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Copy 3 rormation
DEPARTMENT
OF
THE
ARMY
FIELD
MANUAL
REGRADED UNCLASSIFIED aY
AUT'r.,.OF DOD DIR. 5200. 1 R
BY L/I12
ON
IJ
AIRBORNE
OPERATIONS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
*
JANUARY 1952
AGO 2150B-Jan
Security Information
Security Informat:Cn
DEPARTMENT
OF
THE
ARMY
FIELD
MANUAL
FM 57-30
This manual supersedes FM 71-30, 3 July 1947
AIRBORNE
OPERATIONS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
e
JANUARY
1952
United States Government Printing Office
Washington: 1952
AGO 2150B
Se f
ormation
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
WASHINGTON 25, D. C., 21 January 1952
FM 57-30 is published for the information and guidance of all
concerned.
[AG 373.21 (18 Oct 51)]
BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF THE ARMY:
OFFICIAL:
J. LAWTON COLLINS
WM. E. BERGIN
Chief of Staff,
Major General, USA
United States Army
The Adjutant General
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army:
GSUSA (1); SSUSA (1); Tech Svc (1); Arm & Svc Bd
(2); AFF (50); AA Comd (2); OS Maj Comd (5) ex-
cept FECOM (200); Base Comd (2)
MDW (2); Log
Comd (2); A (20); CHQ (10); D (10); R (5); S Bn
(3); Bn (2); FC (2); Sch (5); USMA (50); PMS&T
(1); Tng Div (5); Mil Dist (3).
NG: D (5); R (2); T/O&E, 8-15 (1).
ORC: D (5); R (2); T/O&E, 8-15 (1).
For explanation of distribution formula, see SR 310-90-1.
AGO 2150B
FOREWORD
FM 57-30 Airborne Operations furnishes a broad coverage of
the field of airborne operations. Other publications which should
be consulted for more detailed reference are-
Airborne division T/O&E.
Infantry division T/O&E.
TM 71-220, Technical Training of Parachutists.
TM 71-210, Air Transport of Troops and Equipment.
FM 57-20, Airborne Techniques, Divisional Units.
FM 100-5, Field Service Regulations, Operations.
FM 101-5, Staff Officers' Field Manual, Staff Organization
and Procedure.
FM 101-10, Staff Officers' Field Manual, Organization, Tech-
nical, and Logistical Data.
FM 100-10, Field Service Regulations, Administration.
FM 100-15, Field Service Regulations, Larger Units.
USAF 400-5.
The appendixes are designed to furnish detailed information
not included in the body of the manual and to supply detailed in-
struction in airborne operations. The more technical appendixes
require study and practice in their use.
The manual will be revised as circumstances require. Comments
are invited and should be forwarded to the Commandant, Com-
mand and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.
AGO 2160B
;jo
CONTENTS
Paragralph
Page
;,CHAPTER 1.
GENERAL
Section 1.
Basic considerations
__…________________…-__.
1-6
1
II.
Command and control of airborno operations
_
7-11
6
III. Organization and functions of army and air
12-17
12
force units which participate in airborne
operations.
IV.
Theater organization for logistical support of
18-20
20
airborne operations.
CHAPTER 2.
PLANNING AND PREPARATION FOR AN AIRBOPMF
OPERATION.
Section I.
Planning procedure________________________
-21-23
25
II.
Tactical planning _._________________________
24-35
27
III. Administrative planning .__-.________________.
36-41
47
IV.
Preparation of orders --________-- _______---
42-45
68
:V::[- RV~l-ehearsals…____________________
46-50
68
CHAPTER 3.
MARSHALLING.
Section I.
General ---_____________________________
51-58
71
II.: Marshalling camps .........................
59-61
73
III,. Briefings __-
_ _____.__________________..
62-65
74
IV.
Supply procedures
.___.______ ___-______
66-68
75
V.
Morale
_---____-----
____--------
--
______.
69-70
76
VI.
Loading _______________-____
___________
71-75
77
CHAPTER.4.
EXECUTION OF AIRBORNE OPERATIONS.
Section 1L-
The air movement_ __-__-____-____________.
76-78
81
II.
Combat operations
-__
._
______
79-92
84
III. Logistical procedures and establishment of
93-102
92
installations in the airhead.
CHAPTER 5.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Section 1. Weather as a factor in airborne operations___
103-107
99
II.
Training of airborne forces _______________--
108-114
102
III. Signal communication-airborne forces____
115-118
108
IV.
Air-landed units ____________-----------.
119-126
112
Appendix
I.
The Airborne Division
…________-------------------
.-------
117
II.
Aircraft Requirements-Airborne Division Assault
____. _______
121
III.
Aircraft Requirements-Infantry Division --
________---------
136
IV.
Determination or Computation of Aircraft Requirements____
____--_
144
V.
Typical Troop Carrier Airfield System and Route Diagram___ ____---
149
ijv
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Page
Appendix VI.
Formation-Parachute Aircraft ___--
________________ _______
150
VII.
Schedule of Planning for Airborne Operations___________ facing
150
VIII.
Staff Planning for an Airborne Operation______________ _______
151
IX.
Standing Operating Procedure for Assault-Airborne
_______
166
Division.
X.
Standing Operating Procedure for Airborne and Troop
_______
174
Carrier Units.
XI.
Operation Order-Airborne Division ________________. _______
187
XII.
Aircraft Assignment Work Sheet __----________.-----
--____-
193
XIII.
