhibit briefly a strong
light to help returning pilots find the field. These lights
should be flashed only on request of the pilot.
(3) Airplane equipment. The airplane should be
equipped with luminous instruments one of which is a
bank and turn indicator. Position lights are not re-
quired in combat flying but must be used in all other
night operations. The equipment should include a
flare gun for use in emergencies or for answering a chal-
lenge with the flare signal of the day.
45
(4) Pilot and observer. Both pilot and observer must
thoroughly familiarize themselves with the target area
and all of the terrain leading back to their landing field
area. They should select terrain features, which will be
visible at night for use as reference points, and several
fields which may be used in case of a forced landing.
The observer must improvise a method of illuminating
his maps and photos without creating bright light in
the cabin of the airplane (fig. 15). The use of a red
light will least impair the ability of pilot and observer
to see outside the airplane.
31. AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS.
a. General. In the initial stages of amphibious oper-
ations, the air OP may be employed not only in its nor-
mal role (par. 1) but also in the adjustment of naval
gunfire and for directing land parties. The airplane
may be sent ashore at any time, depending upon its role
in the operation. The method of moving the airplane
ashore will also depend upon its intended use; gener-
ally, it will follow one of four plans:
(1) The disassembled airplane may be transported to
the beachhead by boat.
(2) It may be flown to the beachhead from a nearby
land base.
(3) It may be flown from the flight deck of an air-
craft carrier or other ship converted for this purpose.
(4) Seaplanes may be transported by vessel and flown
from the water.
b. Transporting the disassembled airplane to the
beachhead by boat:
(1) Plans and training. Before an amphibious opera-
tion is undertaken, plans should be complete for and
personnel thoroughly acquainted with:
(a) The immediate role of the air OP.
(b) The type of landing vessel to be used, loading and
unloading procedure, and assembly and disassembly of
aircraft.
46
A LIGHT IS PLACED IN A WOODEN BOX WHICH HAS A G^ASS
TOP AND A ROLLER AT EACH END. THE MAP OR PHOTO CAN BE
CUT IN STRIPS AND WOUND ON THE ROLLERS
FIGURE 15. Methods of illuminating maps and photos for
night operations.
47
(c) The number of aircraft needed in the early phas-
es. A unit may not require more than one airplane. The
second airplane can be brought in with later elements.
(d) Individuals to be used in the initial landing. The
airplane, pilot, ground crew members, and, whenever
possible, the observer should always be transported on
the same vessel.
(e) The equipment and fuel to be carried on the
vessel with the airplane. The ^-ton truck and i/^-ton
trailer should be stocked with sufficient parts to facili-
tate minor repairs and with fuel for use in the airplane
after it is reassembled.
(/) Communication. Before embarkation, proper ra-
dio installations and checks should be completed.
(2) Loading. The LST (landing ship, tank) is an
appropriate type of vessel for transporting liaison air-
planes. The disassembled airplane can be loaded and
secured on either the upper or lower deck or loaded on
a truck to be carried on the ship.
(a) Loading on upper and lower deck. Before the
airplane can be rolled aboard the LST, the wings must
be removed and placed in properly constructed wing
racks which can be loaded alongside the airplane. On
either deck, the airplane should be firmly secured in
three places by means of deck moorings: Around the
axles of both wheels and at the tail lift handle or tail
wheel assembly. If placed on the upper deck, the air-
plane should be securely covered to protect it against
sea water.
(b) Loading on a 21 / 2 -ton truck (figs. 25 and 26). This
method of loading has several advantages:
1. Less chance of damaging the airplane.
2. Accelerates loading on and unloading from the
vessel.
5. After debarkation, the airplane can be transported
to the assembly area without being removed from the
truck.
48
(3) Unloading. Once on the beach, the airplane
should be removed to a concealed position and reas-
sembled as soon as it is reasonably safe to do so. If the
beach is so badly cut up that the airplane cannot be
flown off, it should be transported to a usable road or
runway. Airplanes not loaded on vehicles will require
manhandling on the beach and towing to an assembly
area.
c. Flying the airplane from a nearby land base.
Prearrangement is essential:
(1) A competent individual must be charged with
selecting and preparing a suitable field on which to
receive the airplane.
(2) The approximate location of the field, identified
on a map, air photo, or overlapping air photos, should
be known to the pilot in advance.
(3) Provision should be made for necessary personnel
and equipment to join the pilot and airplane as soon
as possible.
(4) Communication channels and signals should be
coordinated in order that the pilot may be directed to
the field upon completion of his immediate mission.
d. Flying the airplane from the deck of an air-
craft carrier. Prearrangement is the same as for c
above. Because the airplane can be launched early
during the landing operations, this procedure is highly
desirable. Difficulties are presented however when the
airplane is launched from a position many miles off
shore. Without proper instruments, aerial navigation
is particularly difficult over large bodies of water and
the pilot may have trouble locating his unit once he
reaches shore. The airplane can also take off from a
runway constructed on the deck of an LST (fig. 16).
e. Transporting seaplane by vessel and flying
from the water. When seaplane floats are available
and the pilot has had seaplane training, seaplanes can
be used effectively in amphibious operations.
49
FIGURE 16. Runway constructed on the deck of a landing
ship, tank.
(1) Loading on vessel. Seaplanes can be deck-loaded
on transports or freighters. Some form of dolly should
be constructed to support the weight of the airplane
and keep the floats from contact with the deck. The
airplane should be carefully secured to the dolly and
the dolly securely moored to the deck.
(2) Unloading. The airplane may be lowered over
the side of the vessel by power machinery: however,
great care must be exercised. Unloading should not
be attempted if there is much wind: The airplane tends
to react like a weathervane and can be damaged easily
against the side of the vessel.
(3) Flying from the water. Because of the construc-
tion and light weight of liaison aircraft, seaplane
operations should be attempted only on smooth water.
When possible, take-offs should be made from leeward.
Operations should not be attempted if high swells or
whitecaps are running.
50
32. OPERATIONS IN THE JUNGLE (FM 31-20). The
dense growth typical of the jungle restricts ground
observation and increases the need for effective air
observation.
a. Employment of the oir OP. Most long-range fir-
ing, including counterbattery, will be conducted from
the air. Friendly infantry mortars and assault guns may
also be adjusted. The difficulties encountered in ground
travel indicate use of the airplane to drop messages
to patrols and forward observers. In extreme emergen-
cies, ammunition and supplies may also be dropped
to them. Security patrols may be used to great
advantage.
b. Target location and observation. Locating and
observing targets in the jungle may be difficult. For
the most part, missions will have to be flown at
extremely low altitudes, often directly over the target.
Adjustment with smoke shell is frequent.
e. Landing fields. Prevalence of swamp and heavy
growth limit the number of landing fields available.
Often the air OP will operate from advance bases of
high-performance aircraft. Landing strips in the
vicinity of the units may have to be cleared and con-
structed with heavy engineer equipment. Pontoon
equipped aircraft can use strips of water.
d. Displacements. The scarcity of landing fields
may prevent the air OP from displacing with, its unit.
It may continue to operate from a convenient rear base
while the unit displaces repeatedly.
e. Maintenance.
(1) Metal members may rust. They should be
checked carefully and refinished when necessary.
(2) Spars and other wooden parts may warp and rot.
These should be subject to regular inspections. Wings
should also be checked frequently for rigging.
f. System of operation. Because of the scarcity of
landing fields and the problem of supply, occasionally
51
the air OP may have to operate under centralized con-
trol (par. 34c).
