Document text
UNCLASSIFIBPFM 1-15
WAR DEPARTMENT
ARMY AIR FORCE
FIELD MANUAL
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF
AIR FIGHTING
April 10, 1942
twGfwoeD UNCLASSIFIED m
AmHQ«yvopOOD^OlR.5200.1 R
BY.
FM 1-15
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD
MANUAL
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF
AIR FIGHTING
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1942
WAR DEPARTMENT,
Washington, April 10, 1942.
FM 1-15, Army Air Force Field Manual, Tactics and Tech-
nique of Air Fighting, is published for the information and
guidance of all concerned.
[A. G. 062.11 (3-10-12) .]
By order op the Secretary of War:
G. C. MARSHALL,
Chief of Staff.
Official:
J. A. ULIO,
Major General,
The Adjutant General.
Distribution :
R and H 1-7, 17(6) ; Bn 1(8) , 17(5) ; IBn 7(5) ; IC 7(5) ,
11(5).
(For explanation of symbols see FM 21-6.)
n
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Objectives of air fighting.
Section I. General •
II. Pursuit aviation in defense
III. Penetrations of pursuit defense-
Chapter 4. Organization of pursuit aviation.
Section I. General
II. Components
Chapter 5. Employment of pursuit aviation.
Section I. General
II. Methods of pursuit defense
III. Pursuit aviation in local defense.
Chapter 6. Air tactics of pursuit aviation.
Section I. General
II. Pursuit formations
III. Combat tactics
IV. Individual offensive tactics...
V. Light offensive tactics
VI. Squadron offensive tactics
VII. Group offensive tactics
VIII. Pursuit defensive tactics
Chapter 7. Tactics of aircraft fighting defen^
sively
Index
aragraphs
Page
1-4
1
5-8
3
9—10
Q
11-15
9
16—20
xx
21
14
22^-25
14
26-29
17
30-32
18
33-39
19
;. 40-48
22
49-55
27
56-60
34
61-62
37
63-67
38
68-71
40
72-73
43
74-79
44
80-81
49
82-88
50
89-94
52
95-99
55
100-106
58
107-112
63
L-
113-117
66
69
III
FM 1-15
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE 03? AIR FIGHTING
(This manual supersedes PM 1-15, September 9, 1940.)
CHAPTER 1
OBJECTIVES OP AIR FIGHTING
Section I. General
II. Pursuit aviation in defense
III. Penetrations ol pursuit defense
Section I
GENERAL
■ 1. Air Fighting. — An air fight is a combat between aircraft
Involving Are and movement by the opposing forces engaged.
Fighting between aircraft in flight results from or grows
out of the attempt to deny air attack and air observation.
In air fighting there is no counterpart of the battle between
ground forces. Air fighting is incidental to the carrying out
of other and potentially decisive air operations. In itself,
air fighting is indecisive, except as it affects the success or
failure of other technical functions of aviation or ground
forces. The permanent effects of air combat are measured
in terms of attrition of the forces engaged and reduction in
vigor of the enemy's air operations.
■ 2. Defensively Fighting Forces. — Air fighting is a hin-
drance to the performance of the potentially decisive func-
tions of air attack on surface or subsurface objectives.
Forces engaged in carrying out air attack functions seek to
avoid combat and accept it only when it cannot be avoided.
The object of such forces, even when air combat has been
imposed upon them, is to persevere in. their operations while
avoiding losses. As a consequence, forces performing the
functions of air attack and air observation only fight defen-
sively in the air. Furthermore, forces designed primarily to
Paragraphs
1-4
5-8
9-10
1
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
carry out these functions normally lack equipment possessing
the necessary performance superiority to permit imposing
combat on enemy aerial forces.
■ 3. Offensively Fighting Forces. — a. Function. — Pursuit
aviation is designed primarily for the purpose of imposing
air combat on enemy forces. The principal function of pur-
suit aviation is to offer resistance to enemy air attack and
air reconnaissance. Pursuit must perform its role by fight-
ing offensively in the air. To this end it must be equipped
with aircraft of superior performance which can initiate and
force combat upon the enemy. The primary object of the
pursuit force in air combat is to deny or to limit enemy air
attack or air reconnaissance. A secondary object may be the
support of friendly air attack or air reconnaissance or under
appropriate conditions the attack of ground forces.
b. Pursuit versus pursuit. — In situations where opposing
pursuit forces are based within reach of each other, air fight-
ing may take place between them. The sole purpose of such
combat is as a means to the end of denying hostile air attack
and air reconnaissance, or in aiding such friendly operations.
c. Escort fighters. — In situations where air attack is sub-
jected to serious hostile fighter opposition and the range of
available friendly pursuit or special fighter equipment per-
mits, a fighter escort may be employed to assist in penetrat-
ing the defenses. The object of accompanying fighters in air
combat is to insure the success of the forces they support.
Their Are power may be considered as replacing or augment-
ing the defensive fire power of the supported force. Their
mission precludes their seeking to impose combat on other
forces except as necessary to carry out their defensive role.
■ 4. Measurement of Success. — a. In air combat the suc-
cess of the offensive fighting force is measured by the loss
in efficiency suffered by the enemy force in the performance
of its assigned task.
b. The success of the defensively fighting force in air
combat is measured by the extent to which its efficiency is
maintained in performance of its task of air attack or air
reconnaissance.
2
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING
5
Section II
PURSUIT AVIATION IN DEFENSE
■ 5. Effectiveness. — a. General. — A knowledge of the pow-
ers and limitations of pursuit aviation is a prerequisite of
sound employment. Its capabilities as a means of defense
will vary more with respect to the manner of employment
than will those of any other defensive agency. Where pur-
suit aviation is used efficiently a small force may be expected
to exert an extraordinary influence in the defense. On the
other hand, large forces will accomplish little when they are
employed for the defense of localities or sectors that are not
susceptible to efficient defense by pursuit aviation.
b. Flexibility. — Pursuit defense is inherently more flexible
than other means of antiaircraft defense due to its tactical
mobility. It may be applied to some advantage in the de-
fense of any area or objective whenever the other forms of
defense are incapable of furnishing the desired degree of
protection. The enemy will be able to determine the probable
location of antiaircraft weapon defenses and will avoid them,
or be prepared for their Are during the relatively brief periods
of time that his forces may be exposed to such action. Pur-
suit, on the other hand, constitutes a threat which may ma-
terialize at any time against enemy forces within the pursuit
zones of action.
c. Changing tactics. — Pursuit aviation cannot be employed
effectively in active air defense by precisely following defi-
nite rules. The hostile air offensive that it opposes is ex-
tremely flexible, both in the tactical execution of offensive
operations and in the readiness with which the general
character of the offensive may be changed. Enemy tactics
will vary constantly to meet operating conditions and to cir-
cumvent the resistance offered by the defense. The pursuit
defense must respond rapidly to changes in the offensive.
The action of the enemy must be anticipated and dispositions,
methods of employment, and tactics varied accordingly.
d. Moral effect. — Pursuit aviation will have a greater moral
effect than the other antiaircraft defenses inasmuch as it
brings the threat of actual combat to the enemy. Although
it will be impossible for the defender to determine the
3
5-6
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
strength of attacking forces that will be employed in spe-
cific operations, the enemy will also be unable to determine
the strength of the pursuit forces that may be brought against
him. Unless conditions permit the enemy to evade the de-
fending pursuit, he must be prepared to accept combat dur-
ing the entire time that he is exposed, under conditions
wherein the defending force has the initiative.
e. Limitations. — In common with the other forms of anti-
aircraft defense, pursuit has limitations that seriously influ-
ence its capabilities for coping with the air offensive. Its
flexibility is restricted by range and the availability and loca-
tion of airdromes and facilities. These facilities are in them-
selves vulnerable to air attack. In general, pursuit opera-
tions are limited by darkness and inclement weather. Pur-
suit aircraft designed for daytime operation can operate
effectively at night in conjunction with antiaircraft search-
lights and ground control, and may even operate with effect
on nights of particularly good visibility — bright moon, and
in the light of conflagration on the ground. Special night
fighters have been designed which can operate at night in
almost any kind of weather.
/. Primary purpose. — Pursuit defense is organized pri-
marily for defense against air attack. A defense against air
attack will provide incidental defense against other enemy
air operations. A pursuit defense for purely counterrecon-
naissance purposes is generally of insufficient strength to cope
with hostile air attack forces.
■ 6. Basis for Effective Employment. — a. Defense tasks. —
In considering employment of the defensive force, the force
commander is confronted with the problem of selecting tasks
to be performed in the conduct of the defense. He will be
confronted with the allocation of defensive forces for the
performance of those tasks. The selection of tasks to be
performed by the defense is dependent upon the capabilities
of the enemy striking force. Hence the initial problem
involves a determination of the capabilities of the enemy
striking force and his possible lines of action. The enemy
may be expected to attack those physical installations which
are immediately vital to us or those which, if destroyed or
neutralized, will have the most widespread and lasting effect
4
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 6-7
on our own military operations. The first step, therefore,
in establishing tasks for the defense is an analysis of our
own situation with a view to determining the elements
•which are most important to us, and which are most likely
to be attacked by the enemy, considering the location of
enemy bases and the characteristics of enemy aircraft.
b. Influence of position on defense effectiveness. — The
location of a vital element to be defended, relative to the
outer limits of the aircraft warning service, has a profound
influence upon the capability of the defensive force. Meth-
ods of operation of defensive pursuit forces are determined
by relative performance of enemy and friendly airplanes and
amount of warning time. This factor is in large measure
determined by the depth of penetration of the enemy into
the aircraft warning service area required to reach the ob-
jective. Since the efficiency of the pursuit force varies with
the method of employment, and that method varies with
depth of penetration into the aircraft warning service area,
the efficacy of the pursuit defense will vary with the location
of the objectives to be defended and the locations of the de-
fending pursuit forces.
■ 7. Size of Pursuit Combat Forces. — o. Objective. — The out-
come of air combat, like other forms of combat, depends to a
great extent upon the relative fire power of the opposing
forces. From the standpoint of any particular combat, the
larger the pursuit force that is brought against the enemy, the
greater are its chances of success. In the defense of any
considerable area, however, normally it will be impossible to
dispose the defending pursuit in a manner that will insure
the presence of a superior Are power in all air combat. The
entire defense, however, must be organized on a basis that
will provide pursuit combat commands that are strong
enough to engage the enemy in air combat. The determina-
tion of the size of these air combat commands is a problem
that is basic to the whole defense. If the combat commands
are unnecessarily large the number of objectives that can
be defended will be decreased, or the area over which resist-
ance is offered must be reduced. On the other hand, if they
are too small they will be unable to perform successfully
their function of air combat.
452056 ° — 42 2
5
7-9
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
b. Factors influencing. — The actual size of the combat
commands will vary with the pursuit aviation available; the
general character of the defense; the relative performance
characteristics of friendly and enemy aviation ; enemy tactics
and defensive armament; and with weather and other con-
ditions that influence the air operations of both forces.
Under conditions that favor the employment of the pursuit
defense, the enemy may be expected to operate with large
attacking forces. Under conditions of low visibility enemy
operations may be conducted with smaller combat commands
or by individual airplanes. In general, it will be necessary
to predict the size of the force that the enemy will probably
use in accordance with the existing conditions in order that,
the defense may be properly prepared. If all the enemy
striking force commands are to be opposed, the size of the
pursuit combat forces must be reduced when the enemy
operates with small combat commands.
c. Influence of armament characteristics. — Where the Are
power of individual pursuit aircraft exceeds that of indi-
vidual enemy aircraft, individual pursuit aircraft will be
able to engage an attacking force with some degree of suc-
cess, even though numerically inferior to that force.
■ 8. Disposition of Defenses. — The disposition of the pur-
suit defenses is governed by the enemy capabilities; the size
of the pursuit force available; the character and extent of
the aircraft warning service; and the number, character, and
location of the objectives that cannot be provided adequate
security by other means of defense.
Section in
PENETRATIONS OP PURSUIT DEFENSE
■ 9. Air Defense by Air Attack Forces. — a. General. —
Methods of operation employed by air attack forces in pene-
trating areas where pursuit opposition is present will vary
greatly with the nature of the defense and the condition
of the weather. In general, the fighter defense should be
approached in a direction that the enemy least expects and
in a manner he is least able to oppose. A course of action
6
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING
9-10
that will result In the greatest surprise to the enemy aids
In gaining security for the attacking force.
b. Formation strength. — For defense in air combat the
primary reliance of an air attack command is placed upon
its ability to defend itself. Where defensive fire power is
an element of special importance in carrying out particular
operations, this will be a controlling factor In determining
the size of the command to be employed. The defensive
strength must not be reduced below a point which will pro-
vide reasonable security against enemy fighters. Formation
air attacks should always be employed when massed defen-
sive fire power is necessary for security.
■ 10. Methods of Operation. — The higher commander will
plan and direct operations so as to reduce the possible effec-
tiveness of the enemy pursuit defense. These plans may
include any or all of the following methods of operation:
a. Coordinated air attacks. — Coordinated air attacks are
operations in which several attacking forces are employed
to arrive simultaneously within an area defended by hostile
fighter aviation. Such operations are designed to prevent
the successive engagement of our forces by hostile fighters;
to gain surprise ; or to produce greater moral effect. Security
from the hostile fighting force is also obtained by the mutual
support that attacking forces can give one another. In such
operations it is impossible for the defending forces to con-
centrate their full strength against the separate air attacking
units.
b. Mass attacks. — Mass attacks delivered by a large con-
centration of aircraft, operating in suitable tactical forma-
tions and arriving over the objective at suitable intervals,
will reduce the pursuit opposition that can be directed against
successive assaulting waves and will be less costly in casual-
ties than sustained attacks carried out by the small bom-
bardment formations.
c. Repeated attacks. — Repeated air attacks may be made
where it is desired to force the enemy to divert enemy fighter
aircraft to the defense of the objectives attacked.
d. Secondary air attacks. — Secondary air attacks may be
conducted for the purpose of drawing the defending fighters
7
10
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
away from a vital objective or for the purpose of causing
the enemy to extend and disperse his defenses.
e. Night attacks. — Night attacks provide an effective means
of minimizing enemy fighter opposition and are generally
conducted against targets that can be effectively bombed by
available equipment under the visibility limitations of night
operations. It is becoming increasingly difficult for attack
forces to evade the active air defense forces under cover of
darkness due to increased effectiveness of searchlights, anti-
aircraft artillery, and radio detectors.