Loading Forms ___-__---
______---_____--___---
-
-
_______
196
XIV.
Administrative Order-Airborne Division _________------
--
_____
204
XV.
Mounting and Marshalling Airborne Division ___-- __----
--_----
208
XVI.
Army Service Area_---______.-----------------__.
-__---
213
XVII.
Intelligence Annex-Corps (Airborne)____________
------------
216
XVIII.
Security Measures for Mounting Airborne Operations_----- --____-
224
XIX.
Signal Annex-Airborne Division -------------------
-------
229
XX.
Typical Radio Nets, Airborne Division-Assault Phase ----- _______
232
XXI.
Cargo Aircraft ____------_--------------------.-------
233
XXII.
Aerial Delivery of Supplies and Equipment __--_-------
-------
256
XXIII.
Explanation of Terms------------------------------------
262
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V
This manual supersedes FM 71-30, 3 July 1947
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL
Section I. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
1. GENERAL
Airborne operations consist of the movement and delivery by
air, into an objective area, of combat forces and their logistical
support for the execution of ground tactical and strategic mis-
sions. Normally, there is an assault phase executed by airborne
units which are charged with the mission of seizing the airhead.
This may be followed by build-up and exploitation phases accom-
plished with air-landed reinforcements. Airborne operations cap-
italize on the speed and flexibility of air power combined with the
ability of land power to seize and occupy terrain.
2. Scope
a. This text provides information concerning the joint employ-
ment of air and army forces which participate in airborne opera-
tions. It further indicates, for guidance of army commanders and
staffs, procedures to be used in the planning, and execution of such
operations.
b. The subject matter is concerned principally with the tactics
and techniques employed in airborne operations. Particular em-
phasis is given to those phases peculiar to airborne operations
because of the method of transportation used to place and main-
tain the participating forces in combat.
c. Where reference is made in the manual to functions and
responsibilities of communications zone, it should be understood
that similar functions are performed by any administrative area
in which an airborne operation is mounted.
d. The term joint airborne force as used throughout this man-
ual refers to either an airborne unified command or a joint air-
borne task force.
e. Explanation of terms. (See app. XXIII.)
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1
S
n
3. TYPES OF AIRBORNE OPERATIONS
Airborne forces are generally employed in close coordination
with other land, air, and naval forces. The general missions are
to attack, seize, and hold important objectives; to exploit initial
airborne assaults; to occupy areas or reinforce units beyond the
immediate reach of other land forces; and to occupy or police
areas. Airborne operations are classified according to the ultimate
purpose for which the operation is designed. There is no definite
line of demarkation between types, since an operation may pos-
sess the characteristics of more than one of the types listed below.
Airborne operations may, however, be expected to fall into one
of the following general types:
a. Early Link-up Type Operation. This operation is conceived
as a delivery of airborne units into an area in the rear or to the
flanks of enemy positions. After seizure of the initial objectives a
planned early surface link-up is effected between the airborne
units and other friendly forces. Because of the anticipated early
link-up, no substantial build-up of troops, supplies, and equip-
ment is planned, other than those delivered in the assault echelon
and follow-up. In unusual cases the delivery of airborne units
might be to the rear or flanks of partially or completely sur-
rounded friendly units in order to relieve or lessen the enemy
pressure.
b. Independent Type Operation. This operation is conceived as
being executed in hostile territory, and involves the seizure of an
airhead from which further ground, air, or naval operations may
be launched. Forces involved will be independent of surface logis-
tical support for an extended period of time.
c. Raid Type Operation. This operation is conceived as the de-
livery of airborne units into hostile territory for the purpose of
destroying or neutralizing enemy forces, installations, facilities,
headquarters, or personalities. A planned withdrawal is executed
upon completion of the assigned mission.
d. Special Type Operation. This category includes all those
operations not properly encompassed by the independent, early
link-up, or raid types of operations. Examples of the special type
operation are show-of-force, assistance to partisans and guerilla
forces, and all operations primarily political in nature.
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRBORNE OPERATIONS
a. Tactical operations of airborne forces differ from those of
other normal land forces in that-
2
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(1) There is usually an absence of heavy artillery and equip-
ment in the airhead.
(2) The circular shape of the airhead permits the massing
of reserves and artillery fire at threatened points.
(3) The requirement for protection of airfields and strips
from enemy observation and fire restricts freedom of
maneuver of the airborne force.
(4) The restrictive effect of bad weather is greater.
(5-- Supporting services- are present in limited numbers, ini-
tially, thereby increasing the difficulties of control, sup-
ply, and communication.
(6) Troops are extremely vulnerable during landing and
assembly.
(7) Mobility and fire power of troops landed in the airhead
are more restricted. The normal shortage or lack of
friendly armor requires the airborne commander to pro-
vide other means for antitank defense and offensive
power.
(8) The airborne assault is usually delivered into enemy
rear areas where there are few fixed defenses and well
organized combat troops are not present initially. This
condition facilitates the initial attainment of tactical
surprise by the airborne force. However, the enemy may
thereafter be able to concentrate superior forces.
(9) Because of the various differences enumerated above, it
is usually necessary to provide for a greater preponder-
ance of force in an airborne operation than in a similar
normal land operation. This superiority gives the air-
borne commander an essential safety factor in the event
of unexpected developments.
b. Relative characteristics of air-landed and parachute opera->
tions are as follows:
(1)
Parachute operations require specially trained units
whereas airplanes can be used to land units which have
had a minimum of specialized training.