33. DESERT WARFARE (FM 31-25).
a. Observation. Over treeless, flat terrain, air obser-
vation is excellent. Because of the scarcity of defilade,
targets can be located easily. Most fire missions can be
conducted from a very low altitude close to the battery
position. Precautions must be taken not to disclose the
battery position by habitually following the same flight
path in its vicinity.
b. Additional types of employment.
(1) The distance between units is frequently so great
that the liaison airplane may become an important
means of communication and control.
(2) Security patrols may be used to watch over ex-
posed flanks. On approach marches, the air observer is
useful for reporting the location and movements of the
enemy.
c. Displacements. In the desert, displacements cover
relatively great distances; the pilot must be prepared to
fly 75 miles or more at contour altitudes. When the unit
displaces at night, the air OP may be unable to rejoin it
until the next day.
d. Camouflage and concealment. Desert terrain
provides scant concealment or camouflage for the air-
plane and landing field. In the air, the liaison airplane
is especially vulnerable to attack by enemy aircraft.
(1) Landing fields. Care must be exercised to refrain
from making obvious or unnecessary improvements
which are easily spotted from the air. Alternate fields to
the rear should always be selected and improved. In
fluid operations, it is often necessary to fly the airplane
to the alternate field at night and return to the forward
field the next morning. Use of an alternate field may
prevent stranding of the airplane if the unit should be
withdrawn during the night.
52
(2) Airplanes. On the ground, airplanes are dispersed
widely, their outlines broken by any means available.
Camouflage nets which blend with the terrain, thatched
huts, and sand dunes provide effective concealment.
e. Maintenance. Heat, sand, and wind complicate
the problem of maintenance in the desert. The fabric
of the airplane may require regular rejuvenation with
coats of dope. Oil must often be changed after 8 or 10
hours of operation. Wooden members such as spars
will crack and warp. Frequent inspection of all wooden
members and rigging of the wings is necessary to prevent
structural failures in flight.
34. MOUNTAIN WARFARE.
a. Employment of the air OP.
(1) Because of the difficulties involved in ground re-
connaissance, the air OP will be used more frequently
for reconnaissance of position areas and routes of march.
(2) Hostile artillery, mortars, and assembly areas can
be observed from the air although concealed from ground
observation by intervening ground forms.
(3) Courier and liaison missions may be more fre-
quent.
(4) In extreme emergencies, the liaison airplane has
been used to drop supplies to forward observation per-
sonnel isolated on mountains or in positions otherwise
inaccessible.
b. Operational problems:
(1) General. Pilots will have to fly at unusually high
altitudes, diving for mountain tops as a means of defense.
Care must be exercised to stay clear of high-angle tra-
jectories. Because of distance and terrain factors, it will
seldom be possible for the observer or pilot to remain
at the unit command post. S-2 and S-3 briefing can be
carried on by telephone. An accurate situation map
should be kept at the landing field.
(2) Communication. Because of increased distances
and line-of-sight characteristics of air OP radios, a strong
base radio set (one of the higher rated sets of the bat-
53
talion) is needed at the landing field tor communicating
with the unit and for the proper functioning of the air
warning system. It may often be necessary to use relay
stations. When direct wire communication with the unit
is impracticable, lines may be laid to a switching central.
(3) Landing fields. Landing fields are scarce. It may
often be desirable for the airplanes of several units to
operate from the same landing field.
c. Centralized operation. In mountain warfare it
is sometimes necessary to operate the airplanes of a divi-
sion or group from one field under centralized control.
When operating air OPs under centralized control, the
senior field artillery commander, assisted by his artillery
air officer, is guided by the following principles:
(1) Coordination of missions. As far as possible, con-
trol and employment of the air observation should be
left with the unit commanders. However, to prevent un-
necessary duplication of missions, flights should be co-
ordinated. An airplane should not be sent aloft if its
mission can be accomplished by another airplane al-
ready in the air.
(2) Organization of landing fields. Camouflage and
dispersal must be carefully planned to accommodate the
additional airplanes and equipment involved in cen-
tralized operation. If camouflage and dispersal areas are
inadequate, it may be advisable to keep some of the air-
planes at another field well to the rear. A field head-
quarters, complete with communication facilities and
situation maps, should be set up at a central location.
Pilots and observers should be required to check in and
out on each mission, being careful to note all changes
in the situation and to report all information obtained.
(3) Displacement. Usually there will be sufficient
time for thorough air and ground reconnaissance and a
well staggered displacement. Selection of the field should
be the duty of the artillery air officer and his crew.
Equipment should not be moved to the new field any
faster than it can be effectively concealed there.
54
(4) Mess and supply.. Supply of rations and fuel
should be coordinated and a central messing system
established.
55
CHAPTER 6
SUPPLY, ADMINISTRATION,
AND MAINTENANCE
35. GENERAL: Field artillery unit commanders are
responsible that a complete file of appropriate Army
Air Forces publications, to include technical orders and
Army Air Forces regulations pertaining to maintenance
and operation of field artillery liaison aircraft, is main-
tained in the unit.
36. SUPPLY.
a. The air OP is an organic part of the headquarters
battery of a unit and, as such, obtains all its equipment
and supplies through normal supply channels. The
headquarters battery commander is responsible that the
equipment and supplies of the aiir OP are obtained as
required. When an airplane is temporarily away from
its home station, necessary spare parts, supplies, mainte-
nance, fuel, publications and information can be ob-
tained from the most convenient Army Air Forces instal-
lation.
b. in Continental United States.
(1) The Commanding General, Army Air Forces, is
responsible for the supply of Army Air Forces equipment
to Army Ground Forces units in the continental United
States.
(2) Initial issue of equipment and supplies is auto-
matic. Requests for replacement airplanes will be made
through command channels to the Commanding Gen-
eral, Army Ground Forces. Requisitions for replacement
of associated airplane equipment will be made on Army
Air Forces Form No. lOL Requisitions will be submitted
56
to the post, camp, or station Air Forces property officer,
except in emergencies. If an emergency develops, when
an airplane is temporarily away from home station,
equipment and supplies may be drawn from the nearest
Army Air Forces installation.
c. In overseas theaters. Supplies and equipment
will be drawn from the Army Air Forces Depot Unit
(Army) or other installation designated by the theater
commander.
37. ADMINISTRATION. Headquarters battery com-
mander is responsible that the required forms and
records are properly kept.
a. The following forms and records will be kept by
air observation personnel in accordance with applicable
Army Air Forces regulations and technical orders:
Form No.
Title
1
Flight Report— Operations.
lA
Flight Report— Engineering.
5
Individual Flight Record.
41B
Maintenance Inspection Record.
46
Parachute Log Record.
GOA
Historical Record, Airplane.
GOB
Historical Record, Engine.
61
Historical Record, Propellors.
(1) The pilot is responsible for the completion of
Army Air Forces Forms 1, lA, 41B, 46, GOA, GOB, and 61.