8
CHAPTER 2
TACTICAL PLANS
■ 11. Formulation. — a. Success in air fighting depends
upon —
(1) Simple tactical plans.
(2) Correct selection of the tactical plan best suited to the
situation.
(3) Method of execution of the plan.
b. In formulating these tactical plans, consideration should
be given in particular to concentration, the offensive, surprise,
and security.
■ 12. Selection. — The correct selection of the tactical plan
best suited to the situation is the special responsibility of the
leader or commander of the forces concerned, and will depend
upon the accuracy of his judgment and his faculty for quick
and correct decision.
■ 13. Execution. — a. The subsequent success of the tactical
plan will depend mainly upon the —
(1) Skill and vigor of execution.
(2) Effective use of weapons.
(3) Power of maneuver.
Thorough familiarity with the plan by all members of the
unit is necessary for its efficient execution.
b. The attack should be delivered with determination and
pressed home to decisive ranges. Intensive drill in tactical
maneuvers will increase the cohesion of the attacking forma-
tion and strengthen mutual understanding, rendering it pos-
sible to deliver sustained or repeated attacks with a minimum
of confusion or loss of control and to produce the maximum
concentration of fire at the decisive point.
■ 14. Development op Methods. — a. The tactical methods
to be adopted in air fighting must be evolved, developed, and
perfected prior to war. These methods should be the product
of experience confirmed by constant practice and experiment
9
14-15
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
in tactical exercises. They should be sufficiently flexible to
facilitate rapid revisions necessitated by combat experience.
b. To be of any permanent and practical value in war, they
should be few in number and simple of execution, so that the
average pilot can become thoroughly familiar with them and
efficient in their practice with the minimum amount of
training.
c. The methods adopted should, therefore, be limited to
those necessary to meet the varying conditions likely to be
encountered in air fighting, and that suit the special tactical
characteristics of the different types of aircraft which may
be required to use them.
■ 15. Effect of Armament and Design on Air Tactics. — a.
Development in armament and design will lead to changes in
air tactics. The success of a particular method of attack
may be countered by the provision of armor or by the
elimination of blind spots due to improvements in design.
b. The development of suitable fire-control systems may
render the fire of heavier caliber guns more effective at
longer ranges. All-around fire may be improved by increas-
ing the number of guns and gunners and reducing the inter-
ruptions of fire due to the structure of the aircraft. All these
changes will tend to increase the offensive and defensive
powers of aircraft and modify the tactical methods of attack
and defense.
10
CHAPTER 3
FACTORS AFFECTING AIR FIGHTING
■ 16. Aircraft Performance. — a. Speed factors. — Superior
rate of climb and airspeed are essential factors for the inter-
ception of hostile aircraft in order to impose air combat.
The unit possessing equipment with superior climb and speed
can, within limits, choose the time and place for initiating
the fight. The ability to select a favorable time and place is
a distinct advantage.
b. Maneuverability.— The relative maneuverability of air-
craft will materially influence the tactics employed in air
fighting. Maneuverability is of extreme importance in air-
craft equipped only with fixed guns as it governs the ease and
speed with which the guns can be alined and held on the tar-
get. Maneuverability facilitates the evasion of fire by defen-
sively fighting aircraft.
■ 17. Armament. — a. Fire effect. — The outcome of an air com-
bat will be dependent upon the relative fire effect obtained
by the opposing forces. This fire effect may be either physi-
cal or moral or both. The destructive effect of fire against
either force is determined by the destructive power of the
projectiles used and the number of hits secured. Adverse
moral effect influences the attacker to fire at ineffective ranges
or to withdraw from attacks before the desired result is
achieved. Adverse moral effect influences the defensive force
by reducing the accuracy of its Are and demoralizing its sys-
tem of supporting fire.
b. Accuracy of fire. — The accuracy of fire is dependent pri-
marily on the following variables:
(1) Range. — The shorter the range, the more nearly will
the projectiles conform to their mean trajectory and hit at
the point indicated by direct sighting. If the target is maneu-
vering it may move out of the cone of fire while the pro-
jectiles are in flight; therefore, the shorter the range the
greater the accuracy of fire.
(2) Relative positions and motions. — (a) Accuracy of Are
is adversely affected when sighting lead must be applied in
aiming. Sighting lead varies with the angularity of the line
11
17-18
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
of- fire to the path of the target and with the rate of change
of that angularity.
(b) Motion of the firing airplane about any of its three
axes reduces accuracy of fire.
(3) Accuracy of firing weapon. — Projectiles from weapons
with a high degree of inherent accuracy follow more closely
and consistently the mean trajectory upon which sighting is
based, thereby increasing fire power of individual weapons.
In all weapons that accuracy will vary with range. Other
factors being equal, each combatant endeavors to gain the
range that will be most favorable to the accuracy of his own
weapons and least favorable to the accuracy of his opponent's
weapons.
(4) Individual marksmanship. — A high degree of individual
skill is an essential requirement for successful air fighting.
Correct estimation of the range; accurate aiming; and, for
the fixed gun installation, skillful piloting of the airplane are
the most important factors. Camera guns should be used
in conjunction with firing weapons for the purpose of in-
struction and improvement of technique of attack; a check
of the developed film will indicate the cause of errors, such
as firing at ineffective ranges and improper approach.
(5) Volume of fire. — The rate of fire of each weapon and
the total number of weapons available are factors beyond the
tactical control of the combat commander in air combat.
Volume of fire is tactically controlled by the proportion of
the available weapons that are actually brought to bear upon
the target. Every effort is made through maneuver and dis-
position to use the maximum number of weapons simulta-
neously.
■ 18. Training. — Tactical situations which may confront
combat aviation units are so numerous and varied that defi-
nite tactical rules of procedure cannot be set down to cover
them. It is for this reason that they must depend to a high
degree on training and indoctrination for the successful
accomplishment of their missions. Drilled in fundamental
principles of aerial combat, the pilots are trained to think
and act as a unit. The ultimate aim of indoctrination is to
enable the commander to exercise tactical control with the
minimum of commands. Indoctrination develops its maxi-
12
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING
18-20
mum effectiveness when the same personnel work together
,over relatively long periods of time. Frequent transfers of
personnel from one organization to another reduce the
effectiveness of teamplay.
■ 19. Weather Conditions. — Weather conditions and the
presence and location of the sun may have considerable
influence on air fighting. These factors may affect both the
ability to locate objectives and the possibilities for surprise.
The principal advantages and disadvantages derived from
these factors are as follows —
a. Sun. — Approach to the objective from the direction of
the sun sometimes permits the launching of a surprise at-
tack. Surprise can normally be achieved in this manner only
by individuals or small units. Immediately after sunset
and immediately before sunrise, surprise may sometimes be
effected by approaching in such a manner that the objective
is silhouetted against the lighted sky.
b. Visibility. — The factor of visibility is opposite in its
effect on offensive and defensive air operations. High visi-
bility favors pursuit forces in locating targets for attack.
Low visibility aids defensive formations or individual planes
to evade pursuit interception. If interception is effected,
low visibility facilitates surprise in the attack by fighter
aviation.
c. Clouds. — Clouds afford an excellent place for conceal-
ment from which surprise attacks may be launched against
enemy aircraft beneath. They also provide effective cover
for air attack forces en route to and from their attack ob-
jective. Clouds will generally increase the security of these
forces.
■ 20. Altitude. — The reduction in atmospheric pressure and
oxygen with increase in elevation seriously affects the nor-
mal mental and physical efficiency of the individual at higher
altitudes. Mental alertness is reduced; physical activity
becomes sluggish and difficult. The danger to the individual
lies in the fact that he does not immediately sense these
effects. While these physical and mental reactions from
high altitude flying cannot be entirely eliminated except in
pressure cabins, they are materially reduced through the
proper use of oxygen provided in all combat aircraft,
452056° — 42 3 13
CHAPTER 4
ORGANIZATION OF PURSUIT AVIATION
Paragraphs
Section I. General 21
II. Components 22-25
Section I
GENERAL
■ 21. Basic Organization. — Pursuit aviation is so organized
as to facilitate its effective tactical employment in any part
of the world. The basic tactical and administrative unit is
the squadron. Squadrons vary in kind according to the type
of aircraft with which they are equipped and according to
their functions.
Section II
COMPONENTS
■ 22. Pursuit Airplane. — The pursuit airplane and its crew
comprise the smallest fighting unit in pursuit aviation. The
crew may number one or more depending on the type of air-
plane. Special types of pursuit airplanes are required because
no one type can excel in all the various kinds of employment
and against all the different types of enemy aircraft which
may be encountered. These special types may include —
o. Intercepter, low altitude, single-seater.
b. Interceptor, high altitude, single-seater.
c. Night interceptor, low altitude, multiseater.
d. Night interceptor, high altitude, multiseater.
e. Fighter, long range, single-seater.
/. Fighter, long range, multiseater.
■ 23. Squadron Organization. — The squadron is the smallest
unit organized for independent action. It has both adminis-
trative and tactical functions. The equipment generally in-
cludes 25 airplanes, all of the same type, organized in three
or four flights of from 4 to 8 airplanes each. The operating
14
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 23-25
strength of a squadron is considered to be from 16 to 18
airplanes, the balance constituting a squadron reserve. For
tactical control and to provide greater fighting power and
security through mutual support and teamwork, each flight
operates in "elements" of two or three airplanes each. Pur-
suit aircraft in daylight operations never operate singly if
it can be avoided. The flight and element are purely tactical
units. They are flexible and can be changed to meet require-
ments without disturbing seriously the squadron organiza-
tion. For example, a squadron may operate 3 flights of two
3-plane elements each; 3 flights of three 2-plane elements
each; or 4 flights of two 2-plane elements each.
■ 24. Types of Squadrons. — Squadrons which are organized
for the prime purpose of maintaining and operating tactical
aircraft are known as tactical squadrons. The fighting
strength of a pursuit force is measured in terms of its tactical
squadrons. One pursuit squadron at full strength may have
from 30 to 60 officers and from 200 to 400 enlisted men.
Other types of squadrons include —
a. Headquarters squadron.
b. Interceptor control squadron.
c. Operational training squadron.
■ 25. Pursuit Groups. — a. A pursuit group is an organiza-
tion composed of two or more types of squadrons. These
squadrons are grouped together to facilitate command and
administration and to permit continuous effort over a period
of many days. Present pursuit groups are classed as —
(1) Pursuit group (interceptor).
(2) Pursuit group (fighter).
(3) Pursuit group (composite).
b. The pursuit group, interceptor, is composed of —
(1) Headquarters and headquarters squadron, pursuit
group.
(2) Air squadron, pursuit (I) — two or more.
(3) Air squadron, pursuit (night interceptor) .*
(4) Air squadron, interceptor control.
c. The air squadron, interceptor control, is designed to
install, maintain, and operate ground radio equipment for
ground to air communication, with friendly pursuit units,
•Not yet authorized but under consideration for use in time of
war.
15
25
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
by remote control; and to install, maintain, and operate
direction finder equipment for tracking friendly pursuit units.
The interceptor control squadron does not, as the name
implies, exercise tactical control, but only provides the com-
munication facilities on the ground through which tactical
control in the air can be maintained by direction from a
point on the ground. The maintenance of air-borne radio
equipment is not a function of the interceptor control squad-
ron, that being the function of the communication section
of the squadron to which the airplanes are assigned. A
flight of pursuit aircraft may be directed to an interception
with an enemy formation by directions from an intercept
officer located at the information center or control airdrome,
using the communication network set up by the interceptor
control squadron.
d. The pursuit group (fighter) is composed of —
(1) Headquarters and headquarters squadron, pursuit
group.
(2) Air squadron, pursuit (fighter) — two or more.
(3) Air squadron, interceptor control.*
e. The pursuit group (composite) may be composed of a
headquarters and headquarters squadron and any combina-
tion of other types of pursuit and interceptor squadrons in-
cluding both interceptor and fighter units.
•Not yet authorized but under consideration for use in time of
war.
16
CHAPTER 5
EMPLOYMENT OP PURSUIT AVIATION
Paragraphs
Section I. General
26-29
30-32
33-39
40-48
49-55
56-60
61-€2
63-67
68-71
II. Methods of pursuit defense
III. Pursuit aviation in local defense...
IV. Pursuit aviation In general defense
V. Interception
VI. Technique of Interception
VII. Support of air striking forces
VIII. Support of ground forces
IX. Pursuit In night operations.
Section I
GENERAL
■ 26. Mission of Pursuit. — The mission of pursuit aviation
is to deny to the hostile air force freedom of action in the air.
■ 27. Denial op Freedom op Action. — The denial of freedom
of action to enemy air forces is accomplished in three ways:
a. Destruction. — Total destruction of the enemy forma-
tions by offensive action in the air, thereby depriving the
enemy of weapons with which to continue air warfare.
b. Attrition. — Reducing the enemy air forces by casualties
in air combat to such an extent that —
(1) Their operations become expensive in personnel and
materiel;
(2) Their morale is lowered; and
(3) Their will to continue air warfare is adversely affected.
c. Threat. — The mere fact that pursuit forces are present
and are likely to attack at any time within their operating
zones will limit the freedom of action of the enemy in those
zones. This threat causes the enemy to carry defensive
armament which reduces the load of offensive weapons or
fuel, or both. Furthermore, it requires the enemy to fly in
large formations for mutual support, thereby reducing their
freedom to maneuver and restricting the number of targets
that might otherwise be attacked.
17
28-31
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
■ 28. Controlling Factors. — The conduct of the pursuit
forces in the execution of their mission is predicated upon
the operations of the hostile striking forces. The disposi-
tion and size of pursuit units within the limits of the capac-
ity of the force are dependent on many factors, chief among
which are —
a. Extent of the area over which operations are to be
conducted.
b. Method of operation of hostile striking forces.
c. Strength of pursuit force available.
d. Nature, extent, and efficiency of the aircraft warning
service.
■ 29. Specific Missions. — Pursuit aviation may be employed
in the execution of one or any combination of the following
specific missions:
o. Defense of an area or installations.
t>. Support of air attack,
c. Support of ground forces.
Section II
METHODS OF PURSUIT DEFENSE
■ 30. Defense of Area or Installations. — Pursuit aviation
assigned to active air defense operates either in local de-
fense of a single objective or in general defense of an area
including many objectives. The type of defense to be pro-
vided will depend upon the nature and importance of the
objectives requiring pursuit protection, the number of such
objectives, their degree of geographic concentration, their
locations with respect to frontiers, and the strength of the
pursuit force available.