(2) Parachutists can make day or night jumps. Assault air-
craft can land when there is sufficient light to discern
terrain features, but they require lighted markers for
night landings.
(3) Powered aircraft, except assault aircraft during the
assault phase, require use of captured airfield (s) or con-
struction of airstrip(s). Assault transport landings can
be made on any relatively level and unobstructed terrain.
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3
Parachute units can land on any terrain which is free of
obstacles dangerous to the individual.
(4) Assault aircraft can land heavy vehicles and equipment
on terrain which is impracticable for other types of troop
carrier aircraft. Vehicles in limited numbers can be
dropped by parachute on a wide variety of terrain.
(5) The radius of action is greater for parachute operations
than for those which require landing of airplanes to dis-
charge passengers and materiel.
(6) Parachute troops can be delivered into an area faster
than air-landed forces; but heavier, better organized,
and more powerful units can be delivered by air landing.
$. CONCEPTS OF EMPLOYMENT
a. The employment of airborne forces always envisions-
(1) Use of inherent capabilities of the airplane to overcome
distances and geographical barriers.
(2) Use of the forces which are not committed to action as a
threat to compel the enemy to disperse defense forces
and facilities to protect vital installations.
b. Airborne operations require a high degree of coordination
between air, land, and naval forces. Operations should be under
theater control for over-all planning and supervision. The respon-
sibility for the entire operation, however, should be vested in a
single commander.
c. Air superiority is a fundamental prerequisite. Protection for
marshalling, air movement, and establishment of the airhead must
be adequate to prevent effective enemy counteraction. While air
superiority is a prerequisite for large operations, it must be real-
ized that limited objective missions can be executed even if the
enemy has air superiority. The enemy's air superiority can be
counteracted temporarily by massing of friendly fighter protec-
tion, by night landings, or by sheer surprise.
d. In invasion of a large land mass, airborne units will normally
be used to make the initial assault. Air-landed units will then be
moved into protected landing areas and, when organized, will
attack from the airhead.. If there is no requirement for an air-
borne assault, only air-landed units will be employed.
e. To obtain maximum effectiveness in the initial assault, air-
borne landings must be conducted in mass, with surprise, in the
smallest practicable area, and completed in the shortest possible
time.
f; When conducted in conjunction with ground or amphibious
AGO 2150B
operations, airborne operations must be launched to give maxi-
mum assistance to the main effort. Airborne attack will thus nor-
mally precede the ground or amphibious attack.
g. With present means and methods, airborne operations will
normally be conducted in daylight. This does not preclude specific
missions to be executed at night when they are required to give
maximum assistance to the main effort.
h. Large-scale airborne operations require the seizure of an
airhead with characteristics as follows:
(1) Adequate landing areas.
(2) Dominating terrain features or barriers which facilitate
defense of the airhead.
(3) Adequate road net connecting the landing areas, the ob-
jective, and the dominating terrain features.
(4) Existing airfields, or level, well drained, stable terrain
permitting rapid provision for air-landed operations.
6. TROOPS AND FACILITIES REQUIRED TO LAUNCH A SUCCESS-
FUL LARGE-SCALE AIRBORNE ASSAULT
Troops and facilities required to launch a successful large-scale
airborne assault are-
- a. Strategic and tactical air forces sufficient to insure air supe-
riority in the operational area.
b. Supply levels, within the theater, for all classes of Air Force
and Army mat6riel which will insure support of the airborne oper-
ation on the scale envisioned.
c. Service troops adequate in number, type, and training to
supply, stage, and maintain the air and land units employed in the
operation.
d. Airborne and other forces properly trained and equipped to
accomplish the combat missions assigned.
e. Troop carrier forces whose strength, state of training, and
type of aircraft insure successful movement of all necessary equip-
ment and combat and service units.
f. Departure airfields within flying radius of the airhead. These
fields must allow dispersion of aircraft.
g. Marshalling areas with adequate service troops, facilities,
and equipment to guard, house, and feed troops, and to provide
.interunit communication and necessary briefing aids.
h. Air-transportable service units to construct advanced air-
strips within the airhead and to control air traffic.
i. Units to insure accurate weather information and electronic
or visual guides to and from the airhead area.
'AGO 2160B
5
Section II. COMMAND AND CONTROL OF AIRBORNE
OPERATIONS
7. THEATER
a. General.
(1) It is the responsibility of the theater commander to re-
quest forces and facilities which are needed to launch
required airborne assaults. Within the limits of the
means actually 'provided, he will determine the scope of
the airborne operations that can be conducted.
(2) To facilitate and insure integrated preplanning for air-
borne operations on theater level, an adequate number
of specially trained personnel, highly qualified in the
techniques, capabilities, and limitations of airborne and
troop carrier forces, must be included on the theater
staff.
(3) For planning and execution of airborne operations in a
theater which has large airborne forces assigned for fre-
quent employment, the theater commander normally es-
tablishes an airborne unified command. In a theater
where small airborne forces are assigned and their con-
templated employment in an airborne role is infrequent,
the theater commander may establish a temporary joint
airborne task force for the execution of operations as
required. (Fig. 1.)
(4)
(a) The theater airborne unified command normally
commands all airborne forces in the theater except
those airborne forces which the theater commander
temporarily assigns to other forces in the theater.
When all airborne forces in the theater are perform-
ing their secondary missions, such as employment of
airborne units in a ground role and troop carrier units
in a cargo transport role, the airborne unified com-
mand may be temporarily reduced to a planning en-
tity.