(2) Army Air Forces F'orm 5 is kept in duplicate for
each pilot. The senior pilot is charged with the
correct transcription of flight time from Army Air Forces
Form 1 to the Army Air Forces Form 5 of the unit pilot
concerned. At the end of the month, the unit command-
er will ascertain and certify to the correctness of the
Army Air Forces Forms 5. The original is filed in unit
headquarters, together with copies of all orders affecting
the flying status of the individual. The first carbon copy,
certified as to correctness by the unit commander, is fur-
57
nished the pilot for his personal records. When a pilot
is transferred to another unit, his Army Air Forces Form
5 and the file of orders affecting his flying status accom-
pany him. In case of the pilot’s death or relief from
flying status or active duty, this file will be forwarded
through channels to the Adjutant General.
b. Accident reports. Reports of major aircraft acci-
dents and damage are made as prescribed in AR 95-120
and current instructions from the Commanding General,
Army Ground Forces. No report is required of accidents
involving only minor damage to aircraft.
c. Inspection and disposal of records. Com-
manders of corps and division artillery will authorize
the inspection and destruction of records after they have
been kept the required length of time.
d. Unsatisfactory report. Army Air Forces Form
54, Unsatisfactory Report, will be prepared and for-
warded as prescribed in Army Air Forces Regulations
15-54 when any of the following is ascertained (one copy
will be sent to the Commanding Genera], Army Ground
Forces):
(1) Failure or malfunctioning of any item of Army
Air Forces materiel or equipment.
(2) Unsatisfactory design of any item supplied by the
Army Air Forces.
(3) Defects due to faulty materiel, workmanship, or
inspection.
(4) Unsatisfactory maintenance methods prescribed in
Army Air Forces technical publications.
e. Physical fitness of pilots.
(1) General. . Commanding officers of field artillery
units are responsible for the physical fitness for flying
of field artillery liaison pilots. Unit commanders will
be guided in their actions regarding the maintenance of
the physical well-being of pilots by the recommendations
of the unit surgeon. Field artillery unit surgeons will
communicate with flight surgeons and aviation medical
58
examiners of the most accessible Army Air Forces installa-
tion or unit on matters concerning aviation medicine
and the care of flying personnel. Army Air Forces flight
surgeons and aviation medical examiners will render
technical advice and assistance in the care of field
artillery liaison pilots when requested to do so by field
artillery unit surgeons.
(2) Physical examination for flying. Standards of
physical examinations for flying will be as provided
in AR 40-110. All physical examinations for flying
(W.D., A.G.O. Form No. 64, Physical Examination for
Flying) will be conducted by flight surgeons or aviation
medical examiners certified by the Commanding Gen-
eral, Army Air Forces, as currently qualified to perform
such examinations. All pilots holding an effective
aeronautical rating and currently on active flying status
will be given a physical examination for flying once
each year, in addition to other required physical exami-
nations. Physical examinations will be conducted by
Army Air Forces flight surgeons and aviation medical
examiners only upon oral or written request of the field
artillery unit commander or unit surgeon.
(3) Relief from and restoration to flying status. Sus-
pensions and removal of suspensions from flying status
will be accomplished in accordance with the provisions
of Executive Order 9195, 7 July 1942 (par. 2, AR 35-
1480). The Commanding General, Army Ground Forces,
and the commanding generals of overseas theaters of
operations having field artillery liaison pilots assigned
to their commands, are authorized to confirm suspen-
sions from flying status and revocations of suspensions
from flying status of liaison pilots.
(a) Relief from flying status. A commanding officer
will suspend from flying status any individual of his
command who, in his opinion, is unfit for flying, except
when the unfitness is the result of an aviation accident
(Executive Order 9195). In case of an aircraft accident
no suspension of flying status will be accomplished until
59
a period of 3 months has elapsed subsequent to the
month in which the individual last met flight require-
ments. In recommending removal from flying status,
the type of suspension will be determined by estimating
the approximate period of time the individual will be
unable to perform flying duties. Such recommendations
will indicate definitely the period of suspension.
Examples: “Grounding” for periods under 30 days;
“suspension” for periods over 30 days. Relief from
flying status will be accomplished in the following
manner:
1. Grounding will be relief from flying status for a
period not expected to exceed 30 days and which is im-
posed because of a minor illness or injury, as defined in
AR 40-110, and not the result of an aircraft accident.
The commanding officer of a field artillery unit will
ground an individual upon advice of the unit surgeon
without reference to higher authority. Such action will
be accomplished by written order of the unit com-
mander. When a grounding order by the commander of
a field artillery unit exceeds a period of 30 days, such
grounding will become a suspension and will be reported
for confirmation as indicated below.
2. Suspension will be relief from flying status for a
period expected to exceed 30 days; it will be accom-
plished by written order of the unit commander. In all
cases such action, with reasons therefor, will be reported
for confirmation to the Commanding General, Army
Ground Forces, or to the theater commander concerned.
(b) Restoration of flying status will be accomplished
in the following manner:
1. Removal of grounding will be accomplished by
written order of the commanding officer of the field
artillery unit, upon the recommendation of the unit
surgeon, without reference to a higher authority.
2. Removal of suspension from flying status will be
accomplished by written order of the unit commander
when, in his opinion, the individual so suspended again
60
becomes fit for flying. This action, with reasons there-
for, will be reported for confirmation to the authority
who coitfirmed the suspension from flying. Removal of
suspension from flying status resulting from physical
disqualification (s) will be initiated when an Army Air
Forces flight surgeon or aviation medical examiner has
found the individual physically qualified for flying.
(c) Evaluation of pilots. If a unit commander ques-
tions the flying ability of a pilot assigned to the head-
quarters battery of his unit, the pilot may be ordered on
detached service to the nearest Army Air Forces station
for the purpose of appearing before a flying-evaluation
board. The flying-evaluation board will be conducted
in accordance with pertinent Army Air Forces regula-
tions. Complete details regarding the flying deficiency
of the individual concerned will be furnished the flying-
evaluation board by the unit commander. The flying-
evaluation board proceedings and recommendations will
be submitted through Army Air Forces command chan-
nels to the Commanding General, Army Air Forces. The
Commanding General, Army Air Forces, will place his
recommendations thereon and forward the report to the
Commanding General, Army Ground Forces, who will
direct final action in all such cases.
(4) Medical records:
(a) The unit surgeon will maintain a complete medi-
cal record of each pilot assigned to the unit, to include
all reports of physical examination for flying, reports of
consultation with Army Air Forces flight surgeons
and/or aviation medical examiners, copies of orders per-
taining to grounding and/or suspension for physical
reasons, and W.D., M.D. Form No. 79 (Register of
Dental Patients).
(b) Report of physical examination for flying (W.D.,
A.G.O. Form No. 64).
1. In the continental United States report (s) of physi-
cal examination for flying will be forwarded by Army
Air Forces flight surgeons and/or aviation medical
examiners, in triplicate, direct to the Commanding
General, Army Air Forces, for certification. The unit
to which the pilot is assigned will be clearly indicated
thereon. Certified copies and appropriate recommenda-
tions will be returned to the unit commander through
the Commanding General, Army Ground Forces, by the
Commanding General, Army Air Forces.
2. In theaters of operations, report (s) of physical
examinations for flying will be forwarded for certifica-
tion to the commanding general of the overseas air force
concerned. The unit to which the pilot is assigned will
be clearly indicated thereon. Certified reports and
recommendations will be returned to the commanding
officer of the unit to which the pilot is assigned, through
the commanding general of the theater.
(c) Transfer of records.
1. When a pilot is transferred to another field artil-
lery unit within the continental limits of the United
States, the medical records referred to in n above will
be forwarded to the commanding officer of the unit to
which transferred.
2. When a pilot is transferred outside the continental
limits of the United States, records referred to in (a)
above will be forwarded to the Commanding General,
Army Ground Forces, for file until such time as the pilot
returns to the continental United States, when they will
be requested by the commanding officer of the field
artillery unit to which he is assigned.