■ 31. Local Defense. — a. Local defense by pursuit aviation
is a form of active air defense for a single objective in
which the defending pursuit force is limited to operations
against hostile penetrations that directly threaten that ob-
jective. It is appropriately employed for the protection of
vital objectives that are vulnerable to air attack and that
cannot be effectively defended by other means.
b. A local defense is the most effective defense for single
objectives that are highly vulnerable to air attack.
18
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 31-33
c. The purpose of local defense is the provision of imme-
diate protection for the defended objective, and the opera-
tions of the defensive pursuit are based upon this mission.
The greatest disadvantage of such employment is that no
objective other than that to which it is assigned is afforded
direct protection by the pursuit force. It does, however,
provide incidental protection to those installations that are
in the immediate vicinity of the defended objective, because
of manner of operations by defending pursuit.
■ 32. General Defense. — a. A general defense by pursuit
aviation is that which is provided for a specified area or
defended sector. It differs from the pursuit employment in
local defense in that special security is not provided any
particular objective but, instead, some measure of security
is provided for all installations and possible enemy objec-
tives, including important troop concentrations or move-
ments, that are distributed throughout the defended area
or sector. A general defense is instituted primarily to pro-
tect an area containing many undefended or weakly defended
objectives.
b. A defended area may contain many objectives well
protected by the local defense of antiaircraft artillery, or
pursuit aviation, or both. In such instances and when pos-
sible the pursuit aviation in general defense supports and
cooperates with the local defense.
Section III
PURSUIT AVIATION IN LOCAL DEFENSE
■ 33. Local Defense. — a Doctrine. — Interceptor units, force,
or aviation must be so located on the ground or in the air
that immediate protection can be afforded the defended ob-
jective with the maximum of the available force. All enemy
air attack forces must be opposed prior to their assault on the
defended objective. No enemy airplane or formation is
permitted to conduct an unopposed attack against the
defended objective.
b. Aircraft warning service. — An aircraft warning service
is essential for the employment of interceptor units, force,
or aviation in local defense. The effectiveness of the defense
19
33-36
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
is vitally dependent upon the nature and extent of the in-
formation provided by the warning service and the rapidity
with which it can be transmitted to the interceptor units,
force, or aviation. To assure interceptions, an accurate,
timely, and continuous flow of information of the approach
of hostile air forces must be furnished to the pursuit com-
mander both prior to and after the pursuit leaves the ground
to effect interception.
■ 34. Pursuit Objectives. — Pursuit aviation assigned to a
local defense augments such other defenses as may be pres-
ent. The pursuit force is employed only against forces that
threaten the security of the defended objective.
■ 35. Coordination op Defense Means. — A local defense pro-
vides close protection for the objective with all available
means. In all cases the defensive forces, air and ground,
are disposed and employed in a manner that will give an
all-around defense. All hostile air attack forces reaching
the objective must be brought under maximum Are during
the time of their sighting operations. The enemy force will
not only be most vulnerable to antiaircraft artillery and
pursuit during this period, but the maximum protection to
the defended objective in such circumstances is assured by
the influence of defensive fire upon enemy bombing accuracy.
The tactical operations of pursuit are influenced by the char-
acter and strength of the antiaircraft artillery defenses.
The interceptor command must have operational control
over all antiaircraft artillery, searchlights, and barrage
balloons in the defense area.
■ 36. Employment of Pursuit. — Pursuit operations based
upon the use of information made available by the aircraft
warning service are conducted by the ground alert or air
alert methods. In the ground alert method, interceptor units,
force, or aviation are alerted on their airdromes, taking off
and effecting interception of the hostile attacking force upon
instructions and through information transmitted to the air
commander by radio. In the air alert method, the interceptor
units, force, or aviation are alerted at a station in the air
and effect interception of a target through instructions and
information received by radio. (For interception procedure
see pars. 49 to 55, incl.)
20
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 37-39
■ 37. Ground Alert Defense. — The ground alert method of
employing pursuit aviation should be used whenever the air-
craft warning service is sufficiently extensive to permit the
interception of the enemy force at a point that will allow time
for effective air combat prior to the delivery of the enemy
assault. In local defense no attempt is made to intercept
the enemy at a considerable distance from the objective. The
pursuit force maintains a position between the enemy and the
defended objective during the approach to interception. Pur-
suit operating from an alert station on the ground is capable
of utilizing all the available combat units against the enemy.
For this reason it should always be employed when the warn-
ing service can provide information of the enemy approach
in sufficient time to insure proper interception. Effectiveness
of ground alert defense will vary with the distance between
the pursuit alert stations and the objective.
H 38. Air Alert Defense. — In local defense by the air alert
method, pursuit takes up an alert station in the air over the
defended objective. This method of using pursuit is
employed in the local defense of objectives where the extent
of the aircraft warning service is less than that required for
ground alert defense. This form of defense is exhausting
and uneconomical; it should be used only when the area
requiring protection is small and when the need for the utmost
measure of direct air protection is sufficiently important to
justify its use.
■ 39. Combat Patrols. — a. An enemy air attacking force may
be intercepted by using a pursuit force for conducting combat
patrols over a particular objective or along a line on which
it is desired to engage the enemy. The use of combat patrols
ordinarily will be confined to the local defense of objectives
where no aircraft warning service has been provided, or where
the depth of the existing service is insufficient for other meth-
ods of employment. For air security the objectives that are
located near front lines and frontiers must be defended by
patrols.
b. Local defense by combat patrols requires the assignment
of defense forces in excessive numbers if effective patrols are
to be provided for prolonged periods of time. The method,
therefore, should not be employed except in cases where a
452056°— 42 4 21
39-41
ARMY AIR TORCE FIELD MANUAL
definite threat to the defended objective is present, and the
importance of that objective justifies the diversion of strong
pursuit forces to its defense.
Section IV
PURSUIT AVIATION IN GENERAL DEFENSE
■ 40. General. — A general defense is provided for the purpose
of defending a number of objectives that are located within
a specified area or defensive sector. It gives security to ob-
jectives that have no active defenses, or that are weakly
defended, and supports all local defenses within the defended
area. Although not as effective as a local pursuit defense
in providing security for particular objectives, a general de-
fense can provide a measure of security for many more
objectives within a given force than it would be possible to
defend by local defense.
■ 41. Character of Defense. — a. A general defense is an
extended defense, consequently the probability of making an
interception without the assistance of an aircraft warning
service is remote. The distance from the alert station at
which pursuit aviation operating with an aircraft warning
service is capable of engaging the enemy in combat is deter-
mined by the extent of the aircraft warning service, the course
flown by the enemy force, the relative performance of enemy
and friendly airplanes, the altitude of enemy penetration,
and the effect of wind.
b. Pursuit operates in general defense by ground alert, air
alert, or patrol methods. Ground alert should be used when-
ever time and space factors will permit. If the situation
precludes the use of ground alert pursuit, air alert, or a
combination of air alert and ground alert methods should be
adopted. Pursuit patrols are relatively ineffective in estab-
lishing a screen to resist enemy penetrations, and are em-
ployed only when an aircraft warning service is lacking or
is so limited in extent that it does not provide time for effec-
tive interception by the air alert method, and the importance
of the target makes it imperative that the 'defended objective
be provided pursuit defense.
22
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 42-44
■ 42. Scope of Defense. — The course taken by the enemy
force to an objective may be that which requires him to
remain within the limits of the aircraft warning service
area the minimum length of time. Any other course will
ordinarily result in an advantage to the defender, inasmuch
as it will allow more time for the functioning of the de-
fense, which may result in the enemy being intercepted far-
ther from his objective and by a larger pursuit force than
would otherwise be possible. The location of the line on
which the enemy can be intercepted from an alert station
will vary with the speeds of the opposing forces and the
outer limits of the aircraft warning service.
■ 43. Line of Resistance. — For a given set of operating con-
ditions, a line of resistance is the outermost line on which
the enemy can be intercepted in a general defense with a
given disposition of the pursuit force. The distance to in-
terception from a given alert station will vary inversely with
the altitude at which the interception occurs, consequently
a line of resistance will advance as the altitude at which the
enemy conducts operations is decreased. For all practical
purposes, a line of resistance must be established so that a
defense can be provided against enemy operations at the
highest altitudes from which he can deliver effective attacks.
Lines of resistance are used by the pursuit commander in
planning a general defense. By means of these lines, the
locations of the pursuit forces and the methods of employ-
ment are determined.
■ 44. Effect of Lines of Resistance. — The location of the
line of resistance will determine the limits of the general
defense. Defense, however, is not provided for objectives
that are on this line, inasmuch as the pursuit forces will not
have time to act against the enemy prior to the delivery of
his attack. The distance, therefore, of a defended objective
from the line of resistance governs the degree of defense that
can be provided. A line of resistance does not constitute
a barrier that exerts a continuing influence for the defense
of all objectives within the line. The defending forces may
be avoided by the enemy when he flies through clouds or
above clouds or when he conducts operations in darkness.
Thus objectives that are located a considerable distance away
23
44-45
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
from the defending pursuit forces may be attacked by the
enemy under some conditions with little or no opposition
from the general defense. The lines of resistance in a gen-
eral defense must be located so that maximum defense is
given the most important objectives.
■ 45. Plotting Lines of Resistance. — a. In order to plot a
line of resistance it is necessary to plot the lines of intercep-
tion from each alert station based on the maximum speeds
of opposing aircraft and the depth of the aircraft warning
service. Where several alert stations are used to establish
a line of resistance, the line will consist of a series of
intersecting curves.
(1) Figure 1 (see back of manual) shows a plot of lines of
interception for an air alert pursuit force stationed at 10 y 2 ,
20, 30, 40, and 50 miles within the outer limits of the aircraft
warning service; and lines of interception for a ground alert
pursuit force stationed at 52%, 60, 66%, 80, 100, and 150 miles
within the outer limits of the warning service. The upper
horizontal line of the chart represents the outer limits of the
aircraft warning service. The points marked on the center
line of the chart represent pursuit alert stations. The vari-
ous curves indicate the limits at which interceptions may be
expected with pursuit stationed at those alert stations under
the conditions assumed.
(2) If figure 1 is drawn to the scale of a working map, it
is possible to place the upper horizontal line on the general
line representing the outer limits of the aircraft warning
service, measure the distance from that outer limit to any
alert station being considered, and determine how many
places on the map can be afforded a defense from that alert
station. The center line of the chart should be kept at right
angles to the general line representing the outer limits of
the aircraft warning service.
(3) If the outer limit of the aircraft warning service is not
on a straight line but is, instead, in the form of a salient,
then two curves should be drawn to indicate the line of inter-
ception. Place the proper point representing the alert sta-
tion on the chart over that station on the map; swing the
right-hand curve about that pivot until the center line is at
right angles to the general line representing the outer limit
24
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 45-46
of the aircraft warning service to the right of the alert sta-
tion. Draw an arc on the map showing the line of intercep-
tion to the right of the alert station. Next swing the left-
hand curve about the alert station as a pivot until the center
line is at right angles to the general line representing the
outer limit of the aircraft reporting net to the left of the
alert station, and draw an arc on the map showing the line
of interception to the left of the alert station.
b. By following a procedure similiar to that outlined above,
the pursuit commander should be able to dispose his forces
in a manner that will provide for the most effective general
defense of that area.
■ 46. Conduct of Defense. — a. Conduct of air striking
forces. — The enemy may be expected to concentrate his
offensive operations in a manner that will prevent the use
of the majority of the pursuit defenses at any one time.
By attacking all of the objectives within one sector simul-
taneously he need be concerned only with the pursuit forces
in that sector. Areas that are unlikely to be covered effec-
tively with an aircraft warning service, such as large bodies
of water, swamps, or other terrain unsuitable for such instal-
lations, will offer favorable avenues of approach.
b. Defending pursuit limitations. — Defending pursuit forces
must be prepared to resist enemy air operations regardless
of where or when they occur. However, the combat en-
durance of the pursuit forces that can be brought to bear
on a line of resistance at any one point may soon be ex-
hausted, and the delay occasioned by the necessity of refuel-
ing and rearming these forces may leave a temporary gap
in the defenses. Thus the inherent inefficiency of the pursuit
defenses as a whole is apparent in the application of the
general defense.
c. Defense in depth. — It is unlikely that a general defense
can be provided that is strong enough to oppose successfully
an enemy penetration in force at the outer limits of the
defended sector. When sufficient force is available, the de-
fense must be organized so that increasing resistance becomes
possible as the depth of the enemy penetration increases.
Where successive penetrations are made at the same point
in a line of resistance, alerted pursuit forces covering other
25
46-48
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
approaches may be employed to engage the enemy within
the defended sector even at the expense of weakening the
defense against penetrations at other points.
d. Necessity for defense mobility. — The pursuit forces avail-
able may be concentrated to cover the logical routes of enemy
approach. Where the enemy is effectively opposed at these
points he will undoubtedly select other routes of approach.
A mobile general defense should be provided to meet such
contingencies. Where satisfactory operating facilities are
available, the mobility of pursuit will permit the character
of the defense to change radically from day to day. A force
that is concentrated and moved daily from point to point
may result in the enemy receiving unexpected resistance, and
thus cause him to resort to measures for security that he
would not otherwise undertake.
■ 47. Influence of Local Defenses on General Defense. —
Local pursuit defenses provide incidental defense to all ob-
jectives within the immediate vicinity of the defended objec-
tive. There is no certain method of determining which ob-
jective an enemy is about to attack. In local defense an
enemy that threatens to attack is engaged at a limited dis-
tance from the defended objective. This distance will depend
upon the depth of the aircraft warning service and the loca-
tion of the alert stations. Within its zone of operations a
local "pursuit defense will reinforce the general defense by
resisting enemy penetrations to the interior area. The enemy
is unlikely to fly a course over objectives that may have
local defenses when it is possible for him to avoid them.
This fact should be considered in planning the general
defense.
■ 48. Disposition of Pursuit Defenses. — The disposition of
the pursuit defenses within an area will vary with the enemy
capabilities; the size of the area; the size of the pursuit force
available; the relative location of the area with respect to
other defensive areas; the character and extent of the air-
craft warning service; the availability and location of operat-
ing airdromes; and the number, character, and location of
the objectives within the sector that cannot be provided
adequate security by other means of defense. If an adequate
local defense could be furnished for all important objectives
26
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 48-51
there would be no need for general defense. Inasmuch as
this condition probably will not be realized, a general pursuit
defense usually will be necessary. With limited pursuit forces,
the assignment of pursuit to local defenses, although greatly
increasing the security of individual objectives, will decrease
the security of other objectives within the sector.