(b) The theater airborne unified command develops prob-
able operational plans and, depending upon the size
and scope of the operation, continues detailed planning
and executes the operation or turns over the detailed
planning to a subordinate joint task force which exe-
cutes the operation. Normally, when the major portion
of the theater airborne forces are employed in an inde-
pendent type operation the theater airborne unified
6
AGO 2150B
command executes the operation. When a lesser por-
tion of the theater airborne forces is employed on early
link-up type operations, a subordinate joint task force
is normally established for detailed planning and exe-
cution. Thus one or more joint airborne task forces may
be established if the sequence and type'of airborne
operations in that theater require them.
(c) The airborne unified command is responsible directly
to the theater commander for continuous airborne
planning and for execution of operations. The staff of
the airborne unified command contains Air Force,
Army, and Navy personnel. Troop carrier and air-
borne units in the theater are normally under com-
mand of the airborne unified commander. For specific
operations, additional Army or Air Force units are
made available. Fighter and bomber units are nor-
mally not assigned but are in a cooperating or sup-
porting role.
(5) The theater joint airborne task force functions in the
same manner as the airborne unified command except
that its mission is not of a continuing nature and it is
established on a temporary basis when the situation in
the theater dictates the need for such a force,
A3
rib
Figure 1. Type command structure for a joint airborne force.
(6) A desirable command structure should meet as many of
the following requirements as practicable:
AGO 2150B
(a) All participating units are directly under a com-
mander at an echelon high enough to insure effective
cooperation.
(b) A single commander is responsible for the entire oper-
ation.
(c) Joint staffs include representatives of- all participat-
ing and supporting forces.
(d) An agency is responsible for continuous jQint planning
for airborne operations.
(e) Theater headquarters controls the operational com-
mitments of troop carrier and airborne units.
(7) Having approved an airborne operation plan, the the-
ater commander-
(a) Issues an outline plan and directive to the theater
Army commander to support the operation.
(b) Issues an outline plan and directive to the theater Air
Force commander to support the airborne assault and
subsequent ground action, and to furnish logistical
support for Air Force elements.
(c) Issues an outline plan and directive to the theater
Navy commander to support the operation as required.
(d) Issues an outline plan and directive to the joint air-
borne force commander.
(e) Issues a directive to theater intelligence agencies to
provide necessary information.
(f) Plans and controls measures for deception.
(g) Coordinates with strategic air forces not under his
command.
(h) Reviews comments of subordinate commanders and
prepares an operation plan or order.
(8) An airborne operation is normally an integral part of a
large operation. As such, the arrangements for the air-
borne operation may be published as a part of the over-
all plan.
(9) In an early link-up type operation, the airborne force
normally comes under the command of the advancing
corps or army commander when contact is established on
the ground, or at an earlier predetermined time when the
commander of the force with whom juncture is to be
established is able to control, support, or influence the
action of the airborne force prior to julitture.
8
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b. Major Forces. On receipt of the theater directive the Army,
Air Force, and Navy commanders-
(1) Review the directive and submit comments to the the-
ater commander.
(2) Allocate necessary forces and facilities.
(3) Assign supporting tactical and administrative missions
to subordinate commanders.
(4) Supervise planning and execution by subordinate com-
mands.
8. JOINT AIRBORNE FORCE
a. The airborne force commander, on receipt of the theater out-
line plan and directive-
(1) Establishes liaison with the theater Army, Air Force,
and Navy commanders.
(2) Submits recommended changes in the plan to the theater
commander.
(3) Issues warning orders to units allocated for the airborne
force.
(4) Organizes the airborne force with the Air Force and
Army units allocated.
(5) Prepares an operation plan.
(6) Directs necessary joint training.
(7) Supervises preparation of plans by the troop carrier and
Army commanders.
(8) Coordinates with the theater Army, Air Force, and Navy
commanders, to insure that the necessary operational
and administrative support will be provided.
(9) Plans and supervises measures for deception and issues
security instructions to insure secrecy.
(10) Adjusts conflicts between the troop carrier and airborne
plans.
(11) Supervises detailed planning in lower echelons.
(12) Supervises execution of the operation.
(13) Releases troop carrier and other units involved in the
operation when no longer needed,
b. The coordination of air operations prior to and during the
air movement phase of an airborne operation is the most pressing
responsibility of the joint airborne force headquarters.
c. In exceptional cases tactical air units, other than troop car-
rier, may be assigned to the airborne force. In this event, the
tactical air command of the airborne force assumes normal com-
mand responsibilities.
AGO 2150B
9
9. ARMY
a. The army commander will usually be designated as the com-
mander of all units within the airhead.
b. Having received the theater or airborne force directive, the
army commander and staff will-
(1) Augment army staff sections with personnel experienced
in airborne operations if needed for detailed planning.
(2) Assemble and distribute planning data.
(3) Prepare the ground tactical scheme of maneuver and the
logistical support plan. Assign corps missions and phase
lines for airhead expansion.
(4) Establish direct liaison with tactical air command and
troop carrier command.
(5) Direct and supervise equipping and training of all units.
(6) Illn conjunction with tactical air commander, develop air-
ground support plan and request necessary photo and
reconnaissance missions.
(7) In conjunction with troop carrier command, determine
general landing areas, total airlift available, departure
airfields, and the Air Force and Army units to operate
from each. Establish priority for movement of units,
equipment, and subsequent supply.