38. MAINTENANCE.
a. General. The unit commander is responsible that
first and second echelons of maintenance of the airplane
are properly performed. The term “first and second
echelon maintenance” includes all repairs and mainten-
ance which the field artillery unit is capable of perform-
ing with the personnel, equipment, spare parts, time,
and supplies available to it. Pilots and mechanics should
be capable of effecting first and second echelon mainten-
62
ance. Maintenance beyond first and second echelon and
supplies needed for first and second echelon repairs are
furnished by the nearest field service element of the Army
Air Forces. Each field artillery unit is authorized a kit
of supplies necessary for the proper daily maintenance
of its aircraft. Spare parts for the repair of airplanes
and engines are available to the unit from the stock
carried by the headquarters battery of the next higher
headquarters.
b. In continental United States. The unit com-
mander is responsible that first and second echelons of
maintenance are properly performed. First and second
echelon maintenance will be performed by pilots and
mechanics. Higher echelon maintenance will be per-
formed by the Army Air Forces installation designated
bv the Commanding General, Army Air Forces. Norm-
ally. this installation will be the one from which the
post, camp, or station Air Forces property officer draws
supplies. Each field artillery battalion is authorized one
(1) kit, maintenance supplies, airplane, for the proper
daily maintenance of its aircraft. Spare parts for the re-
pair of airplanes and engines are available to battalions
from the authorized stock carried by the headquarters
battery of the next higher headquarters. Inspections and
records required are: preflight, daily flight, 25-hour, 50-
hour, and 100-hour.
c. In overseas theaters. First and second echelon
maintenance will be the same as for units in continental
United States. Normally higher echelon maintenance
will be performed by the Army Air Forces Depot Unit
(Army) or the Army Air Forces installation designated
by the theater commander to serve ground forces units.
Such unit or installation is normally located in the army
service area.
d. Inspections and records.
(1) Inspections.
(a) The inspections prescribed are;
Preflight.
63
Daily flight.
25-hour.
50-hour.
100-hour.
At engine change.
25 hours after engine change.
(5) These inspections will be performed in accord-
ance with Army Air Forces Technical Order 00-20A,
covering visual inspection system for airplanes.
(2) Records. Records required by Army Air Forces
Technical Order 00-20 A will be kept as directed in those
orders.
e. Principles governing first and second echelon
maintenance. Airplanes and engines are maintained
in accordance with Army Air Forces technical orders,
handbooks of maintenance instructions, or service manu-
als covering the type airplane and engine assigned.
f. Maintenance above second echelon. When over-
haul or maintenance above second echelon is required.
Army Air Forces Forms 4 IB, 60 A, 60B, 61, historical
data, and such information as is necessary must be fur-
nished by the field artillery unit.
g. Gas and oil.
(1) Standard aviation gasoline, preferably of 73 to
80 octane rating, should be used when available. Other-
wise, a good grade of truck gasoline of at least 73 octane
rating may be used after any water or dirt has been
removed.
(2) Standard aviation lubricating oil, as prescribed,
should be used.
h. Unserviceable airplanes. Airplanes and other
items of Army Air Forces property which become un-
serviceable through accident or in any other manner are
disposed of in accordance with AR 35-6640.
64
APPENDIX I
LOCAL AIR TRAFFIC AND
LANDING FIELD REGULATIONS
1. AIR REGULATIONS.
a. Traffic pattern.
(1) The traffic pattern will consist of a single counter-
clockwise rectangular pattern at an altitude of 500 feet
and extending approximately 2000 feet outside the
boundaries of the field. See figure 17.
65
(2) Two legs of the pattern will be parallel to the
wind direction, as indicated by the wind “T”, and the
other two legs will be perpendicular to the wind direc-
tion.
(3) Traffic in the pattern and within a radius of 1
mile of the base field will be counterclockwise. Within
that radius all airplanes will fly so that the base field is
on the pilot’s left and so that no turns are made to the
right except on entering or leaving the traffic pattern.
(4) Airplanes will enter the traffic pattern at approxi-
mately the center of the upwind or downwind leg, at
500 feet altitude and at an angle of 45 degrees to the
leg entered, with a 45-degree turn to the right. Airplanes
will then continue in the pattern; on the base leg, they
will make a 90-degree turn to the left for final approach
on a straight line into the wind. Except in high winds,
the final approach will be power-off to a normal three-
point landing at least 300 feet inside the boundaries of
the field.
(5) Take-offs will be made with the wind “T”, or as
nearly so as possible. Take-offs over buildings or similar
obstructions should be avoided whenever possible. After
taking off, the airplane will continue in straight flight
to an altitude of 400 feet, where it will make a 90-degree
turn to the left. Airplanes may leave the traffic pattern
on either of the crosswind legs at 500 feet altitude by
making a 45-degree turn to the right, out of the pattern,
and then proceeding on a straight course until at least
1 mile beyond the boundaries of the field.
b. Local flying area. The local flying area is desig-
nated as prescribed in AR 95-15.
c. Danger and caution areas. Flying over any of
the areas listed below is forbidden. Each pilot is respon-
sible for knowing the location of each of these areas.
(1) The post ammunition dump.
(2) All populated areas (unless the airplane is flying
at an altitude of more than 1000 feet).
66
(3) The area within a radius of 3 miles of army air-
fields (unless the airplane is flying at an altitude in
excess of 1500 feet).
d. Altitudes.
(1) A minimum flight altitude of 500 feet above the
ground will be maintained at all times except during
landings, take-offs, area dragging, and contour flying.
' (2) When dragging areas, - the pilot will carefully
select the flight path so that he can make a safe forced
landing in case of engine failure.
(3) Contour flying will be practiced only by authority
of the unit commander, in designated areas, and at
designated times. Contour flying will habitually be done
upwind.
e. Charts. Sectional charts for the area will always
be carried in each airplane. Before departing on
extended flights, pilots will provide themselves with
sectional charts covering the proposed route and all
areas for 25 miles on either side of the course.
f. Parachutes. Parachutes will be worn on all ex-
tended flights, for acrobatics, and on any flight during
which the pilot intends to fly above an altitude of 1.000
feet.
2. GROUND REGULATIONS.
a. Taxiing.
(1) Pilots will execute a series of S-turns while taxiing.
(2) Taxi pattern will be in a direction opposite to
that of the air traffic pattern.
(3) Pilots will refrain from taxiing across the landing
area of the field. Insofar as possible, all taxiing will be
done near the edges of the field.
b. Clearing turns. Before taking off, the pilot will
habitually make a clearing turn in a direction opposite
to that of the air traffic pattern.
e. Tie-downs. When not in use, airplanes will be
kept tied down.
67
d. Chocks. Chocks will always be used when start-
ing the airplane and when it is parked.
e. Moving airplanes. A man will be at each wing
tip and at the tail of an airplane when it is moved in
proximity to other airplanes or obstructions.
f. Starting. Airplanes will be moved away from the
parking line before being started. A fire extinguisher
will be readily available outside the airplane. All safety
precautions will be observed and the starting signals
will be given by the individual at the propeller. An
airplane will not be started or left running unless a
competent operator is at the controls. Airplanes will
be started according to the follo%ving procedure:
(1) Priming.
(а) Man outside the cabin calls out:
1. SWITCH OFF;
2. GAS ON;
3. THROTTLE CLOSED (or CRACKED).
(б) Man inside the cabin:
1. Checks to insure that switch is off, gas is on, and
throttle is closed or “cracked”;
2. Repeats information in (a) above to the man
outside the cabin.
(c) Man outside the cabin “pulls the propeller
through” three or four times.
(2) Cranking.
(а) After priming is completed, man outside the cabin
calls out BRAKES ON; CONTACT.