Section V
INTERCEPTION
■ 49. General. — a. In order to alert pursuit defense units and
effect interception of hostile aircraft penetrating a defended
area, information of the approach and progress of the enemy
is necessary. The technique of interception for either local
or general defense is similar except that in general defense
no restriction is placed on the allowable distance at which
interceptions are made whereas, in local defense, operations
are limited to the immediate vicinity of the defended objec-
tive. The technique of interception in local defense is
described below.
b. Information required by the pursuit force commander in
order to intercept and attack a hostile air force includes —
(1) What. — Type, strength, and disposition of hostile air-
craft.
(2) Where. — Location, altitude, direction of flight, and
speed of the enemy.
(3) When. — Time of the observation.
■ 50. Observation Stations. — A continuous watch must be
kept in a large area surrounding the defended objectives.
Such a watch performed by airplanes on patrol would require
the use of an enormous number of aircraft which would con-
sequently not be available for combat use. Therefore, a net
of ground observation stations must be established about the
defended objective.
■ 51. Extent of Warning Service. — The distance to which
the net of observation stations must extend outward from the
airdromes of defending pursuit forces is governed by time
and space factors. These in turn involve the time required
for the transmission of information, operation and movement
27
51-52
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
of the defending pursuit forces, air combat, and for the move-
ment of the hostile aviation force.
■ 52. Desired Line of Interception. — a. The technique of in-
terception is based upon the requirements that friendly air-
craft intercept the enemy aircraft while the latter are still
at a distance from the objective. In local defense the line
connecting points at which interception is desired is called
the "desired line of interception" and is abbreviated and re-
ferred to as the "desired L. I." A schematic presentation of
a defended objective and the desired L. I. about that objec-
tive are shown in figure 2.
Figure 2. — Desired line of interception.
b. The distance (shown in fig. 2 as d) from the defended
objective to the desired L. I. is governed by the desired "com-
bat time" of the defending pursuit and by the speed of the
enemy aircraft. The combat time is the period required for
the effective delivery of fire by the intercepting aircraft and
varies with aircraft of different characteristics and with dif-
ferent situations. For any particular aircraft the combat
28
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 52-53
time will not vary between wide limits, and an estimated
average time for the effective delivery of the entire fire load
carried constitutes a satisfactory basis for purposes of com-
putation.
c. The distance from the defended objective to the desired
L. I. is determined by computing the distance the enemy air-
craft will travel during the combat time. Information of
the performance of enemy aircraft will usually be available.
By assuming the enemy speed to be the highest which can
reasonably be expected, a safe basis for computation is as-
sured. Assuming a situation in which the combat time is 10
minutes and the enemy speed is 240 miles per hour, the de-
sired L. I. would be 40 miles from the defended objective.
Under the conditions stated, d in figure 2 would be 40 miles.
■ 53. Possible Line of Interception. — a. (1) The location of
the base from which the defending pursuit operates is im-
portant in its relation to the location of the defended ob-
jective. Aviation forces may operate with equal facility in
all directions from a base. The line to which an aviation
force can go in a given length of time in still air will be a
circle whose center is the base. This circle is called the
"possible line of interception" and is abbreviated and referred
to as the "possible L. I."
(2) When wind is present the possible line of interception
will vary with directions of approach. In practical operations
the presence of wind will be normal. For this reason solu-
tions for the possible line of interception for specific opera-
tions will always require the application of wind speed and
direction factors.
b. The relation between the base and the defended objective
and the relation between the possible L. I. and the desired
L. I. are shown in figure 3. The desired L. I. should lie on or
in the possible L. I. The minimum requirement is met when
the possible L. I. is tangent to the desired L. I. at a point in
prolongation of the line: base-defended objective. The only
condition under which the possible L. I. and the desired L. I.
coincide occurs when the base is the defended objective, or
when the base lies over or within the defended objective.
452056° — 42 5
29
53-54
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
Figure 3. — Relation between possible and desired, lines of inter-
ception.
■ 54. Altitude of Interception. — a. (1) The defending pur-
suit force must not only move outward a considerable distance
but must also move upward to an altitude at least as great,
and preferably greater, than that of the approaching hostile
aircraft. The movement outward may, therefore, consist of
two components, the climb and level flight. The forward
(horizontal) speed of an airplane is materially reduced during
a climb. When climb is necessary, aircraft may proceed from
the base to the possible L. I. at one rate of speed for a part
of the distance and at another rate of speed for the remaining
distance.
30
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING
-GROUND
- Oi&totncc from airdrome*
1» P.L.I.
B= Airdrome.
e=Forward travel of interceptors during climb to altitude a.
c'= Forward travel of interceptors during climb to altitude
/ and /'=Forward travel in level flight.
c+f=c' +/'=Distance from airdrome to possible L. I.
Figure 4. — Effect of climb on airspeed.
31
54-55
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
(2) The distance which an airplane moves forward during
a climb is a function of the time of climb and the rate of
forward (horizontal) travel during the climb. Figure 4 shows
the effect of differences in altitude on the forward distance
traveled. The intercepting aircraft travel the distances c
and c' at one speed and the distances / and /' at another
and greater speed. The higher the altitude to which the
aircraft climb, and the greater the time required to climb
to that altitude, the greater will be the distance c or c'.
b. When the friendly aircraft utilize the ground alert
method, the items of take-off and climb may be of consider-
able importance. The use of the air alert method serves to
eliminate this delay and allows the friendly aircraft to reach
the desired L. I. more quickly than can ground alert air-
craft. When utilizing the air alert method, computations of
time and space factors consider only the climb required to
reach the desired altitude from the altitude at which the
friendly aircraft are already flying.
■ 55. Enemy Movement. — a. If the friendly aircraft are to
arrive at the desired L. I. at the same time the enemy air-
craft arrive there, the enemy aircraft must be at a distance
outward from the desired L. I. which they can traverse in the
time required for. the friendly aircraft to move from the
base to the desired L. I. It is essential, however, that the
enemy aircraft be discovered and reported prior to their
arrival at this point, to allow time for the transmission of the
reporting message from the observer to the defending pursuit
and for the necessary action to be taken prior to the starting
of the movement from the base toward the desired L. I.
b. Ordinarily, it may be expected that messages reporting
the presence and location of enemy aircraft will reach the
information center a few minutes after the airplane has been
observed. After the report reaches the information center,
time is required for initial instructions to be issued to the
aviation force before it can proceed to the proper point on
the desired L. I. When the' ground alert system is being
used, additional time must be allowed for the starting of
engines and the take-off of the unit.
c. Figure 5 is a schematic representation of the relative
positions of the friendly and enemy aircraft at various stages
32
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING
55
©
Movement of Qncmf a tr croft J
dvrtn<\ tratis/nisiion of report
~t/a movement of interceptor S
©
Movement of enemy o/fcr«ft during
R
freporahott fv foJtE-aff of /irtcrcytoi'f
— Afo, /pavement of interceptors
J-
1
C orrtspixKJinq movefMnt^^-^
of **itmf aircraft
Movement of in ttre*f*tor»
dvr/ny climb.
© „
/
/
"Z
Corrosfrondt'na movement
of *rKYr*f aircraft.
Movement- a f infbrcepferJ
in level f/iftt.
■* — Distance fnfer -
Copiers trovti
OtSfonca Snemv*»/>x.roff
Distance between cr/'rdrwia ovd pewtf of (J/ftrovtuy *■
Figure 5. — Schematic diagram of interception.
33
55-58
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
of the operation, from discovery of the enemy aircraft to
interception at the desired L. I.
Section VI
TECHNIQUE OP INTERCEPTION
■ 56. General. — Effective interception is dependent upon
careful planning, rapid performance of all necessary func-
tions, and accurate execution. The details of issuing orders,
transmitting information, navigation, plotting, searching,
and performing other essential functions will vary with
different situations. In all situations, however, the critical
factors are speed and accuracy. The time available in which
to reach the desired line of interception is ordinarily very
short, and all operations must be performed with the utmost
rapidity but with accuracy.
■ 57. Control. — a. Information and instructions are trans-
mitted from the ground to aircraft in flight almost entirely
by radiotelephony. A simple code system will serve to main-
tain secrecy and to decrease the length of messages. Routine
messages, air-ground, or messages which are common should
be listed and coded.
b. A grid system or a system of radial lines and con-
centric circles superimposed on a map of the area is a useful
basis upon which to evolve the code for the transmission
of navigation instructions and information of the enemy.
■ 58. Navigation. — a. Either pilotage or dead reckoning is
employed to navigate the force to the interception. Pilotage
is ordinarily used for short distances; when operations are
being conducted over an area with which the personnel are
familiar; or over an area containing landmarks which can
be identified readily. Over water areas, unfamiliar terrain,
or terrain on which landmarks are few, and under conditions
where contact flying is impracticable, dead reckoning navi-
gation may be necessary. Dead reckoning navigation may be
performed by personnel in the aircraft or by personnel on the
ground.
b. Navigation of pursuit units by ground control neces-
sitates a procedure differing from that followed when navi-
gation is directed in the air, as drift and actual speed cannot
34
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 58-59
be determined by direct reading. Dead reckoning naviga-
tion from the ground must be based upon the wind data
available and upon the known performance of the aircraft.
The data required include —
(1) Wind direction and speed at all operating altitudes
throughout the area over which operations may take place.
(2) Rate of climb used to all altitudes.
(3) Airspeed (horizontal) of the aircraft during the climb.
(4) Airspeed of the aircraft in level flight at all altitudes.
(5) Weather conditions throughout the area over which
operations may take place.
c. The navigation can be done on the ground only when the
aircraft movements conform to a known standard. Knowing
this standard, personnel on the ground are prepared to
determine with considerable accuracy the direction in which
the aircraft should fly, and the time which they should fly
in that direction to make good a desired distance. The
ground control is able by this means to determine the location
of the friendly aircraft at any instant, and to direct the move-
ment of those aircraft rapidly and accurately to the proper
place at the proper time to effect interception. The accuracy
of navigation is increased by position reports from the pur-
suit leader and from the aircraft warning service.
■ 59. Plotting. — a. The information center receives infor-
mation of the movements of enemy aircraft and relays this
information to the unit in the air either in the form of
navigation instructions or in the form of information of the
enemy. The information center is equipped to receive and
to evaluate information of the enemy, to make decisions as
to the action to be taken, and to transmit information and
instructions to the flying echelon. In order to accomplish
these functions, it is necessary that the movements of the
enemy be plotted and future positions estimated. When
navigation problems are being solved on the ground, it is
also necessary to plot the position of the friendly aircraft and
to forecast their future positions, as the solution of any
interception problem involves a knowledge of the relative
positions and speeds of the two forces.
b. (1) A satisfactory technique for plotting the movements
of enemy aircraft, for plotting the movements of friendly
35
59-60
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
aircraft, and for solving the interception problem has been
evolved by the utilization of one large scale map of the area
and a crew of four who work on the map. This crew is made
up of the data keeper, target plotter, pursuit plotter, and
intercept officer.
(2) The data keeper is charged with maintaining the latest
available information on wind velocities, wind directions,
weather conditions, and the performance of enemy aircraft.
He is also responsible for the determination of the effect of
wind on the movement of friendly aircraft.
(3) The target plotter is charged with the plotting of
enemy movements and forecasting future enemy positions.
(4) The pursuit plotter is charged with the plotting of
movements of the friendly aircraft and forecasting their
future positions.
(5) The intercept officer is charged with the solution of
the navigation features of the interception problem, and
with directing the pursuit unit to a point in the air where
interception with the enemy is assured.
c. When navigation is directed from the ground, an inter-
cept officer of the unit usually directs the movements of the
flying echelon. The flying echelon is retained under the
tactical control of the commander on the ground until the
enemy is sighted, at which time control passes to the forma-
tion commander. After the fight, the commander of the
formation reports back to the commander on the ground,
and again comes under the tactical control of the latter.
When navigation is performed in the air, tactical control is
vested in the formation commander throughout the entire
operation.
Note. — Equipment has been developed for solving the Intercep-
tion problem by mechanical means that reduces the time involved
in solutions and the number of operating personnel required at
the control board. This reduction in time is of particular value
when the hostile aircraft approach the defended objective on
irregular courses. Under these conditions the saving in time should
add to the probability of interception and reduce the time required.
This will enable the defending pursuit to engage the enemy at a
greater distance from the defended objective.
■ 60. Search. — a. The technique of interception involves
some search for the enemy regardless of the accuracy of the
navigation. When contact with the enemy is imminent, the
36
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 60-62
formation commander disposes his force for search. This
disposition normally involves the detaching of special com-
ponents to take position below, in front, and on the flanks
of the main body. The main body spreads out to intervals
determined by the space to be searched, the size of the force,
the nature of the enemy force, and time required to assemble
for the attack.
b. It is especially important that detachments always be
sent to an altitude at or below the reported altitude of the
enemy aircraft, unless the latter are flying at minimum
altitude. Aircraft are more easily located against the back-
ground of the sky than against average terrain, and the
searching personnel have but one hemisphere to scan.
Section VII
SUPPORT OP AIR STRIKING FORCES
■ 61. General. — Support of air striking forces may be neces-
sary when those operations are seriously threatened by hos-
tile aviation forces. This support or security is accomplished
by general or special support to those forces in flight and by
protection of their ground bases.
■ 62. Methods of Support. — a. General support. — Pursuit
forces provide general support by gaining temporary or per-
manent air superiority throughout the area or sector of air at-
tack operations. Any friendly pursuit forces operating in an
area or sector provide a degree of general support to friendly
aircraft operating in that area. When hostile fighter oper-
ations are so extensive that security provided by pursuit
forces operating in general support is not effective, special
support forces should be employed.
b. Special support. — Pursuit provides special support by
escorting the supported formation through part or all of its
mission, furnishing a screen against surprise and augment-
ing the defensive fire power of the supported force. Multl-
seater fighter aircraft having strong defensive fire power are
normally assigned for these missions. When this type air-
craft is not available, single-seater pursuit may be employed.
(1) Multiseater fighter aircraft having all-around defen-
37
62-64
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
sive fire power take position relatively close to the supported
force from which any hostile attack on the supported force
may be met with maximum fire. Effectiveness of this sup-
port is dependent on the ability of the escorting force to con-
centrate Are in all vulnerable sectors.