(8) Coordinate with troop carrier command on preopera-
tional training requirements.
(9) Conduct air-ground conferences to insure coordination
and understanding of all problems.
(10) Establish direct liaison with communications zone and
advise theater and communications zone as to supply and
marshalling requirements.
(11) Requisition equipment necessary for the operation.
(12) Announce to army service troops and attached units
their airhead support missions.
'(13) Within the means allocated by airborne force, plan, in
conjunction with appropriate air force headquarters, and
supervise construction or rehabilitation or both of air-
strips and airfields within the airhead.
(14) Issue instructions on and supervise security measures to
insure secrecy in preparation.
(15) In coordination with the communications zone and troop
,. carrier agencies, prepare the army marshalling plan.
(16) Supervise final preparation for combat.
1i
AGO 2150B
(17) Direct the army in the ground operations.
(18) Exercise over-all control of the airhead until contact is
made with advancing ground forces or until an earlier
predetermined time.
(19) Coordinate with designated army group for ground
juncture with airborne force.
10. CORPS
a. The airborne assault corps commander and staff, upon re-
ceipt of army directive, will-
(1) Augment corps staff with airborne specialists if needed
for detailed planning.
(2) Prepare corps operation plan.
(3) Establish liaison with the troop carrier unit assigned to
transport the corps, and with the follow-up corps.
(4) In conjunction with the troop carrier unit, determine
division landing areas; adjust airlift and departure air-
field requirements; and, within the framework of the
movement priority established by army, publish the corps
air-movement table.
(5) Submit request to army for required air support and
reconnaissance.
(6) Submit preoperational training requirements to army.
(7) Conduct air-ground conferences.
(8) Requisition, through army, necessary equipment.
(9) Supervise marshalling of the corps and final preparation
for combat.
(10) Direct the corps in its ground assault to attain initial
objectives and protect air-landing operations which fol-
low.
b. The follow-up and air-landed corps commander, upon receipt
of the army directive, will-
(1) Prepare corps operation plan.
(2) Establish liaison with troop carrier units assigned to
transport the corps, and with the assault corps.
(3) In conjunction with troop carrier units, adjust airlift
and assign departure airfields.
(4) Initiate air movement training and submit preopera-
tional training requirements to army.
(5) Requisition, through army, necessary equipment.
(6) Supervise marshalling of the corps.
(7) Supervise phasing of the corps into the airhead in
accordance with the orders of the airborne force com-
mander.
AGO 2150B
11
(8) Direct operations of the corps in the exploitation phase
of the airborne operation.
c. An independent corps performs most of the army functions
listed in paragraph 9.
11. DIVISION
a. Having received the corps plan, the airborne division com-
mander and staff will-
(1) Prepare division operation plan.
(2) Establish liaison with troop carrier units assigned to
transport the division.
(3) Determine specific drop and landing zones for combat
teams and adjust details of airlift and departure airfield
requirements in conjunction with troop carrier units.
(4) Prepare the division air movement table within the plan
prescribed by corps and in conjunction with troop car-
rier commander.
(5) Submit requests, through corps, for required air support
and reconnaissance.
(6) Conduct air-ground conferences.
(7) Marshal the division as directed by corps and the com-
munications zone.
(8) Issue instructions on and enforce security measures to
insure secrecy in preparation.
(9) Direct the division in ground assaults.
b. The air-landed infantry division commander, upon receipt of
the corps plan, will-
(1) Prepare division operation plan.
(2) Establish liaison, with troop carrier units assigned to
transport the division and coordinate air movement of
divisional units.
(3) Conduct scheduled air-movement training.
(4) Stage and air-land the division as directed, and complete
assigned ground mission.
c. An independent division performs most of the functions listed
in paragraphs 9 and 10.
Section III. ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS OF ARMY AND AIR
FORCE UNITS WHICH PARTICIPATE IN AIRBORNE OPERATIONS
12. THE AIR FORCES
a. Strategic. In airborne operations, strategic air forces may
assist in maintaining air superiority, conduct aerial reconnais-
12
AGO 2150B
sance deep in enemy territory, and reduce enemy mobility by
attacks on his transportation and defense systems.
b. Tactical. Tactical air forces will join in the early planning
to direct the supporting air effort throughout all phases of an
operation.
c. Troop Carrier. Troop carrier forces will provide tactical and
administrative air transportation of cargo and personnel within
the theater.
d. Air Defense.Air defense units will provide for the air de-
fense of rear areas which usually include departure bases and
airborne training and marshalling areas.
e. Air-Sea Rescue. Air-Sea Rescue Service, composed of air,
land, and naval units, will locate and rescue the survivors of dis-
abled aircraft.
13. TROOP CARRIER UNITS
a. Mission. Troop carrier units provide combat and administra-
tive air transportation within the theater. Their functions are in
contrast to those of the Military Air Transport Service which
operates administrative flight service from the zone of interior to,
and between, theaters. The Military Air Transport Service does
'not engage in combat operations.
b. Organization. (Fig. 2.)
- (1) Troop carrier units are organized into a command with
two or more air forces, each consisting of two or more
air divisions. The organization of a tactical air force
(troop carrier) is extremely flexible and subject to con-
siderable variation. The aircraft included in the troop
carrier air force will vary in numbers and type depend-
ing upon the conditions under which an operation is en-
visaged.
(2)'-The troop carrier division is an intermediate organiza-
tion which is required for efficient control and adminis-
tration. Troop carrier air divisions may have wings
equipped with medium assault aircraft (C-123), medium
transport aircraft (C-119) and heavy transport aircraft
(C-124) depending on the varying requirements.