(б) Man in cabin:
1. Applies brakes;
2. Repeats "BRAKES ON; CONTACT”;
3. Turns switch on immediately.
(c) Man outside cabin:
1 . Makes sure of his footing, faces the engine and pulls
the propeller through with both hands.
2. Backs away quickly until clear of propeller.
g. Warm up. Airplanes will not be flown until en-
gines are warmed up according to directions given in
68
appropriate operating instructions pertaining to
equipment being used.
h. Propellers. Except for the purpose of cranking,
a propeller will not be touched for at least 15 minutes
after engine operation.
i. Refueling. Airplane will be electrically grounded
while refueling.
3. MISCELLANEOUS.
a. Preflight inspection. The pilot will perform the
preflight inspection before the first' flight of the day.
b. Loading. Under no circumstances will the crew
weight exceed 340 pounds.
c. Weather. An airplane will not take off unless
the weather is equal to or better than the minimums
for contact flight outside of control zones.
d. Flight plans. Flight plans for extended flights
will be filed in accordance with Army Air Forces Regu-
lation 15-23. Pilots will use the following procedure in
filing flight plans:
(1) When an established Army Air Forces or naval
aviation operations office is available, the pilot will file
and obtain approval of flight plan from the operations
officer.
(2) Where no such military operations office is avail-
able, the pilot will file a flight plan with an Army Air
Force flight control center. Civil Aeronautics Authority
communication stations will transmit flight plans to
Army Air Force control centers. From Army Air Force
flight control, pilots must obtain approval and clearance
of flight plan prior to departure.
(3) If no communication facilities are available, the
pilot may take off and proceed to the nearest practicable
location where communications are available, providing
the flight can be made in accordance with contact flight
rules (CFR). The pilot will file a flight plan and obtain
69
approval and clearance, in accordance with instructions
given above, before continuing flight.
e. Local flying board. Before departing on local
flights, pilots will sign out on the local flying board in
the operations office. Immediately upon returning,
pilots will sign in on the local flying board.
f. Operations office. Personnel will not enter the
operations office except on official business.
g. Sulfa drugs. Personnel on flying status will not
use any drugs of the sulfa group unless the use of such
drugs has been specifically prescribed by a medical
officer. Individuals who have taken any sulfa drug
internally will not fly for a period of one week after
the last administration of such drug.
h. Smoking. Smoking and open flame lights are pro-
hibited within a radius of 50 feet of any aircraft, gasoline
dump, fuel pump, fuel unit, and oil or dope storage
dump or building. Smoking and open flame lights are
likewise prohibited within 50 feet of any building or
locality where dope is being brushed or sprayed.
i. Corrective lenses. Pilots who have been instruct-
ed by the flight surgeon to wear corrective lenses while
flying will comply at all times.
70
APPENDIX II
CHECK SHEET FOR INSPECTION
OE AIR OP
Section I. TRAINING
1. Are training directives, programs, and orders ade-
quate?
2. Is training continuous, and directed at the elimina-
tion of bad flying habits and the improvement of
flying technique, maintenance, and the technique of
air observation?
3. Is adequate transition training, where required, be-
ing conducted?
4. a. Does flight training include practice in precision
take-offs and landings:
(1) On roads?
(2) Between panels?
(3) Over simulated barriers?
b. Does flight training include training in evasive
maneuvers?
5. Do pilots make two or more cross-country flights per
month?
6 . Does observer training for pilots and officers to be
trained as observers include:
a. Reading of maps and air photographs from the
air?
b. Orientation?
c. Terrain appreciation?
d. Air-ground communication?
71
e. Daily use of the terrain board with emphasis on
correct radio procedure, speed, and proper methods of
adjusting fire?
f. Simulated missions on a puff target range?
g. Conduct of fire from the air using forward ob-
server methods?
7 . Are designated personnel being trained:
a. In the selection and preparation of roads and fields
suitable for use as landing strips?
b. In the concealment and camouflage of the air-
plane, the strips, and materiel?
c. In ground handling of aircraft?
8 . Are observers and air OP personnel using the terrain
plot to practice locating:
a. Suitable areas for landing fields?
b. Routes of access and supply to landing fields?
c. Best possible flight paths for flying missions?
d. Probable target areas?
9 . Are satisfactory ground schools organized and con-
ducted for pilots in these subjects:
a. Navigation?
b. Meteorology?
e. Air traffic rules?
d. Aircraft clearances?
e. Pilot’s Information File and appropriate Army Air
Forces forms, records, and technical orders?
10. Do air observation personnel go out frequently on
tactical exercises for practical experience in:
a. Field reconnaisance for, selection, and organiza-
tion of landing strips?
b. Display of panels?
c. Short-field flying technique?
72
1 1 . Are all air observation personnel being trained in
the use of small arms and the caliber .50 machine gun?
Section II. MAINTENANCE, SUPPLY AND
ADMINISTRATION
12. Is proper care taken in handling spare parts, tools,
aircraft supplies, and parachutes?
13. Are requisitions properly consolidated and forward-
ed through the prescribed channels?
14. Are the following forms properly maintained:
a. Army Air Forces Form 1, Flight Report— Oper-
ations?
b. Army Air Forces Form lA, Flight Report— En-
gineering?
c. Army Air Forces Form 5, Individual Flight Rec-,
ord?
d. Army Air Forces Form 4 IB, Maintenance Inspec-
tion Reports?
e. Army Air Forces Form 46, Parachute Log Record?
f. Army Air Forces Form 60A, Historical Record, Air-
plane?
g. Army Air Forces Form GOB, Historical Record,
Engine?
h. Army Air Forces Form 61, Historical Record, Pro-
pellers?
15. Are daily and preflight inspection made on air-
planes; and are periodic inspections made at proper
times (25 hours, 50 hours, 100 hours, etc.)?
16. Are 73-octane aviation gasoline and proper grades
of aircraft oil being used?
17. Are airplanes and engines clean and free of accum-
ulated oil and dirt? Check floors for cleanliness, wind-
shields for clearness.
73
18. Is gasoline strained through a chamois, and is a
suitable ground provided when the airplane is being
refueled?
19. Are compasses swung every 100 hours or every 3
months, whichever is the lesser? (Army Air Forces
Technical Order 05-15—3.)
20 . Are parachutes inspected once every 10 days (as
directed in Army Air Forces Technical Order 13-5—2);
repacked by an authorized parachute rigger at least once
every 60 days?
21 . Are parachutes clean, handled carefully, and stored
in a clean dry place?
Section III. OPERATION
22 . Are the following publications on hand and avail-
able for reference;
a. Applicable War Department training circulars?
b. Air OP Memorandums, Army Ground Forces?
c. AR 95-120?
d. Appropriate Army Air Force publications, to in-
clude Pilot’s Information File, and appropriate technical
orders and reg^dations?
23 . Have safety regulations and traffic pattern been
prescribed and enforced?
24 . Are all pilots familiar with local firing, restricted,
and danger areas?
25 . Are sectional aeronautical charts available for all
extended flights?
26 . Has the artillery air officer procured and distri-
buted, as required, copies of applicable Weekly Notices
to Airmen, Danger Area Charts, Directories of Airfields,
Radio Facility Charts?
74
27 . Are new pilots required to familiarize themselves
with local conditions of terrain and weather before
attempting tactical or extended flights?
28 . Is an adequate record of aircraft accidents and dam-
ages maintained?
29 . Is an adequate record of missions maintained?
30 . Are adequate precautions prescribed and observed
concerning mooring of aircraft, starting, refueling,
ground handling, and similar operations?
31 . Is pilot’s flying time limited to an average of less
than 4 hours per day and less than 100 flying hours in
any one month?