(2) Single-seater pursuit forces furnish special support to
friendly air attack formations by fire power controlled
through maneuver. They normally operate above and to the
rear of the defended formation from positions that guard
vulnerable sectors and that facilitate immediate counterat-
tack against any enemy force endeavoring to launch a direct
attack on the defended formation. Distance from the sup-
ported force will be influenced by relative speeds, escort
strength, and visibility conditions. Forces in special support
counterattack immediately when hostile fighters make direct
attacks on the defended formation. When possible, with-
drawal from combat will be made when threat against the
defended formation has been removed.
c. Protection of air striking force bases. — Support of the air
force on the ground is accomplished by the same methods
discussed in sections III and IV.
Section VHI
SUPPORT OF GROUND FORCES
■ 63. General. — Operations of pursuit aviation in support of
ground forces are based upon the needs of the ground forces
and their supporting aviation. The pursuit commander
should be thoroughly familiar with the plan of operation of
the ground forces, the terrain over which they are operating,
and the strength, disposition, and method of employment of
enemy antiaircraft artillery so far as they may affect the
success of supporting operations.
■ 64. Missions. — Pursuit forces operating in direct support
of ground forces may be employed in the execution of all of
the following missions:
a. Antiaircraft security.
b. Protection of air support forces and organic aviation.
c. Counterreconnaissance.
d. Air attacks on ground troops and light materiel.
38
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 65-66
■ 65. Methods of Operation. — Except for the attack of
ground targets, pursuit executes its missions in direct support
of ground forces by methods similar in character to operations
previously treated in this manual. The specific application
of these methods of operation is covered below.
a. (1) Pursuit provides antiaircraft security by operating
in local or general defense. It operates by ground alert,
air alert, or fighting patrol methods.
(2) When ground forces are in contact, antiaircraft secu-
rity may best be obtained by offensive action, to gain tem-
porary or permanent air superiority. This is accomplished
by pursuit concentrations and/or offensively fighting patrols.
b. Pursuit aviation provides protection for air support
forces by general or special support and by protection of their
air bases as treated in section VII.
c. Pursuit aviation executes missions of counterreconnais-
sance by offensive or defensive fighting patrols. Counter-
reconnaissance is normally accomplished incident to other
pursuit operations. Where enemy reconnaissance is exten-
sive, special operations by fighting patrols may be necessary.
d. (1) Pursuit executes attacks on ground personnel and
light materiel targets by employing light bombs and auto-
matic weapons.
(2) So long as enemy air operations constitute a serious
threat to successful ground operations, supporting pursuit
forces will normally be employed against those forces and
not diverted to attacks on ground objectives. However, in
critical situations or when enemy air operations are rela-
tively ineffective, pursuit aircraft can be employed effectively
against ground personnel and light materiel, especially hos-
tile antitank dispositions confronting friendly armored or
mechanized forces.
■ 66. Fighting Patrols. — Operations should be conducted to
provide a screen of offensive patrols so disposed as to deny
the enemy air reconnaissance and observation and to assure
interception of hostile aircraft before they can interfere with
friendly air operations or attack ground objectives.
a. For these patrols to reap the full advantages of the
initiative in air fighting and also be able to make the utmost
use of surprise, they should be given as much freedom of
39
66-68 ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
action as is compatible with coordination of their operations
with those of other patrols operating in adjacent areas.
b. It is inadvisable to restrict patrols more than is abso-
lutely necessary in regard to the locality and altitude of
operation. Orders should normally be confined to the defi-
nition of the task, leaving the patrol leader full latitude,
within limits essential for coordination, in the execution of
his task. The size of fighting patrols will be influenced by
the methods employed by hostile aviation forces.
c. Owing to the ease of evasion in the air, it may often
be necessary to augment these offensive patrols by establish-
ing two or more lines at different altitudes. Even when large
numbers of fighter aircraft are so employed, it may not be
possible to prevent small enemy formations and single air-
craft eluding the patrols or large formations forcing their
way through them.
■ 67. Concentrations. — Certain critical operations of the
ground forces may require local air superiority over a limited
area for a definite period of time. Within the capacity of
the pursuit force, such superiority is achieved through con-
centration of operations over the designated area for the
period required. The need for such special support should
be anticipated and proper provision made in preceding pur-
suit operations to insure the availability for the operation of
the force required. Where the pursuit force is limited this
will usually require that an appropriate force be conserved
to accomplish this particular task.
Section IX
PURSUIT IN NIGHT OPERATIONS
■ 68. General. — Pursuit operations at night will be limited
by the availability of antiaircraft searchlights, suitable air-
craft, and an effective aircraft warning service. There are
two methods of making night interception:
a. By the combined use of pursuit and active searchlights.
b. By the joint use of air-borne and ground radio location
devices.
40
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OP AIR FIGHTING 69-71
■ 69. Night Use op Aircraft Warning Service. — The aircraft
warning service must function at night where pursuit con-
ducts night operations.
■ 70. Searchlight Cooperation. — The target must be illumi-
nated for pursuit aviation to locate the enemy and to attack.
Searchlight illumination should be provided for pursuit op-
erations beyond the operating range of antiaircraft guns and
should provide for continuity of illumination for a sufficient
time to permit pursuit to launch an assault.
■ 71. Night Pursuit Tactics. — a. Formations. — Pursuit will
normally use reference lights except for those airplanes that
are actually detached for the attack. The number detached
will depend on the width of the bombardment formation as
well as its depth. In general, it will not detach more than
three at one time. The two-plane element is the normal unit
for attacking at night. The three-plane element may be
used when the hostile formation has sufficient width to justify
the force.
b. Alerting pursuit. — Pursuit operating at night will be
alerted on reports from the aircraft warning service. The
force employed will be dispatched to an air alert station
sufficiently distant from sound locators to insure noninter-
ference. This air alert station should be along the most
probable line of enemy approach.
c. Pursuit's position after location of enemy. — When radio
or prearranged searchlight signals indicate the location of
the hostile aircraft, the pursuit formation will proceed im-
mediately to the indicated location. It will take its position'
outside of effective fire range from the bombardment forma-
tion and detach elements to attack.
d. The assault. — (1) The detached airplanes Will extin-
guish their lights and maneuver quickly to effective range in
rear of the hostile target and deliver the assault. Pursuit
airplanes engaged in the assault will deliver their Are in long
bursts. When the attack is completed, individual airplanes
proceed directly to their airdrome and land.
(2) In the attack by two-plane elements the leader will
be indoctrinated to attack always the right rear of the hostile
formation, and the remaining pursuit pilot will concentrate
41
71
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
simultaneously on the left rear of the formation. With three
airplanes the leader will be indoctrinated to attack the rear
center and the number two wingman the right rear, the num-
ber three, the left rear. Attacks are made simultaneously.
The delivery of fire in one or two long bursts will insure that
the attacking pursuit will finish at nearly the same time.
In the event that several hostile formations or individual
airplanes arrive at approximately the same time, the pursuit
leader will detach the necessary units to attack according to
his formation's strength. These detached elements will form
small individual formations and proceed with the maneuver-
ing and assault as described for the maneuver and assault
of the parent formation.
e. Pursuit in artillery zone. — In night operations, which are
coordinated with antiaircraft artillery, the pursuit personnel
should know the limits of the zone of effective artillery fire.
Normally the policy of the antiaircraft gun units will be to
fire on unidentified airplanes within range. The interceptor
commander of an area in which there are both pursuit
aviation and antiaircraft artillery will prescribe instructions
for the tactical coordination of pursuit and antiaircraft
artillery fire.
42
CHAPTER 6
AIR TACTICS OP PURSUIT AVIATION
Paragraphs
Section I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
vm.
General
Pursuant formations
Combat tactics
Individual offensive tactics.
Flight offensive tactics
Squadron offensive tactics..
Group offensive tactics
Pursuit defensive tactics
. 72-73
. 74-79
_ 80-81
. 82-88
_ 89-94
. 95-99
100-106
107-112
Section I
GENERAL
■ 72. Tactical Functions. — Pursuit aviation is designed and
created for the primary function of air fighting. It is,
therefore, provided with aircraft characterized by high speed,
maneuverability and rate of climb, and strong fire power.
■ 73. Airplane Types. — a. Pursuit aviation is provided with
special aircraft types for the execution of specific missions.
(1) Interceptor. — The essential performance characteris-
tics of interceptor type airplanes are high rate of climb and
speed. They carry armament capable of causing the de-
struction of bombardment aircraft. The fuel capacity is
restricted to attain high rate of climb and speed, hence the
radius of action is limited. Several subtypes may be re-
quired to insure maximum suitability of equipment for the
various tasks of antiaircraft defense, such as local defense,
general defense, pursuit versus pursuit action, and for special
operations in direct support of ground forces.
(2) Multiseater fighter. — The essential military character-
istics of the multiseater fighter type airplane are long range,
high speed, and strong fire power. Its characteristics are
governed by the requirements for long range patrol, inter-
ception and sustained air combat, and special support for
bombardment formations. For the latter purpose it must
possess strong defensive fire power. Subtypes may be re-
43
73-75
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
quired for the effective escort of the various types of bombers.
The multiseater fighter will be generally inferior to single-
seater pursuit in rate of climb, speed, and maneuverability.
(3) Night interceptor. — Aircraft are being produced to
function solely as night interceptors. Combat tactics will
be contingent on the type of aircraft produced.
b. The great difference in the military characteristics be-
tween the pursuit interceptor type airplane and the multi-
seater fighter type makes tactics and methods of operation
peculiar to each type. The multiseater fighter is a newly
created type for which combat tactics have not been evolved.
The development of effective tactics for the operations of this
type is contingent on their availability for tactical flying
tests. For this reason where this type is treated in the fol-
lowing pages of this manual it will always be referred to as
"multiseater" and will not be included in the generic term
"pursuit."
Section II
PURSUIT FORMATIONS
■ 74. Purpose. — The purposes of the pursuit formations
are —
a. To obtain a concentration of fire power.
b. To permit application of this concentration rapidly in
any direction or manner.
c. To maintain tactical control in all situations.
■ 75. Tactical Requirements. — In the arrangement of a
pursuit formation, it is important that sound tactical prin-
ciples be observed so that the formation may effectively serve
its purpose.
a. The formation should possess a sufficient degree of flex-
ibility to permit rapid change to meet varying conditions.
b. Simplicity of arrangement, signals, maneuver, and con-
trol is essential. It should be possible for each pilot to
maintain his position by guiding on only one airplane so that
he will be free to deliver individually aimed Are in an assault.
c. Pursuit formations must have sufficient maneuverability
to enable them to gain and retain the advantage of position
In offensive air fighting, and to interpose themselves between
44
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 75-77
an attacker and the formation they support in defensive
fighting.
d. Pursuit formations must be readily controllable. This
requirement is effected by indoctrination, visual signals, or
radio. In elements, flights, and squadrons, control is further
exercised by direct leadership. Control of the group forma-
tion is treated in paragraph 103.
■ 76. Offensive or Defensive. — Pursuit formations may be
either offensive or defensive. They may be echeloned either
in depth, in altitude, or laterally, or in any combination of
these.
a. Single-seater. — (1) The formations employed by single-
seater pursuit are designed primarily for offensive air combat
and for this reason are sufficiently extended to facilitate
freedom of maneuver for all subordinate units of the
formations.
(2) When a formation of single-seater pursuit is opposed
by fighters superior in performance or numbers, it may some-
times be desirable to assume and maintain a compact forma-
tion as long as possible in order to avoid the risk of being
broken up and attacked in detail.
b. Multiseater. — The multiseater formation operates both
offensively and defensively. As with single-seater pursuit, the
offensive formation is sufficiently extended to provide sub-
ordinate units the freedom of maneuver essential for the
delivery of offensive fire. Defensive formations are suffi-
ciently compact to provide for the requisite massing of
defensive fire.
■ 77. Composition. — a. In organizations equipped with in-
terceptor type aircraft, the element, consisting of two or
three airplanes, is the basic air unit. The flight, consisting
of two or three elements, is the largest unit that can operate
efficiently under the direct leadership of an individual.
b. In organizations equipped with multiseater fighter type
aircraft, the flight, consisting of two or more airplanes, is the
basic air combat unit. The flight is the largest unit that can
operate efficiently under the direct leadership of an individual.
c. The squadron formation, consisting of three flights, is
the largest unit that can be directly controlled by an individ-
45
77-79
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
ual as a combat command. Control of the flights within the
squadron formation is effected through the flight command-
ers by coordination and liaison.
d. Formations of groups, when required, are created by the "
coordinated employment of the requisite number of squadron
formations.
■ 78. Strength. — The strength of formation to be used de-
pends upon —
a. Mission.
b. Strength of the enemy.
c. Type of airplane and armament available.
d. Character of the enemy (bombardment, pursuit) .
e. Weather conditions.
■ 79. Types. — a. The element is the basic formation. The
designation applied to the basic types of formations now in
standard use by interceptor pursuit organizations derives
from the disposition of individual airplanes within the ele-
ment. The designations are —
(1) Three-ship V (fig. 6) .
(2) Three-ship stagger (fig. 7).
(3) Two-ship element (fig. 8) .
(4) String (fig. 9).
b. Close formations are those formations in which the air-
planes are too close for tactical work. They are used pri-
marily for drill.
c. Open formations are those in which the airplanes are
spaced far enough apart to allow the pilots freedom of ma-
neuver while remaining within close supporting distance of
their element leaders. Elements and flights are within im-
mediate supporting distance of the other elements and
flights.
d. Extended formations are those in which the subunits
are beyond support of each other but are still under tactical
control. Adjacent units maintain visual contact at all times.
This type of formation is used for combat patrols and for
search.
46
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING
SIDE VIEW
Figure 6. — Three-ship V.
PLAN VIEW
SIDE VIEW
Figure 7. — Three-ship stagger.
47
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
PLAN VIEW
SIDE VIEW
Figure 8. — Two-ship element.
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
PLAN VIEW
"~ SIDE VIEW
Figure 9. — String.
48
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OP AIR FIGHTING 80-81
Section III
COMBAT TACTICS
■ 80. General. — a. In the performance of its defensive mis-
sion in antiaircraft security, pursuit aviation in all circum-
stances adopts the most strenuous tactical offensive. Combat
tactics are based on the infliction of the maximum casualty
effect upon the enemy forces with minimum losses to its own
forces.
b. In the direct defense of other aviation forces, pursuit
provides security by escort. Combat tactics are based on
providing the freedom of action required by the escorted force
in the execution of its mission.