(3) The troop carrier wing, with its combat group of four
squadrons, plus service elements, is normally based on a
single airfield and is the operating unit that provides air
transportation for cargo and personnel. Individual wings
are equipped with a single type aircraft. A troop carrier
AGO 2160B
13
wing (pathfinder) is under the direct control of the tac-
tical air force headquarters.
(4) The troop carrier group is the operational element of the
wing and has four squadrons of either 16 aircraft, me-
dium, or 12 aircraft, heavy. Thus a medium group has 64
aircraft and a heavy group has 48 aircraft.
T.
ca
str
r .Itr
T,.Mw ..
A
M
M
M
,.
9P
.9Pe
Figure 2. Typical organization of a troop carrier command,
(5) Air evacuation squadrons are usually assigned to troop
carrier divisions. Flight nurses and assistants from these
squadrons accompany airplanes which land cargo or per-
sonnel in forward areas and then receive and provide in-
flight care for casualties.
(6) The supply and maintenance group, the airdrome group,
and the medical group are the organic elements of a wing
stati
oned
on each airfield to provide administrative,
logistical, and technical support for the air combat group
operating from the airfield.
(7) Troop carrier combat control teams (not shown on fig.
2) are specially equipped and trained to serve as air
coordination parties in the airborne assault area. Two
teams normally accompany each division into the objec-
tive area. The second team provides complete replace-
ment in personnel and equipment to insure reliable com-
munication. The teams establish radio contact with the
rear troop carrier command post to transmit weather
reports, information concerning known strength of
points of resistance which may be avoided en route to
drop zones or landing zones, hazards in landing zones,
changes in location of landing areas, and other informa-
14
AGO 2150B
tion'vital to air operations. Such control teams are evac-
uated as soon as replaced by advanced landing-field par-
ties or upon ground link-up with advancing friendly
forces.
(8) Advanced landing-field parties (not shown in fig. 2) are
specially equipped and trained to exercise control of all
aircraft operating on advanced landing fields. Two par-
ties will normally be assigned to each airfield to provide
reliable communication. The parties will assume such
duties of the combat control teams as are applicable and
will, within capabilities, maintain complete airfield com-
munication and control facilities, including control of
ground traffic within the airfield limits.
c. Flexibility. Flexibility is the keynote of troop carrier organ-
ization. Troop carrier command headquarters may be in one the-
ater and one or more of its air forces working in adjacent the-
aters. The mobility of troop carrier forces, afforded by organiza-
tion and equipment, provides the capability of rapid concentra-
tion to meet any situation with the greatest economy of force.
d. Favorable Characteristics.
(1) Troop carrier units are equipped with the most suitable
aircraft for parachute, and air-landed operations. They
possess the ability to transport personnel and equipment
of airborne forces to any desired area within the operat-
ing range of the aircraft.
(2) Operations can be conducted by day or night. Cargo air-
planes are equipped with instruments and landing lights
for night flying. Troop carrier pilots are trained for close
formation flying, in both daylight and darkness, and
assault aircraft pilots are trained to make landings in
small fields by day or night.
(3) Opportunity is usually afforded to prepare and rehearse
for a specific operation.
e. Unfavorable Characteristics.
(1) Troop carrier airplanes are relatively slow, not readily
maneuverable, and may become easy targets for enerfiy
fighter aircraft and ground fire. No provision (in the
form of armor plate) is made for the protection of pas-
sengers and no armament is installed for defense against
enemy aircraft.
(2) Special navigational aids may be required for locating
objectives in enemy territory.
f. Operational Effectiveness. In the initial stages of an airborne
operation, it will be unusual for aircraft to fly their full range
AGO 2150B
15
and refuel at forward airfields. Radius of action will, therefore,
be the deciding factor in tactical operations; but ranige:will be the
consideration in strategic and administrative moves.
g. Aircraft Availability. The number of aircraft which a troop
carrier wing can make available for an airborne operation is nor-
mally less than its organic strength in aircraft, because some of
the aircraft are grounded for routine inspections and maintenance
or because of battle loss or damage. The actual number or percent-
age of aircraft available will vary with the type of airplanes,
maintenance conditions, type of missions, unit training, duration
of operation, and enemy opposition. For short periods of a month
or less and under good conditions, a troop carrier wing or larger
unit can furnish about 80 percent of its organic aircraft daily.
However, by grounding troop carrier units for 2 or 3 days prior
to an operation in order to perform maintenance; a greater num-
ber of aircraft can be made available for D-day operations. The
number of aircraft which troop carrier can provide is of vital im-
portance to airborne planners. For each operation, the troop car-
rier commander must advise the airborne commander as to the
number of aircraft that will be available on D-day and the esti-
mated number of aircraft to be available on each subsequent day
of the operation. The number of aircraft trips available on any 1
day may be increased by flying two or more sorties per airplane
per day.
h. Types of Aircraft. The following three types of aircraft are
suited to troop carrier operations:
(1) Medium assault airplane with a 16,000-pound design
capacity. It is designed to permit landing, unloading and
take-off in unprepared landing zones, heretofore suited
only to assault glider landings. This airplane can easily
be adapted to parachute operations, thus providing an
airplane suited to all types of airborne missions. The
standard medium assault airplane is currently the C-123.