75
APPENDIX III
FLIGHT MANEUVERS
Section I. BASIC FLIGHT MANEUVERS
1. TAKE-OFFS AND LANDINGS. Normal take offs,
power-off landings, power-off spot landings from 90-
degiee and 180-degree approaches. Emphasis on control,
coordination, and accuracy of landings.
2. COORDINATION EXERCISES. Rolling from bank
to a bank with a 90-degree change of direction, and
rolling from bank to bank with nose held on a reference
point on the horizon. Executed above 500 feet.
3. LEVEL TURNS. Precision turns with varying degrees
of bank and change of direction. Careful attention to
coordinated entry and recovery, and constant altitude
and bank. Executed above 1,500 feet.
4. S-TURNS. Executed across a road or other refer-
ence lines. Emphasis on constant ground pattern and
proper correction for drift. Executed at 500 feet.
5. RECTANGULAR PATTERN. Executed at 500 feet
above a pattern on the ground. Emphasis on true
rectangular pattern and proper correction for drift.
6. EIGHTS AROUND PYLONS. Executed at 500 feet
with emphasis on constant altitude, ground pattern,
and corrections for drift.
7. CLIMBING AND DIVING TURNS. 720 degree power
turns and maximum performance climbs completed
above 1,500 feet.
8. SLIPS. Not practiced in airplanes equipped with
flaps (L-5).
76
9. TWO-TURN POWER-OFF SPINS. Completed above
1,500 feet. Executed to the right and left, with
emphasis on stopping on a selected point and recovering
without gaining excessive speed. Spins are not executed
in the L-5.
Section II. SPECIAL FLIGHT MANEUVERS
10. TAKE-OFFS AND LANDINGS TO PANELS. Panels
mark the assumed limits of the tactical field. Power
stall approaches and efficiency take-offs are made so as
to attain proficiency in using minimum landing and
take-off space.
11. TAKE-OFFS AND LANDINGS OVER BARRIERS.
Practiced extensively using simulated barriers to develop
technique in using fields with actual barriers and in
estimating take-off distance.
12. TAKE-OFFS AND LANDINGS ON ROADS. Prac-
ticed on simulated roads in the landing field, using both
three-point and wheel landings.
13. CROSSWIND LANDINGS AND TAKE-OFFS. Both
“crab” and “slip” methods of crosswind landing and
take-off should be practiced with exercises outlined in
paragraphs 10, 11, and 12 above.
14. ONE-WHEEL LANDINGS AND TAKE-OFFS. Prac-
ticed in crosswinds and around simulated curved roads.
15. CONTOUR FLYING. Executed from 10 to 20 feet
above the general level of trees and obstructions. For
reasons of safety, this should not be performed so low
as to require zooming up over trees, wire lines, and
other obstructions.
16. LANDINGS FROM CONTOUR APPROACHES.
Upwind approach I /2 mile from the field, at an altitude
of about 50 feet, with emphasis on proper timing in
closing the throttle to effect the landing and stop the
airplane between two panels.
77
17. EVASIVE MANEUVERS. Practiced by diving to low
altitudes and contour flying back to the field, making
use of broken ground patterns, tree lines, creek lines, etc.
78
Section III. EXTENDED FLIGHT SHEET
79
No radio in
200-400 kc band
NOTES:
(1) Enter designation of check point.
(2) Enter true course to this point in degrees.
(3) Enter true heading to this point in degrees.*
(4) Enter compass heading to this point in degrees.*
(5) Enter distance to this point from last check point
in miles.
(6) Enter estimated ground speed based on any
available data.
(7) Enter estimated time of arrival at this check
point.
(8) Enter actual time of arrival at this check point.
(9) Enter actual ground speed to this check point
from the last one. This will normally be the basis for
Your estimate of ground speed to the next check point.
(10) Enter currently revised estimation of time of
arrival at destination.
(11) Enter actual time of arrival.
*Change if necessary as the flight progresses.
81 .
APPENDIX IV
LOADING FIELD ARTILLERY
LIAISON AIRPLANES FOR SHIPMENT
(Models L-2B, I^3B, L-4, L-4A, L-4B, and L-4H)
Section I. GENERAL
1. METHODS OF LOADING.
a. Loading complete airplane in 2i/^-ton, 6x6 truck
(difficult terrain).
b. Loading complete airplane in 2 i/ 2 -ton, 6x6 Luck
(open terrain).
e. Railroad boxcar loading (two airplanes per car).
d. Railroad boxcar loading (three airplanes per car).
e. Loading in overseas shipping crate (L-4, L-4A,
L-4B, and L-4H).
2. FACTORS DETERMINING CHOICE OF METHOD.
a. Facilities and equipment available.
b. Time available.
e. Distance of recjuired movement,
d. Nature of terrain.
3. MISCELLANEOUS.
a. Disposition of smoil ports.
(1) If removed, rudder, horizontal tail surfaces, and
landing gear vees should be placed in cabin, padded,
and tied down.
(2) Propeller may be stowed in cabin or other suitable
place.
(3) Bolts and nuts which are removed should be
replaced in the parts removed from the airplane.
82
b. Tie-downs and attachments.
(1) On fuselage; Propeller shaft, engine mount,
fuselage spar butt fittings, fuselage landing gear vee
fittings, tail lift handle (s), tail leaf spring.
(2) On wings: Spar butt fittings, lift strut fittings.
c. Use of jigs.
(1) Attach to any of the tie-down or attachment
points mentioned above.
(2) Use separate set of bolts and nuts for attaching
jigs: do not use bolts or nuts required in assembling
the airplane.
(3) Belly jigs which are not attached to fuselage
landing gear vee fittings must be placed at cluster
tvelds.
Section il. LOADING COMPLETE AIRPLANE IN 2V2-
TON. 6x6 TRUCK (DifficHit Terrain)
4. REQUIRED DISASSEMBLY.
a. Wings, lift struts, jury struts, propeller, landing
gear, horizontal tail surfaces, and tail brace wires.
b. Rudder (optional).
5. PROCEDURE.
a. Place empennage parts in cabin.
b. Propeller is placed in cabin or secured in truck bed.
c. Fuselage placed in center of truck bed, nose to
front (fig. 25).
(1) Attach jig 1 (fig. 18) to front fuselage landing
gear fittings (supports major part of weight).
(2) Attach jig 2 (fig. 19) under rearmost cluster
weld within truck bed. (Jigs 1 and 2 support weight of
fuselage and prevent side movement.)
(3) Attach jig 3 (fig. 20) to propeller shaft (prevents
see-sawing and forward movement).
(4) Tie down securely.
83
JIG * 1 FRONT BELLY JIG
FIGURE 19. Rear belly jig.
84
JIG *3 NOSE JIG
FIGURE 20. Nose jig.
d. Wings are placed on either side of fuselage, butts
to front, leading edge down, bottom to the outside of
truck (fig. 25). One of the following methods of support
may be used:
(1) Folding base type wing jig (jig 7; fig. 21).
(2) Hanger type wing jigs (jigs 4, 5, and 6; figs. 22,
23, and 24).
e. Lift struts and jury struts are secured in truck bed.
85
FIGURE 21. Wing jig, folding base type.
86
JIG #4
WING SPAR BUTT JIG
WOOD OR
METAL
CUSSCTS's.
‘ BOLTS
• i i-" OR
, LARGER ■
/ i IRON '
' OR HEAVIER
•42'i '
BOLT ;
7 PIPEORTU01WC
r ,, spacer N
•g IRON OR
- HEAVIER
'BOLTS ■i’' OR
LARGER
^IF OTHER THAN -S’" IRON IS USED FOR TOP MANGER , MOVE LOWER
HANGER ACCORDINGLY TO RETAIN THIS MEASUREMENT.