■ 81. Phases op Combat. — a. Approach to combat. — The ap-
proach to combat has a greater influence on the result of the
combat than any other phase of operations. Surprise affords
a tremendous advantage. Approach to attack from the most
vulnerable or blind sector of the hostile formation confuses
the enemy as to the proper counteraction to be taken.
Fighter pilots must be thoroughly familiar with the military
characteristics and most vulnerable sectors of enemy aircraft
and formations. When the enemy is sighted, the attack or
the maneuver for attack position should be initiated without
delay.
b. The combat. — The combat must be carried out with
speed and determination. The first blow is very important.
Sustained fire beginning at ranges where effective fire or
hits may be reasonably scored and continued through to close
ranges is most effective. Every effort is made to maintain
the organization of the force and prevent the development
of the engagement into a melee of individual combats.
c. Exploitation or withdrawal. — Determined effort is made
to take advantage of any confusion and dispersion of the
enemy force which may result from the initial assault. If
the assault has been indecisive or unfavorable, a withdrawal
is effected in such manner as to minimize losses while
regaining the tactical advantage.
49
82-83
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
Section IV
INDIVIDUAL OFFENSIVE TACTICS
■ 82. General. — Thorough training of the pilot in the fun-
damentals of individual combat tactics is of vital importance.
The pilot must be prepared to conduct individual air fighting
missions under one or more of the following situations :
a. In pursuit versus pursuit action when the forces become
temporarily disorganized and out of tactical control.
b. When tactical unity of a formation has been disrupted
through adverse weather or visibility conditions.
c. As a result of dispersion caused by surprise attacks or
an attack by overwhelming numbers.
d. When separated from his formation and a target of
opportunity presents itself.
e. In night pursuit operations.
■ 83. Fundamentals of Combat. — All successful pursuit com-
bat is performed by the application of four fundamentals —
a. Surprise. — Strike the enemy first —
(1) By taking advantage of the sun's rays, clouds, ana
visibility conditions.
(2) By approaching the enemy's most vulnerable quarter.
(3) By taking advantage of enemy preoccupation.
b. Offensive. — The pursuit pilot must attack with energy
and determination, pushing the attack until either the enemy
is destroyed or his own ammunition exhausted. Should he
be placed on the defensive, he must by his own skill strive
to regain the offensive as soon as possible.
c. Concentration of fire. — Fire of all guns is directed at the
most vulnerable parts of the airplane, that is, personnel, fuel
tanks, controls, or other vital parts. In most airplanes these
are all contained in a relatively small portion of the fuselage
and may be protected by defensive armament. To deliver
destructive fire on this target demands extreme accuracy.
Successful attacks require concentration of fire at effective
ranges.
d. Security. — For adequate security, compatible with his
mission for himself and his equipment, the pursuit pilot
must —
50
TACTICS. AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 83-86
(1) Be always on the alert, watching especially the upper
rear hemisphere. Observation of the air for enemy aircraft
must be rapid, systematic, and thorough, always covering
first the more dangerous regions above followed by the
regions below.
(2) Never needlessly sacrifice the advantage of superior
altitude in an attack.
(3) Never fly straight at any enemy when within effective
range of his guns except when actually firing.
(4) Follow through in an attack beyond effective range
of hostile defensive fire.
(5) Never lose sight of the opponent.
■ 84. Attack on a Single -Seater. — a. The best position from
which to attack a single-seater airplane is from above and
to the rear of the target. In this position the attacker has
the advantage of speed and power of maneuver gained from
superior altitude.
i>. In the execution of a surprise attack, care must be exer-
cised to avoid overrunning the opponent, as this will result
in placing him in a favorable position to fire on the attacker
or to escape by quickly turning before the attack can be
resumed.
■ 85. Attack on a Two-Seater. — It is more difficult to gain
surprise for attack on a two-seater than on a single-seater
airplane. The best position for launching the attack will
be dependent upon the blind angles of the two-seater, though
the most vulnerable sector usually is found by approaching
from the rear and below. Forcing the two-seater to execute
rapid maneuvers to avoid the attacker's fire will greatly
reduce the accuracy of defensive fire power of the rear seat
gunner.
■ 86. Attack on a Multiseater. — An attack on a multiseater
by a single pursuit airplane will be hazardous if all possible
approaches to it are effectively covered by defensive machine-
gun fire. A determined following attack may be made from
the rear at the same level or slightly below the target. The
rear gunner in the multiseater is the initial target. Concen-
trated fire at close ranges may be necessary to destroy multi-
51
86-69
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
seater aircraft. Withdrawal from such attack should be
made in a manner to avoid the defensive Are of the hostile
aircraft, preferably to the rear.
■ 87. Attack on Formations. — a. Pursuit formation. — At-
tacks on pursuit formations by individuals must usually be
confined to the rearmost airplanes of the formation. Sur-
prise attacks may occasionally be made with success if the
formation is carelessly flown or if the attack is made sud-
denly. Such attacks are made by using the "dive and run"
tactics, the attacker depending upon one or two bursts to
deliver effective fire and relying on the speed gained in a
steeply diving attack to carry him out of effective range of
defense Are.
b. Multiseater formation. — The individual cannot effec-
tively attack formations which possess a strong defensive
fire to the rear. Consequently, the pursuit pilot operating
alone should confine his efforts to stragglers that fall behind
the main formation. Such opportunities will be rare, and
the individuals should not make a general practice of oper-
ating against such formations.
H 88. Attack on Captive Balloons. — A special operation for
pursuit aviation is the destruction of captive balloons. This
work should be assigned to pilots who are specially adept at
attacking stationary targets. The best results are obtained
by diving into the wind or under cover of the sun and con-
centrating fire in the smallest possible space on the highest
point of the balloon. Attacks on balloons can be made effec-
tively with long range machine guns or cannon and by dive
bombing.
Section V
PLIGHT OFFENSIVE TACTICS
■ 89. General. — a. The flight. — The flight is normally com-
posed of six pursuit airplanes under the direct leadership
and control of one individual. To enable it to have greater
flexibility, maneuverability, and control, it is subdivided into
elements of two or three airplanes each. The tactics of the
element are fundamentally the same as those of the flight.
The elements are a part of a closely coordinated combat
team and are mutually supporting.
52
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 89-92
b. Tactical employment. — The flight is the principal tacti-
cal subunit of the squadron. It does not operate as an in-
dependent command except under unusual circumstances.
It may then be detached temporarily from the squadron to
perform certain tactical missions, such as combat patrols, or
to attack small formations or other appropriate targets.
c. Fire unit. — The flight is the largest pursuit unit in which
all airplanes while in formation can deliver effective Are
simultaneously upon a single enemy airplane. For this rea-
son the flight is the basic fire unit of the squadron and the
basis for squadron tactics.
■ 90. Combat Formation. — Elements of the flight are so dis-
posed as to furnish mutual support and to permit rapid con-
centration of Are power. The elements guiding on the
leader may be echeloned in depth, altitude, or laterally, de-
pending upon type, disposition, and tactics of the enemy.
■ 91. Attack on a Single-Seater. — a. In launching an attack
on one single-seater the whole flight formation does not
ordinarily lose altitude to engage in combat, A three-plane
element of the formation engages the hostile single-seater
while the remainder of the flight acts as reserve.
b. On signal of the flight commander the designated ele-
ment of the flight descends to attack. While one airplane
closes in to fire, the others support the attack by closing in on
the flanks to prevent the enemy from turning to escape or to
engage in a close turning combat duel.
■ 92. Attack on a Mttltiseater. — a. The method of attack-
ing a multiseater is predicated upon the quantity of the de-
fensive armament and its disposition. One element makes a
direct attack through the most vulnerable sector while the
remainder of the flight conducts harassing Are from the
flanks in order to divert the enemy's Are from the attacking
element, and also to take up the direct attack in case of
maneuver by the multiseater. Normally one element is suffi-
cient to destroy a two-seater. Against aircraft possessing
heavy all-around defensive fire power a flight may be nec-
essary.
b. The initial attack on a multiseater possessing heavy
armament with all angles covered by fire normally should be
53
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
92-93
a massed fire attack. The flight in mass formation ap-
proaches the target from the rear and at the longest effective
range initiates the assault, continuing to close on the target
until destruction is accomplished.
■ 93. Attack on Formations. — a. Pursuit formations. — (1)
Attacks on pursuit formations must be launched from supe-
rior altitude. The approach must be direct and with full
speed. The immediate objectives are the highest elements
of the enemy formation. Every effort must be made to pre-
serve the tactical integrity of the unit throughout the air
fight. When close maneuver combat is forced, all individuals
work inward and attempt to gain altitude during the fight.
Individual pilots temporarily disengaged during an air fight
should reenter combat only from superior altitude.
(2) If the hostile pursuit formation is very compact every
effort must be made to disrupt its unity by the shock of the
first fire attack. In every case it is imperative that all the
hostile pursuit airplanes above and to the sides be engaged
prior to or simultaneously with the attack on those at lower
altitude.
(3) A flight attacking a numerically inferior force nor-
mally should send approximately an equal number of air-
planes to the attack. The remaining airplanes of the flight
should maintain- their altitude over the combat as a reserve
for the primary purpose of providing security for the attack-
ing force. This reserve should be prepared to prevent unen-
gaged hostile airplanes from gaining altitude on the attacking
force. This reserve should also be prepared to prevent hos-
tile airplanes from withdrawing from the combat when it is
apparent that the enemy force is disorganized. The correct
employment of the reserve insures minimum losses to the at-
tacking force and maximum losses to the defending force.
As long as the enemy fighting unit is conducting organized
resistance every effort is made to effect his disorganization
and defeat.
b. Defensive formations. — (1) The various types of defen-
sive formations include those composed of two-seaters and
multiseaters. A defensive formation of superior fire power
should be subjected to harassing attacks at long range with
guns and attacks from above with time-fuze bombs for the
54
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 93-96
purpose of breaking or temporarily disorganizing the forma-
tion. Fighter units should close without delay for the
destruction of any hostile unit temporarily disorganized.
(2) Formations of reconnaissance aircraft are usually small
and compact. Attacks on such formations will be a normal
function of the pursuit flight. In making the attack, the
pursuit flight will make converging attacks from the rear,
bringing simultaneous fire to bear upon the target.
■ 94. The Rally. — The rally of a flight after combat is a
matter of indoctrination and training. It may be necessary
to select a predesignated point or to direct all members to
return to the home airdrome after dispersal of the flight due
to combat. Whenever practical the flight rallies upon the
leader after termination of combat.
Section VI
SQUADRON OFFENSIVE TACTICS
■ 95. General. — a. The squadron consists of three flights
and is both tactical and administrative. It is, therefore,
capable of operating as an independent command. It is
under the direct tactical control of the squadron commander,
who exercises this control through his flight commanders.
b. The three-flight squadron provides a sound tactical unit
for air fighting. It is especially suitable for covering a large
area and providing small combat units capable of independent
action under the control of the flight leaders. It is readily
employed in situations where it is desirable to attack with
three flights operating on different levels. It is readily
adapted to screening and search missions, such as the mission
of denying hostile reconnaissance in an area and the inter-
ception of hostile bombardment formations.
■ 96. Combat Formation. — a. The squadron operating inde-
pendently when approaching a hostile formation whose loca-
tion or flight path is known takes up a combat formation. All
subunits will be in mutual supporting distance, and the indi-
vidual airplanes are so spaced within elements as to permit
ease in maintaining the formation and conducting aimed fire.
b. Echelonment of flights within the squadron in altitude,
distance, and lateral interval is dependent upon the type.
55
96-98
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
strength, and disposition of the hostile air forces to be
encountered.
c. Whenever pursuit opposition is expected the flights are
echeloned in altitude. The three flights then have separate
tactical responsibilities and are designated as follows:
(1) The leading flight is the assault echelon, is at the lowest
altitude, and is normally led by the squadron commander.
(2) The intermediate flight is the support echelon.
(3) The highest flight is the reserve echelon.
(4) As their names indicate, the assault echelon will nor-
mally initiate the attack. The support echelon joins combat
in support of the assault echelon, and the reserve echelon
acts as a security detachment against other possible enemy
pursuit until either it is assured no other enemy is present
or that the situation demands its participation.
■ 97. Search Formations. — a. Disposition for search. — If the
exact position and path of approach of the enemy are in
doubt, or if an area is to be examined, the squadron takes
up a search formation. The leading flight takes the central
position with its airplanes spread out in a line perpendicular
to the path of flight and at a distance depending on the
degree of visibility and the requirements for rapid concen-
tration. The other two flights take positions with similar
dispersion on the flanks and are echeloned in two higher
altitudes, the altitude of each being dependent on visibility
and desired rapidity of concentration.
b. Attack from search formation. — The normal method of
concentration is for all flights to converge on the flight
making contact with the enemy. The contacting flight
immediately goes into the firing position in rear of the
enemy formation and initiates the assault, while the other
two flights assume positions on the flanks and above the
enemy out of effective range of the defensive guns and then
institute harassing flank attacks. If equipped with bombs,
detachments are made from the flank units to bomb the
enemy formation.
■ 98. Attack on Formations. — a. Attack on pursuit forma-
tions. — (1) Normally a full squadron attack is made on a
hostile fighter formation only when some other pursuit unit
is acting as a security force. Otherwise only the assault and
56
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 98-99
support echelons initially engage in the attack. Squadron
attacks on pursuit formations usually will be preceded by
maneuver for advantage of altitude and position. The com-
mander must exercise great care in maneuvering his unit
to avoid dispersing the formation.
(2) The first object of the squadron attack is to break up
the hostile fighter formation in order to permit attacks on
dispersed units in detail. The assault echelon dives quickly
to the attack and is followed immediately by the support,
with the reserve echelon remaining unengaged as a security
force until it is clear that no supporting hostile forces are
in the vicinity. In the attack each pilot singles out an enemy
airplane and delivers aimed fire upon it. After delivering
their fire the attacking echelons pull up as a unit and regain
altitude in order to resume the attack from a favorable
position as soon as possible. Tactical unity is maintained
throughout the assault, exploitation, or withdrawal.
b. Attack on defensive formations (.bombardment and re-
connaissance) . — (1) The initial attack of a squadron upon
a close defensive formation should, if possible, be a con-
certed surprise attack with the aim of causing casualties
and the dispersal of the formation. If this result is gained
the dispersed elements are destroyed in detail. If the de-
fensive formation is already dispersed and a surprise attack
can be made, attrition is best effected by attacking and
destroying dispersed elements out of range of supporting
fire. Disabled and straggler airplanes will be destroyed if
and when they leave the support of the defensive formation.