(2) Medium transport airplane with a 20,000-pound design
cargo capacity. The medium transport airplane is the
principal type used in an airborne assault.. Its primary
missions are delivery of parachute troops, delivery of
parachute
supply,
heavy
equipment,
vehicles
and
weapons, and landing of cargo on hastily prepared air-
strips. As a result of this flexibility, it can participate
in any phase of an airborne operation except assault
landings on unprepared airstrips. The standard medium
transport airplane is currently the C-119.
(3) Heavy transport airplane with a 50,000-pound design
16
AGO 2160B
cargo capacity. The primary mission of the heavy trans-
port airplane is the landing of cargo on prepared strips.
While its desirable secondary missions are the delivery
of parachutists, parachute supply, heavy equipment drop
and towing of assault aircraft, the heavy transport is
presently used only to air-land personnel, equipment, and
supplies. However, with minor modifications, it is capable
of performing all of the aforementioned missions. The
standard heavy transport airplane is presently the C-
124.
14. THE ARMY
a. Every field army must be capable of conducting large-scale
airborne operations. An army so designated should be given a
warning directive at least 45 days prior to the operation.
b. The theater commander may direct an army headquarters,
with appropriate supporting troops, to devote itself primarily to
preparation and training for airborne operations. This will de-
crease the time necessary for an army to plan and prepare to
execute a specific airborne mission.
c. The strength, composition, and equipment of units assigned
to an army for an airborne operation are contingent on the area,
expected enemy reactions, probable duration of the operation, air-
craft and troops available, and the assigned tactical mission.
d. The army commander usually exercises closer personal con-
trol than in other types of operations. He influences the action by
continually securing and disseminating information of enemy
forces which may affect the army; by his presence in critical areas;
by changing corps boundaries, missions, and objectives; by shift-
ing troops; by use of artillery and guided missiles; by committing
reserves; by arranging for support aviation; by allocation of ad-
ministrative support; and by timely shifts of priorities for air
movement into the airhead.
e. After the initial combat phase of an airborne operation has
been completed, the army operates in its normal ground role.
15. THE CORPS
a. Every army corps is presumed to be capable of commanding
anappropriate number of airborne divisions, air-landed divisions,
or a combination of both types, in either the assault, build-up,
or exploitation phase of an airborne operation. This flexible use
of any corps headquarters presupposes continuing army-wide in-
doctrination and training in airborne operations.
AGO 2150B
17
b. In a separate corps airborne operation, the corps will nor-
mally operate directly under the joint airborne force commander
until such time as the established airhead has been reached by
standard ground units. At the time of link-up, the corps will nor-
mally revert to command of an appropriate army.
c. Any corps designated to command airborne units should be
given the earliest possible warning directive to permit it to com-
plete preparations for executing the mission. A minimum of 30
days for an assault corps, and 20 days for a follow-up corps, is
considered essential. During this readiness phase, a separate corps
must complete all the preparations listed for the army. Such an
independent corps would operate necessary administrative instal-
lations. A corps subordinate to an army for an airborne operation
should be relieved of administrative functions and be permitted
to confine its preparations principally to planning and training
for its part in the tactical ground operation.
d. The theater commander may direct one or more corps head-
quarters, with appropriate supporting units, to emphasize plan-
ning and training for airborne operations. This directive would
not preclude the commitment of the designated corps headquarters
to standard ground operations. The decision to direct such spe-
cialization would largely depend on the anticipated number and
frequency of airborne operations and the number of corps head-
quarters available in the theater.
e. The strength, composition, and equipment of units attached
to a corps for an airborne operation are contingent on the mission,
the area of operation, the expected enemy reaction, enemy capabil-
ities, the probable duration of the operation, and the aircraft and
troops available.
f. In an airborne operation, the corps commander usually exer-
cises closer personal control than in other types of operations. This
closer control is necessitated by the fluid character of combat in
an airhead which requires rapidity of decision and aggressive
action. The corps commander in an airborne operation influences
the action by his presence in critical areas; by changing boun-
daries, missions, and objectives; by committing reserves; by use
of 'artillery and guided missiles; by shifting corps troops and
logistical support; by influencing the use of combat aviation; and
by recommending timely shifts of priorities for air movement of
troops, equipment, and supplies. After the initial combat phase
has been completed, the corps operates in its normal ground com-
bat role.
g. A corps may participate in airborne operations in the follow-
ing manner:
1 8-
AGO 2160B
(1) An operation by an airborne division or smaller unit in
which the corps supervises the planning and execution
of the operation, but the corps itself is not committed in
the objective area.
(2) An airborne operation of two or more airborne divisions
where quick ground link-up is expected. The corps par-
ticipates by supervising the planning and execution and
may commit a small headquarters and a minimum of
corps support troops into the airhead.
(3) An operation of larger scale in which the corps is the
senior army headquarters, and in which a prolonged
period in the airhead is contemplated. In such an opera-
tion, additional supervising personnel and service units
must be provided to carry out as a minimum those ad-
ministrative functions normally performed by the army.
(4) Large airborne operations in which the corps is one of
several committed. For a portion of the operation, an
assault corps may carry out certain army administrative
functions before the arrival of the higher headquarters
in the objective area.