FIGURE 22. Wing spar butt iig
JIG *5 WING LIFT STRUT JIG [l4. a.b,h.-l2b]
ALSO WING SPAR BUTT JIG [l2b-l3B]
FIGURE 23. Wing lift strut jig and wing spar butt jig.
88
JIG*6 SPECIAL JIG FOR L3 B REAR
FIGURE 24. Special jig for L-3B rear strut fittings.
89
FIGURE 25. Airplane loaded on 2% -ton truck (long
wheelbase).
90
Section ill. LOADING COMPLETE AIRPLANE IN
2V2-TON, 6x6 TRUCK (Open Terrain)
6. REQUIRED DISASSEMBLY.
a. Wings, lift struts, and jury struts.
b. Propeller (optional, but advisable).
7. PROCEDURE (fig. 26).
FIGURE 26. Airplane loaded on 2% -ton truck (short
wheelbase).
a. Fuselage is placed nose to rear with wheels at rear
of truck bed, tail over cab of truck.
(1) Chock wheels.
(2) Jig 2 (fig. 19) is placed under belly (at a cluster
weld) on cab or front rack of truck.
(3) Tie down securely.
b. Mount and tie down wings as specified in para-
graph 5d, except: Raise wings high enough to clear
wheels by means of longer hanger type jigs or raised
base type jigs.
c. Lift struts and jury struts secured in truck bed.
91
Section IV. RAILROAD BOXCAR LOADING
(Two Airplanes per Car)
8. RE<?UIRED DISASSEMBLY.
a. Wings, lift struts, jury struts, and horizontal tail
surfaces.
b. Tail wheel assembly, except leaf springs.
c. Rudder (optional).
d. Propeller (optional).
9. PROCEDURE (fig. 27).
FIGURE 27. Railroad boxcar loading (two airplanes per
boxcar).
a. Empennage and tail wheel parts are placed in
cabin.
b. Fuselages are placed in center of car, noses toward
opposite ends of boxcar.
(1) Chock wheels on all four sides, nail chocks to
floor.
(2) Partially deflate tires, nail canvas straps to chocks
and over tires. Reinflate tires.
(3) Leaf spring is lag-screwed to floor or bolted to
block of wood nailed to floor.
C. Wings are mounted on side of car.
(1) Use hanger type jig as covered in paragraph
5d (1), except jigs will be nailed to walls of boxcar.
(2) Note dimensions of wood in figures 22, 23, and 24.
d. Lift struts and jury struts are secured to floor.
e. Propeller is secured to floor (or other suitable
place).
92
Section V. RAILROAD BOXCAR LOADING
(Three Airplanes per Car)
10. REQUIRED DISASSEMBLY.
a. Wings, lift struts, jury struts, horizontal tail sur-
faces, and propeller.
b. Tail wheel assembly, except leaf spring.
c. Landing gear.
d. Rudder (optional).
11. PROCEDURE (fig. 28).
FIGURE 28. Railroad boxcar loading (three airplanes per
boxcar).
a. Place empennage, landing gear, and tail wheel
parts in cabin.
b. Fuselages are placed side by side in one end of car,
with noses and tails alternated.
(1) Attach jig 1 (fig. 18) to front fuselage landing
gear vee fittings and nail jig to floor.
(2) Tail leaf spring is lag-screwed to floor or bolted
to block of wood nailed to floor.
c. Wings are mounted in opposite end of car. Use
hanger type jigs as shown in figure 28.
d. Lift struts and jury struts are secured to floor.
e. Propellers are secured in suitable place in car.
93
Section VI. LOADING IN OVERSEAS SHIPPING
CRATE (L-4, L-4A, L-4B, and L-4H)
12. REQUIRED DISASSEMBLY.
a. Wings, lift struts, jury struts, horizontal tail sur-
faces and rudder.
b. Landing gear and complete tail wheel assembly.
c. Propeller.
13. PROCEDURE (fig. 29).
FIGURE 29. Loading in overseas shipping crate.
a. End of crate at nose of airplane is removed by un-
bolting.
b. Wings are attached to sides of crate with hanger
type jigs (some crates are equipped with base type
jigs)-
c. Propeller is bolted to ceiling of crate.
d. Lift struts and jury struts are strapped to ceiling
of crate.
e. Tires, wheels, and landing gear vees are strapped
to floor.
f. Other parts are placed in cabin.
94
g. Fuselage is placed in center of crate.
(1) Support front by belly jig on front fuselage
landing gear vee fittings.
(2) Support tail by bolting fuselage tail spring fitting
to mounting plate provided in crate.
14. INFORMATION RELEVANT TO CRATE.
a. Outside dimensions: Length, 21 feet 7 inches;
width, 4 feet 11 inches; height, 6 feet 9 inches.
b. Packing space: 716 cubic feet.
c. Weight complete with airplane: 4,000 to 4,500
pounds.
d. Some crates are provided with hinged doors at
ends for ventilation, and to provide access for unbolting
end of crate.
e. When necessary to crate aircraft, the crates must
be secured through the post air supply officer.
95
APPENDIX V
INSTALLATION OF RADIOS
IN AIRPLANES
(Models SCR-609 and SCR-509 Radios in Models L-4A,
L-4B, L-4H, L-2A, L-3B, and L-3C Airplanes)
Section I. INSTALLATION IN L-4 SERIES AIRPLANES
1. GENERAL. The installation consists of two parts:
The receiver and transmitter unit BC-659-B, and the
battery hold-down cover.
2. RECEIVER AND TRANSMITTER UNIT BC-659-B.
Following is the proper procedure for installation of
the receiver and transmitter unit BC-659-B (fig. 30):
FIGURE 30. Installation of receiver-transmitter unit and
batteries in L-4A, L-4B, and L-4H airplanes.
a. A 1" X 1" wood strip is set in front of the case and
another behind. These 1" x 1" wood strips should have
three 3/16" bolts in the front and three 3/16" bolts
in the rear, spaced evenly.
96
b. As a precaution, a piece of wood thick, cut to
conform to the curved tube in back of the rear seat,
should be placed on the underside of the decking and
bolted fast with the same bolts which go through the
1" X 1" piece in front of the radio. This will prevent
forward movement of the radio.
c. The case is set on the plywood decking directly
behind the rear seat, on the right side. The distance
from the pyralin on the right side of the fuselage to the
right corner of the case is 2%". The major axis of the
case is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the airplane.
It is necessary to move the clip for the rear control stick
to the left side of the deck.
d. Four holes, x Ij/^", are cut in the decking. The
front holes should be directly behind the front battery
case clamps and the rear holes directly in front of the
rear battery case clamps.
e. The regulation issue 42" waist belt can be used to
hold down the case. These straps must be tightly
drawn around the case and decking.
3. BATTERY HOLD-DOWN COVER. Following is the
proper procedure for installation of the battery hold-
down cover;
a. The batteries are set on the floor boards directly
behind the front seat, the BA-39 on the right of the
torque tube, the B.'\.-40 on the left of the torque tube.
The battery cover is placed over the batteries and
secured by an issue web belt which passes through two
metal loops on the cover and around the rear legs of
the front seat. The battery cover should be made as
shown in figure 31.
b. The fire extinguisher and bracket are relocated on
the front floor boards between the front brake pedals,
the major axis of the extinguisher being parallel to
the longitudinal axis of the airplane (fig. 30).
c. The method described in section II, paragraph 5
below, can also be used.