(2) If hostile fighter aviation is present within supporting
distance, it must be engaged and destroyed or drawn away
beyond immediate supporting distance of the defensive for-
mation by a part of the attacking pursuit force while the
remainder of the force attacks the hostile formation.
M 99. The Rally. — a. The plan for the rally should be made
prior to combat and is a matter of training and indoctrina-
tion. The rally after combat may be effected in several
ways:
(1) Upon the leader's airplane.
(2) By flights and then upon the leading flight.
57
99-102
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
(3) Upon the reserve echelon.
(4) Over a predesignated point at a specified altitude.
b. The ability to rally a squadron after combat is a meas-
ure of the training and tactical control of the commanders.
A rally by flights is made after each engagement and contact
between the flights reestablished as soon as possible.
Section VII
GROUP OFFENSIVE TACTICS
■ 100. Organization. — The pursuit group is normally com-
posed of three tactical squadrons. The group formation
provides a strong fighting force with ample reserves for
operations against large enemy aviation forces.
■ 101. Purpose. — a. The pursuit group provides a large con-
centration that has sufficient strength to —
(1) Force a favorable decision in the air against large
enemy concentrations.
(2) Effect penetrations of enemy territory against strong
hostile fighter resistance.
(3) Provide security and reserve detachments without un-
duly detracting from the effectiveness of the main force.
(4) Provide air security to an area by continuous patrols;
by an alerted force; or by a combination of both without
resulting in excessive fatigue to personnel.
b. The group is the largest tactical pursuit organization
that can be controlled in the air by an individual. The group
commander exercises this control through the squadron com-
manders. It is the largest pursuit command that can be
maneuvered into position for a coordinated attack on an
appropriate hostile formation.
■ 102. Position of Group Commander. — To exercise tactical
control of a pursuit force during combat it is essential that
the commander be able to observe directly the disposition
and conduct of his command. The position of the group
commander in a group formation will depend upon the situa-
tion and upon his own judgment. He may actually lead
the group by attaching himself to the leading unit or by
leading a command flight and requiring the group to con-
form to his movements. In actual combat he will place
58
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 102-104
himself above and toward a flank in such position that he
can maintain tactical control of the group. The command
flight will act as a security force for the group commander.
■ 103. Methods of Control. — The group commander has
three methods for the control of his group in the air:
a. Indoctrination. — The squadrons of the group should be
so trained that in the normal methods of air attack the
squadrons automatically take proper position to furnish ap-
propriate assault, support, and reserve forces. Radio and
visual signals are kept at a minimum. Indoctrination is the
only dependable method of control in. the heat of combat.
b. Radio. — Simple radio code signals, for types of forma-
tions, method of attack, the attack, and the rally, are a val-
uable aid to the group commander for control of the group
in the air. Radio is extremely valuable for effecting quick
concentration of forces when they are dispersed in search
or in scattered patrols or when other means of control are
ineffective.
c. Visual signals. — Visual signals, while valuable to squad-
ron and flight commanders in controlling their units, should
be kept to an absolute minimum by the group commander.
Signals employed by him should apply only to the most
important phases of the mission. All signals must be simple,
clear, and instantly understandable.
■ 104. Combat Disposition. — A combat disposition at or
above the estimated altitude of the enemy is assumed when
the probable scene of action is approached. The commander
in disposing his forces bears in mind the altitude desired,
distance for rapid concentration, and mutual support.
a. Pursuit versus pursuit operations. — (1) Security detach-
ments. — In operations where pursuit opposition may be ex-
pected, the group places security detachments to the front,
flanks, and above the main body. The relative position of
these detachments depends on visibility conditions. They
should be far enough out to prevent surprise attacks or an
unexpected collision with the enemy. The duties of these
detachments are to search for the enemy, prevent surprise
attacks on the main body, and when contact is made to
direct the main body to the enemy or, if contact is to be
59
104-105
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
avoided, draw the enemy away from the main body. For
this reason it is essential that communication be maintained
with the main body. The security detachments normally are
flight elements dispatched from one squadron. After the
main body is committed to the attack the security detach-
ments assemble over the scene of combat and join the reserve.
(2) The main body. — The assault echelon is the guide for
the entire formation. The support and reserve echelons,
taking position above and slightly to the rear of the assault
echelon, conform to its movements and remain in quick sup-
porting distance at all times.
b. Pursuit versus bombardment. — In operations against
bombardment formations, where normally no pursuit pro-
tection is expected, security detachments are not necessary.
However, a part of the group is thrown out in front of the
main body for conducting search. The strength of the
search force is dependent upon the amount of information
available as to the enemy location and movements. If little
information is available, the entire group may assume the
search formation with squadrons echeloned laterally and in
altitude. The squadron making contact with the enemy re-
ports, immediately reassembles, and takes up the main as-
sault position from the rear. The remaining squadrons as-
semble and take up positions to the flanks. If equipped for
bombing, one squadron takes a position above and initiates
bombing attacks.
■ 105. Attack on Formations. — a. Pursuit formations. — Sur-
prise attacks by a group on a hostile fighter formation will
seldom be effected. When the enemy fighter formation is
contacted and combat is to be initiated the security detach-
ments assemble with the reserve echelon while the main body
maneuvers for position.
(1) Upon equal or inferior numbers the initial attack is
made by the assault and support echelons in a rapid suc-
cession with the aim of causing the maximum casualties and
disrupting the formation. If disruption of the enemy for-
mation occurs, superior numbers are used to overwhelm the
disrupted elements. The reserve, meanwhile, retains its alti-
tude over the scene of combat under control of the group
commander. It is not committed until needed to support
60
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 105
the assaulting units or cover their withdrawal. The reserve
never sacrifices its tactical advantage of altitude until com-
mitted to action. When the enemy is completely demoral-
ized and scattered the reserve is used to complete the
destruction. If it is not committed it acts as the rally point
for the units that have been in action.
(2) Against superior numbers. — The group will use "hit
and run" or harassing tactics upon the rear from superior
altitude, attacking by chain of squadrons. In using tactics
of this nature the group must remain fairly compact and
under complete control. Sustained combat should be
avoided.
b. Bombardment formations. — Pursuit attacks on bom-
bardment formations are predicated upon the type of de-
fensive formation employed; that is, whether it is a compact
formation employing supporting fires of all defensive arma-
ment or a loose formation in which all defensive fire is not
supporting.
(1) Compact defensive formations. — This is the least ma-
neuverable of all defensive formations. In this case the aim
of pursuit is to cause as many casualties as possible with the
initial assault and to disperse the formation. The four-
squadron group disposes itself about the defensive formation
in the following manner:
(a) The assault squadron takes up a position in rear, con-
forming closely to the speed of the hostile formation, and
delivers concentrated fire from effective ranges either by
waves of flights or by squadron concentration.
(b) One squadron, if equipped with time fuze or fragmen-
tation bombs, may take a position well above and initiate
time fuze or dive bombing attacks on the defensive formation.
(c) The remaining two squadrons take up flank positions
out of effective range of the defensive guns and by flank
attacks harass the enemy and draw some of the defensive
fire. If the enemy maneuvers to evade fire, the flanking
squadron from which the turn is made becomes the main
asasult squadron, while the other flanking squadron and
the former assault squadron take flanking positions. This
attack is sustained, squadrons rotating in a prescribed order,
61
105-106
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
until the enemy is dispersed, destroyed, or the attackers'
ammunition is exhausted.
(2) Extended defensive formations. — (a) Extended forma-
tions are those that have considerable interval between units
but are not out of supporting range of the nearest units.
Extended bombardment formations possess greater maneu-
verability for the individual units than does the compact de-
fensive formation although the supporting fire is not so
effective. Their main reliance for security in this case is
maneuverability. The pursuit group concentrates its attack
on the outermost unit or, in situations where they are rela-
tively small, on the two outer units.
(b) The method of attack is similar to the attack on a
compact formation except that the flanking unit toward the
supporting fire takes position at an angle to the rear or
stays out of combat in some convenient location ready to
rotate with the assault unit. If the attacked units close in
to a compact formation, the method of attack for that for-
mation is adopted.
(3) Dispersed defensive formations. — Dispersed formations
are those in which the subunits are out of supporting dis-
tance of each other. Dispersion may have been a result of
an attack, weather and visibility conditions, or for some
other reasons. This condition is ideal for a pursuit group
and is one that it strives for in all attacks. The group com-
mander in such situations directs sufficient force for the
attack on each dispersed unit to insure its complete destruc-
tion in the shortest time. The attacks on dispersed units are
sustained until complete destruction in detail is attained.
In case the enemy closes up the formation for mutual pro-
tection, as he most assuredly will attempt to do, then con-
centrated attacks are again resorted to for attrition and
dispersion.
■ 106. The Rally. — A pursuit group after combat may rally
in the following ways:
a. Upon a disengaged unit.
b. Upon the group commander's element.
c. Over a point or locality and at a designated altitude.
d. To a flank or to the rear of the target.
62
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 107-110
Section VIII
PURSUIT DEFENSIVE TACTICS
■ 107. General. — Pursuit can be placed on the tactical de-
fensive only by enemy pursuit. In air fights against all other
types of combat aviation, pursuit possesses the inherent
advantage of the initiative, that is, ability to fight or with-
draw at will due to superior performance.
■ 108. Aim. — The aim of a pursuit force fighting on the de-
fensive is to regain the offensive as soon as possible. All
defensive formations and maneuvers are based on that aim.
■ 109. Single Airplane. — Every effort is made by the defend-
ing pilot to secure the advantage of altitude. In event of
attack from the rear and above, a rapid change of direction
toward a point beneath the attacking airplane is made and
climb started. Each time the attacker turns, the defender
turns in the opposite direction until equal altitude is attained.
Careful flying of the airplane will materially aid in gaining
altitude and outmaneuvering the opponent. The defending
pilot should keep oriented with respect to friendly terrain and
endeavor to maneuver toward friendly terrain and ground
forces.
■ 110. Flight. — a. The defense of any formation is based on
maneuvering that brings effective fire to bear upon the at-
tacking force. Every defensive maneuver must have as its
objective the gaining of a position from which the offensive
may be assumed.
b. The pursuit flight is forced on the defensive when at-
tacked from above and the rear. It then has the choice of
numerous defensive maneuvers, the selection of the most
effective one depending upon such variable conditions as the
time available before coming under effective fire, meteorologi-
cal conditions, knowledge of hostile tactics, disposition, per-
formance characteristics and size of the attacking force, and
availability of friendly supporting forces. A very effective
maneuver consists of reversing the direction of the- flight so
as to meet the attack head-on. As the hostile force passes
overhead, another reverse is rapidly executed. By this
63
110-111
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
maneuver the enemy's initial advantage of position may be
neutralized, and by carefully outflying the enemy the
advantage of altitude may be attained.
c. When a flight is attacked by an inferior force, an effec-
tive series of defensive maneuvers consists of rapidly increas-
ing the distance between elements. This maneuver deprives
the enemy of the opportunity for attacking a concentrated
target, forces him to select a definite target, and provides
more maneuver room for the units of the defensive flight.
Succeeding maneuvers of the defensive flight depend upon the
enemy's choice of a target, but generally it will be found that
at least one element will be in position to turn into and Are
upon the attacking force.
d. When supporting forces are in the vicinity a defensive
maneuver which may be used is the Lufberry circle. Each
airplane covers the one directly ahead, making an attack by
small forces extremely hazardous. This maneuver should be
used only when supporting forces are in the vicinity, as it is
difficult for the defensive force to assume the offensive from
a Lufberry unless aided by supporting forces.
■ 111. Squadron. — a. In the presence of enemy pursuit the
pursuit squadron uses a chain formation with the flights
echeloned in altitude. If practicable, the reserve echelon
flies at or above the altitude where hostile pursuit is ex-
pected. This disposition precludes the simultaneous surprise
attack of more than one flight. The flight that is attacked
rapidly maneuvers so that the remaining flights are placed
in a position of tactical advantage and may assume the
offensive.
b. The first consideration of the attacked unit is to avoid
the enemy's fire. It may dive toward the other supporting
units, it may turn rapidly into the attacker, or it may assume
a Lufberry circle until the other units can arrive and give
friendly support.
c. Each unit strives to retain its tactical unity and so ma-
neuver that the most effective Are can eventually be turned
toward the enemy.
d. When a superior hostile force is encountered, the com-
mander will endeavor to avoid combat if the mission permits.
64
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 111-112
If the mission requires combat, an attack is launched regard-
less of inferiority of numbers.
■ 112. Group. — If for any reason the group should be placed
at a tactical disadvantage, either by a superior force or by
a surprise attack, immediate steps must be taken first to
evade enemy fire and then to assume the offensive. The
echelon (s) that receives the attack dives or maneuvers to-
ward the disengaged units, evading the enemy fire meantime
by flying an erratic course. This action is taken to permit
one of the supporting echelons to gain a tactical advantage
over the enemy and take up the offensive against him. The
remainder of the squadron rapidly gains altitude and position
to support the fighting echelons. If and when tactical
equality or superiority is gained, the group commander has
the choice of continuing the fight or withdrawing as the situ-
ation demands.
65
CHAPTER 7
TACTICS OP AIRCRAFT FIGHTING DEFENSIVELY
■ 113. General. — a. The air fighting tactics employed by
bombardment and reconnaissance and observation aviation
forces are based upon maintaining the integrity of command
during the execution of their primary missions of air attack
and air reconnaissance and observation.
b. The success of these forces in their operations is meas-
ured by the efficiency with which these missions are per-
formed. For this reason they habitually avoid air fighting
whenever it is possible to do so without jeopardizing the
success of their missions.
■ 114. Evasion. — The ease of evasion in air operations serves
as an advantage to the penetrating force in avoidance of the
opposition of the enemy fighting force. Routes and the tim-
ing of operations will be planned to favor evading enemy
pursuit aviation. Localities where the enemy fighting force
is active, or that are likely to contain observation stations,
are avoided so far as possible, and the mission is conducted
so that the command is exposed to interception for a mini-
mum period of time. Camouflage, darkness, cloud forma-
tions, poor visibility, altitude, circuitous routes, and speed are
factors that may be utilized in various situations to favor
evasion.
■ 115. Security of Defensively Fighting Formations. — a.
The fighting strength and security of a defensive formation
are affected by —
(1) Quality of leadership.
(2) Discipline and cohesion of the formation.
(3) Skill, alertness, initiative, and indoctrination of the
air gunners.
b. A bombardment formation can develop a formidable
concentration of fire which, combined with effective tactics
and a high standard of discipline, provides it with great
66
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR FIGHTING 115-117
power of resistance to pursuit attack. Since the cohesion of
a defensive formation is so essential to its protection, the
enemy will endeavor to disorganize it in order that it may
be defeated in detail. This must be strongly resisted.
c. Every effort must be made by the defensive formation to
provide security against surprise. This is best achieved in
the air by a proper disposition of aircraft and by the con-
stant use of a well-planned system of protective observation
covering all possible avenues of enemy approach.
d. Recognition by all individuals of the command of the
futility of an attempt by individual airplanes to avoid the
effect of Are by escape or by taking cover tends to preserve
the integrity of the force.
■ 116. Single Airplane. — a. Combat type. — When a single
combat type airplane is attacked by hostile pursuit it maneu-
vers in order to bring the greatest number of guns into play
against the hostile unit. It operates at the maximum speed
in order to reduce the speed margin available to the attacker.
b. Reconnaissanoe and observation type. — (1) Aircraft de-
signed primarily for reconnaissance and observation with the
ground forces are usually limited in performance because of
the special characteristics required for the execution of their
normal tasks. The armament generally comprises fixed for-
ward firing guns and flexible guns in the observer's cockpit.
This disposition of guns permits either offensive or defensive
tactics in the conduct of air fighting. The object of such
fighting is always the preservation of the aircraft and crew
in the execution of missions. For this reason air combat
is not initiated by this type of aircraft.
(2) If attacked by hostile aircraft during limited penetra-
tions of enemy territory, every effort is made by maneuver
to carry the fight to a position over friendly ground forces.
When over friendly territory, maneuvers should be conducted
that place the airplane at an altitude which denies attack
from beneath and favors support from small arms ground
Are.
■ 117. Formations. — When combat cannot be avoided, de-
fensive forces seek to arrange their elements so as to concen-
trate maximum Are against successive threats in the order
67
117
ARMY AIR FORCE FIELD MANUAL
of their immediate importance. The elements of the forma-
tion are so disposed or maneuvered as to prevent or mini-
mize the possibility of enfilading fire being directed against
two or more elements.
a. Speed and movement. — The defending command nor-
mally operates at maximum formation speed in order to
reduce the speed margin available to the attacker. It may
use turns or irregular movement to disrupt the simultaneous
assaults of fighter aviation and to induce a series of attacks
against which fire can be massed successively. Since move-
ment will interfere with the stability of the gun platforms,
the degree of such movement should be restricted during
the times fire is being delivered.
b. Fire and vulnerability. — The commander endeavors to
deliver the maximum fire while presenting minimum vul-
nerability. Maximum flexibility of massed defensive fire
requires the close grouping of fire weapons with consequent
reduction in ease of maneuver. The commander must adapt
his tactics to meet immediate needs. When attacks at short
ranges may be expected from several directions, the close
grouping of defensive weapons is most effective. At long
ranges the vulnerability of the massed formation exceeds
the relative advantage of massed defensive fire. During long
range attacks security may be improved by increased spac-
ing and erratic maneuvering of units. The formation must
be prepared to close rapidly in event the attacker closes in.
Formations which offer the minimum target to the enemy
while uncovering the maximum number of guns should be
employed in defensive tactics.
c. Bombing attacks by hostile pursuit. — Time fuze bombing
attacks launched by hostile fighters from a horizontal
approach should be avoided by changing course, airspeed,
and altitude as the attacking unit approaches a position for
bomb release. Dive bombing attacks should be opposed by
gun fire and maneuver.
68
INDEX
Paragraph Page
Aim of pursuit force fighting on defensive 108 63
Air —
Alert defense 38 21
Defense by air attack forces 9 6
Fighting 1 i
Striking forces, support 61, 62 37
Tactics of pursuit aviation. (See Pursuit
aviation.)
Aircraft (see Reconnalsance aircraft) :
Performance 16 11
Tactics of fighting defensively 113-117 66
Warning service 6, 8, 33, 69 4,
6, 19, 41
Airplane :
Tactics of single 109,116 63,67
Types 22, 73 14, 43
Alerting pursuit at night 71 41
Altitude 20 13
Of Interception 54 30
Antiaircraft artillery zone, pursuit in, at night 71 41
Armament 17 11
Characteristics 7 5
Effect on air tactics 15 10
Armor 15 10
Artillery zone, pursuit in 71 41
Assault —
At night 71 41
Echelon 96 55
Attack forces, air defense by air 9 6
Attack on —
Captive balloons 88 52
Formations 87 52
Flight 93 54
Group 105 60
Squadron 98 56
Multiseater 86, 92 51, 53
Single-seater 86,91 51,53
Two-seater 85 51
Attacks :
Methods , 10 7
On ground personnel and targets 65 39
Balloons, attack on captive 88 52
Basis for effective pursuit employment 6 4
Blind spots 15 10
Bombardment :
Aviation forces, air fighting tactics 113 66
Formations :
Group attack 105 60
Squadron attack 98 56
Pursuit versus 104 59
69
INDEX
Paragraph Page
Bombing attacks by hostile pursuit 117 67
Bombs 65, 97, 105 39, 56, 60
Camera guns 17 11
Captive balloons, attack 88 52
Character of defense 41 22
Circle, Lufberry 110, 111 63, 64
Climb 54 30
Clouds 19i 13
Code, use in interception 57 34
Combat —
Disposition, group 104 59
Forces, size of pursuit 7 5
Formation 90, 96 53, 55
Fundamentals 83 50
Patrols 39 21
Phases 81 49
Tactics 80,81 49
Time 52 28
Communication 25, 33, 57, 68, 71, 103 15, 19,
34, 40,
41,59
Compact defensive formations, attack by group 105 60
Composition of formations 77 45
Concentrations 1_ 67 40
Conduct of —
Air striking forces 46 25
Defense 46 25
Control :
In interception 57 34
Methods 103 59
Controlling factors in employment of pursuit 28 18
Cooperation, searchlight 70 41
Coordinated air attacks 10 7
Coordination of defense means 35 20
Counterreconnaissance mission 64, 65 38, 39
Data keeper, in interception 59 35
Defending pursuit limitations 46 25
Defense :
Air alert 38 21
Air attack forces 9 6
Area or installations 30 18
Character 41 22
Conduct 46 25
General 32 19
Pursuit aviation in 40-48 22
Ground alert 37 21
In depth 46 25
Local 31, 33 18, 19
Pursuit aviation in 33-39 19
Means, coordination 35 20
Methods of pursuit 30-32 18
Mobility, necessity 46 25
Penetrations of pursuit 9, 10 6, 7
Pursuit aviation in 5-8 3
Scope 42 23
70
INDEX
ueienses: Paragraph Page
Disposition of pursuit 48 26
Local 47 20
Defensive formations:
Attack on 105 60
Flight 93 54
Squadron 98 53
Defensive tactics:
Fighting aircraft 113-117 66
Pursuit 107-112 63
Defensively fighting forces 2 1
Defensively fighting formations 115 66
Denial of freedom of action 27 17
Design, effect on air tactics 15 10
Desired line of interception 52 28
Development of methods 14 9
Dispersed defensive formations 105 60
Disposition, combat, group 104 59
Disposition of pursuit defenses 8, 48 6, 26
Echelons, assault, support and reserve 96 55
Effect of —
Armament and design on air tactics 15 10
Lines of resistance 44 23
Effectiveness of pursuit aviation defense 5 3
Element, the basic formation 23, 79 14, 46
Employment :
Basis for effective pursuit 6 4
Pursuit 36 20
Tactical 89 52
Enemy movement in interception 55 32
Escort fighters 3 2
Evasion 114 66
Execution of plan 13 9
Extended defensive formations, attack by group 105 60
Extent of warning service 51 27
Factors affecting air fighting 16-20 11
Fighting patrols 66 39
Fire:
Accuracy 17 11
Concentration as combat fundamental 83 50
Effect 17 11
Range 17 11
Unit 89 52
Volume 17 11
Flight 89 52
Defensive tactics 110 63
Level 54 30
Offensive tactics 89-94 52
Organization 23 14
Formation :
Combat 90 53
Squadron 96 55
Strength 9 6
71
INDEX
Formations: Paragraph Page
At night 71 41
Attack on 87 52
Flight 93 54
Group 105 60
Squadron 98 56
Composition 77 45
Defensively fighting 115, 117 66, 67
Night 71 41
Pursuit 74-79 44
Search 97 56
Strength 78 46
Types 79 46
Fragmentation bombs 105 60
Freedom of action, denial 27 17
Functions, tactical, of pursuit aviation 72 43
General defense 32 19
Influence of local defenses 47 26
Pursuit aviation 40-48 22
Ground alert defense 37 21
Ground forces, support 63-67 38
Group :
Commander 102 58
Defensive tactics 112 65
Offensive tactics 100-106 58
Types 25 15
Guns, camera 17 11
Individual offensive tactics 82-88 50
Indoctrination 18,103 12,59
Influence of local defenses on general defense 47 26
Information center 25, 55, 59 15, 32, 35
Intercept officer : 25, 59 15, 35
Interception 49-55 27
Altitude 54 30
Desired line 52 28
Possible line 53 29
Solver 59 35
Technique 56-60 34
Interceptor —
Command 35 20
Control 25 15
Type of airplane 22, 73 14, 43
Layer patrols 66 39
Level flight 54 30
Limitations :
Defending pursuit 46 25
Pursuit 5 3
Line of interception:
Desired 52 28
Possible 53 29
Line of resistance 43 23
Effect 44 23
Platting 45 24
Local defense 31, 33 18,19
Influence on general defense 47 26
Pursuit aviation 33-39 19
72
INDEX
Paragraph Page
Lufberry circle 110, 111 63,64
Maneuverability 16 11
Marksmanship, individual , 17 11
Mass attacks 10 7
Measurement of success 4 2
Methods :
Control of pursuit group 103 59
Development 14 9
Operation 10 7
In support of ground forces 65 39
Pursuit defense 30-32 18
Support of air striking forces 62 37
Missions :
Pursuit 26-29 17
Pursuit forces in support of ground forces 64 38
Mobility, defense, necessity for 46 25
Moral effect of pursuit defenses 5 3
Movement, enemy, in interception 55 32
Multiseater :
Attack on 86 51
Flight 92 53
Fighter type 22, 73 14, 43
Formation 76, 87 45, 52
Interceptor type 22 14
Navigation in interception 58 34
Night-
Attacks 10 7
Fighter 5 3
Interceptor 22, 73 14, 43
Operations, pursuit in 68-71 40
Pursuit tactics 71 41
Objectives:
Air fighting 1-8 1
Observation stations : 50 27
Pursuit 34 20
Offensive as combat fundamental 83 50
Offensive tactics:
Flight 89-94 52
Group 100-105 58
Individual 82-88 SO
Squadron 95-99 55
Offensively fighting forces 3 2
Organization of pursuit group 23, 100 14, 58
Oxygen i 20 13
Patrols:
Combat 39 21
Fighting 66 39
Penetrations of pursuit defense 9, 10 6, 7
Performance, aircraft 16 11
Personnel, attacks on ground 65 39
Phases of combat 81 49
Plan:
Execution 13 9
Selection of tactical 12 9
Plans, tactical 11-15 9
73
INDEX
Plotter : Paragraph Page
Pursuit 59 35
Target j. 59 35
Plotting lines of resistance 45 24
Position of group commander 102 58
Possible line of interception . 53 29
Pursuit :
Employment 36 20
Formations 74-79 44
Attack on:
Flight 93 54
Group 105 60
Squadron 98 56
Groups, purpose \ 101 58
Night operations 68-71 40
Objectives 34 20
Versus —
Bombardment 104 59
Pursuit 3, 104 2, 59
Squadrons . 21-25 14
Pursuit aviation (see also Pursuit; Pursuit
defense) :
In defense 5—8 3
In general defense 40-^48 22
In local defense 33-39 19
Mission 26-29 17
Organization 21-25 14
Tactics :
Combat 80, 81 49
Functions 72 43
Offensive :
Flight 89-94 52
Group . 100-106 58
Individual 82-88 50
Squadron 95-99 55
Pursuit :
Defensive 107-112 63
Formations 74-79 44
Pursuit defense:
Methods 30-32 18
Tactics 107-112 63
Radio 25, 68, 103 15, 40, 59
Radiotelephony, use in interception 57 34
Rally 94 55
Group 106 62
Squadron 99 57
Range of fire 17 11
Reconnaissance aircraft :
Attacks on by a flight 93 54
Tactics:
Aviation forces 113 66
Defensively fighting airplanes 116 67
Repeated attacks 10 7
Reserve echelon 96 55
Resistance lines 43, 44, 45 23, 24
Scope of defense 42 23
74
INDEX
Paragraph Page
Search formations 97 56
Search in interception 60 36
Searchlights 5, 68, 70 3, 40, 41
Secondary air attacks 10 7
Security :
Combat fundamental 83 50
Detachments 104 59
Formations, fighting defensively 115 66
Selection, of tactical plan 12 9
Signals :
Searchlight 70,71 41
Visual 103 69
Single-seater :
Attack 84 61
Plight attack 91 53
Formations 76 45
Special support for air striking forces 62 37
Speed factors 16 11
Squadron —
Defensive tactics 111 64
Offensive tactics 95-99 55
Organization 23 14
Types 24 15
Stations, observation 50 27
Strength of formations 24,78 15,46
Striking forces, air:
Conduct 46 25
Support 61, 62 37
Support :
Air striking forces 61, 62 37
Echelon 96 55
Ground forces 63-67 38
Surprise as combat fundamental 83 50
Tactical employment of flight 89 52
Tactics (see Defensive tactics; Offensive tactics;
Pursuit aviation) :
Combat 80, 81 49
Night pursuit 71 41
Target plotter in interception 59 35
Targets, attacks on ground 65 39
Time, combat 52 28
Time fuze —
Bombing attacks 117 67
Bombs 105 60
Training 18 12
Two-seater, attack on 85 51
Types, airplane 22, 73 14, 43
Types of formations 79 46
Visibility 19 13
Visual signals for group control 103 59
Warning service, aircraft 6, 8, 33 4, 6, 19
Extent 51 27
Night use of 69 41
Weather conditions 19 13
o
75
Eibtjbe 1. — Line of pursuit Interception. 452056° — 12 (Follows p. 75)