97
battery for installation in L-4A, L-4B, and L-4H
airplanes.
Section II. INSTALLATION IN L-2A AND L-2B
AIRPLANES
4. RECEIVER AND TRANSMITTER UNIT BC-659-B.
Following is the procedure for installation of the
receiver and transmitter unit BC-659-B (fig. 32):
a. The receiver and transmitter unit BC-659-B is
centered and mounted on the floor boards behind the
rear seat. Four 1" x 1" wood strips are used to eliminate
any movement of the transmitter and receiver case.
The tvood strip at the front of the case is held down
by three 3/16" bolts, the rear and side pieces by two
3/16" bolts, all bolts spaced evenly (fig. 32).
b. Two issue web belts are buckled together and used
to secure the case. The belts run around the bottom
diagonal structural member, which may be viewed
through the left rear footwell, diagonally over the top
of the set and around the rear transverse diagonal
98
PIGURE 32. Installation of SCR-609 radio case in L-2A
and L-2B airplanes.
structural member which runs from the right lower
longeron up to the top of the rear seat pivot tube.
These belts should be drawn as tight as possible.
5. BATTERY BOX. Following is the procedure for in-
stallation of the battery box:
a. The battery box is installed between the front
brake pedals as shown in figure 33. 14 " plywood or
%" crating may be used to construct the box.
b. The box is fastened to the floor board, using No.
10 wood screws or 3/16" bolts.
Section III. INSTALLATION IN L-3B AND L-3C
AIRPLANES
6 . RECEIVER AND TRANSMITTER UNIT BC-659-B.
Following is the procedure for installation of the
receiver and transmitter unit (fig. 33) which is mounted
on the port side of the deck directly behind the rear
seat:
99
MOVE ANTENNA INLET FROM PRESENT
LOCATION TO A POINT DIRECTLY OVER
REAR OF RADIO CASE
FIGURE 33. Installation of SCR-609 radio receiver-trans-
mitter unit and batteries in L-3B and L-3C airplanes.
a. The unit is held fast by two issue web belts which
run through the metal carrying loops that are attached
to the case around the transverse structural tube behind
the decking, then around the vertical and diagonal
side-frame tubes. The belts can be buckled at the front
of the case.
100
b. Another issue web belt is used to hold the case
down. This belt runs through a 1^" x hole cut
in the decking, and completely around the case.
c. There should be some type of padding placed
between the radio case and structural tubes (felt, cloth,
etc.).
7. BATTERY BOX. The battery box is installed between
the front brake pedals as shown in figure 33. i/^"
plywood or %" crating may be used to construct the
box.
Section IV. INSTALLATION OF ANTENNA
8. The antenna is installed between the insulator on
the vertical fin fitting and the insulator on the antenna
mast (fig. 34). The lead-in is connected to the forward
end of the antenna. This connection will be directly
behind the front insulator and will form an L-type
antenna. For the SCR-609 the antenna length must
be 121/2 feet, measured to include the antenna plus
the lead-in from the antenna connection to the set
binding post. With the installation of the SCR-509,
which is operated on lower frequencies, the antenna
should be the same length as the telescopic antenna
issued for operation on the ground, i. e., 8 feet 2 inches.
101
Note: The lead-in insulator on the L-3B and L-3C,
which goes through the top deck pyralin, will have to
he moved from its original position to a point directly
above the rear of the decking [fig. 34).
9 . The issue telescopic antenna can be mounted directly
to the radio as in figure 35. This will minimize direc-
tional characteristics found in the L-type antenna.
FIGURE 35. Installation of telescopic antenna.
102
APPENDIX VI
PUFF TARGET RANGE
1. MISSIONS. Missions are flown in a manner simu-
lating combat conditions. The flight path of the
airplane is about 4,000 to 6,000 yards from the target
area.
2. TARGET AREA. The target area is approximately
900 yards wide and 800 yards deep. The terrain should
be rolling, if possible, but a ^-ton truck must be able
to drive over it rapidly. A diagram of the target area
is shown in figure 36. The base point is a large white
panel installed at one end of the range. The target
consists of a second large white panel mounted on a
2^-ton truck. The location of the target truck is
changed for each problem.
3. GUN POSITION. The gun position is assumed, and
indicated on a map or photo, a copy of which is furnished
to each pilot and observer. It is located 4,000 to 6,000
yards from the target area and is changed frequently.
4. BURST. The burst is produced by exploding a home-
made lime bomb. The bomb is made by placing a
small amount of lime, a detonator cap, and a short
length of fuze in a paper sack. The upper portion of
the sack is rolled around the lower portion containing
the lime. The complete bomb is about 3 inches in
diameter and 8 inches long, with the fuze projecting
from one end.
5. COMMUNICATION. The SCR-609 (or SCR-509) is
installed in the airplane and works with another
SCR-609 (or SCR-509) located near the center of the
target area. The location of this ground radio set is
called the control center, and simulates a fire-direction
center.
103
6. OPERATION. Four i/4-ton trucks, each equipped
with a supply of lime bombs, are required. One of
these 14-ton trucks is placed near each corner of the
impact area. Four telephone lines must be laid, one
to the location of each of the i/^-ton trucks. The
sensing from the observer is received at the ground
radio set and is plotted on a control board. The
“coordinates” of the position of the next burst are
then telephoned to the 14-ton trucks; the truck nearest
to the point where the “round” should hit drives to
the point designated and explodes a lime bomb. The
observer senses this burst and the procedure is repeated.
104
105
FIGURE 36. Puff target range.
INDEX
Paragraph Page
Adjusting artillery fire
Administration
Air security
Air traffic and landing field regulations,
local
Air traffic regulations
Altitudes of flight missions
Amphibious operations
Artillery air officer
Camouflage checks
Communication
Conduct of training
Desert warfare
Displacements
Drop message and pick-up message
station
Equipment
Flight maneuvers
Flight training
Ground handling
Information of friendly and hostile
forces
Inspection of air OP, check sheet for
Inspections
Installation of radios in airplanes
Jungle operations
Landing field and air traffic regulations,
local
Landing fields for individual training,
selection
Loading field artillery liaison airplanes
for shipment
Locating targets
March control
Maintenance
Maintenance training
Missions
Mountain warfare
Night operations
Observer training
Organization
Perfoi’mance of liaison type aircraft
24
37
21
App I
6
18
31
4
28
14
9
33
22
14
5
App III
15
13
26
App II
10
App V
32
App I
12
App IV
23
25
38
17
1
34
30
16
4
5
40
57
34
65
6
27
46
2
43
15
7
52
37
17
4
76
19
9
41
71
8
96
51
65
9
82
39
40
62
25
1
53
44
24
2
4
106
Paragraph Page
Pick-up message and drop message
station 14 17
Puff target range App VI 103
Radio 14 15
Radio installation in airplanes App V 96
Reconnaissance of position areas and
routes of march; march control 25 40
Reconnaissance, selection, improvement,
and operation of landing fields 20 28
Responsibility for training 7 7
Role 1 1
Scope of text 2 1
Scope of training 8 7
Security patrols 27 42
Selection of landing fields for individual
■ training 12 9
Special operations Chap 5 44
Staff relations 19 27
Supply 36 56
Terms 3 1
Training and employment, tactical Chap 4 27
Training, conduct of 9 7
Training, general Chap 2 7
Training, individual Chap 3 9
Visual signals 14 16
Wire 14 16
FAS, Fort Sill, Oklp ^9-16-44 — 20,847) — 29933
107