16. THE AIRBORNE DIVISION
a. The basic large tactical airborne unit is the division. Its pri-
mary role is to make parachute and assault aircraft assaults. It
is capable of landing in unprepared areas and immediately and
effectively engaging the enemy. The initial lack of heavy weapons
in the airhead must be compensated for by superior combat train-
ing, effective use of surprise, and preponderance of force. The
airborne division, as initially committed, can be expected to fight
and exist as a tactical unit without relief or resupply for 48 to
72 hours.
b. The division requires at least 7 days to prepare for an opera-
tion unless already marshalled at departure airfields. When mar-
shalled, this period may be reduced to 48 hours.
c. In organizing for combat, the division is divided into the
assault, follow-up, and rear echelons. The assault echelon normally
includes parachute and assault aircraft elements. The follow-up
echelon may include airplane, overland, or seaborne elements. The
rear echelon includes administrative personnel and the parachute
maintenance company. Priority of aircraft is given to units in the
order in which they are needed in the assault. This priority is
established by combat teams or by each regiment, separate batta!-
ion, and separate company as dictated by function, by weight, and
by bulk of organic equipment.
AGO 2150B
19
{ 9
d. The major elements of the airborne division are the same as
those of an infantry division with the exception of a pathfinder
detachment in division headquarters company, antitank platoons,
and a parachute maintenance company. For further details on the
organization of the airborne division see appendix I.
17. THE AIR-LANDED UNIT
a. Any unit may be adapted for air movement after sufficient
training and with certain modifications of equipment, although
extensive modification may preclude the unit's efficiently perform-
ing its primary mission and thus make air transport uneconom-
ical. With the exception of heavy and medium armor, some heavy
artillery, and heavy engineer equipment, the infantry division,
the corps, and the army can now be prepared for movement by air.
b. Air movement of other than airborne forces is justified when
geographical obstacles, hostile forces, distances, and time consid-
erations preclude or seriously limit the use of other types of move-
ment.
Section IV. THEATER ORGANIZATION FOR LOGISTICAL SUPPORT
OF AIRBORNE OPERATIONS
18. GENERAL
a. The theater organizational structure and the number, type,
and scope of airborne operations contemplated in the approved
theater campaign plan will combine to dictate the logistical organ-
ization required to support the airborne operations in that theater.
b. Logistical support of airborne operations is normally fur-
nished on a uniservice basis, coordinated by the joint airborne
force commander to the extent necessary for the accomplishment
of the airborne mission.
c. A joint logistical operating organization may be established
when uniservice support coordinated by the joint airborne force
commander is not capable of providing effective support as a result
of-
(1) The scale of the forces involved.
(2) The complex nature of the operation.
(3) Peculiarities of the theater (geography, location, size,
and the service having primary interest).
19. ORGANIZATION, COMMAND AND CONTROL OF AIR TRANS-
PORT OPERATIONS IN THE THEATER
a. There are two types of air transportation in the Air Force:
20
AGO 21TOo
strategic and tactical. While both types provide air transportation
for personnel and supplies, they should not be considered as hav-
ing the same mission.
(1) The Military Air Transport Service (MATS) provides
intertheater or strategic air transportation. MATS has
the normal mission of providing world-wide logistical
support by air and is normally employed on regularly
established routes on a scheduled basis. MATS opera-
tions are normally controlled by MATS headquarters
located in the zone of interior.
(2) Troop carrier units, in addition to their primary mission
of transporting airborne units into combat, provide tac-
tical or intratheater air transportation. Airborne opera-
tions are usually of comparatively short duration at in-;
frequent intervals. Hence, maximum efficiency in the enL ,
ployment of troop carrier aircraft is achieved only if
plans and organizations exist which utilize troop carrier
aircraft in their secondary role of providing air trans-
portation.
b. The aerial port command is an Army transportation organ-
ization with command and operational control over the terminal
operations.at aerial ports in a theater. An aerial port consists of
the installation, facilities and personnel or organization which
are required for the performance of the terminal operations, i.e.,
those operations which effect control over the ground movements
of cargo or personnel to be transported by aircraft. The terminal
operations include-
(1) Call Forward of cargo and personnel from supply in-
stallations to point of transfer to air transport.
(2) Coordination with an Air Force agency to insure that
such Call Forward is in consonance with aircraft sched-
ules.
(3) Intransit storage of Army cargo.
(4) Checking adequacy of packaging, marking, and docu-
mentation to insure identification at destination.
(5) Loading and unloading of cargo and/or personnel into or
from the aircraft.
(6) Clearance of cargo and personnel from terminals to in-
sure timely delivery to consignee. An aerial port does not
include the aircraft involved in the air transport opera-
tion, nor any other facilities on the base or airfield for
the maintenance, operation or control of aircraft or Air
Force personnel concerned with aircraft operation.
AGO 2150B
21
c. Aerial ports are located on or at designated arrival or de-
parture airfields which are required for intra-theater air move-
ment of cargo or personnel in support of combat or administra-
tive operations.
d. Control, administration, and supervision of theater policies
regarding air transportation at theater level is exercised by the
theater commander through the Theater Air Transportation
Board. When army interest in this means of transportation is pre-
dominant, control of aerial port ground cargo and personnel han-
dling operations is through the theater Army commander. The
theater commander controls troop carrier operations through the
theater Air Force commander. Thus army aerial port organiza-
tions combine with troop carrier units to provide the theater air
transportation service.
e. Normal Air Force organization for air transport operations
places the troop carrier force as a major theater Air Force com-
mand or a numbered air force, depending on its size, under the
command of the theater Air Force commander.
f. The theater Army commander may discharge his responsi-
bility for the operation of aerial port organizations in several
ways, depending upon the geographics and logistical organization
of the theater. In a theater established on a land mass and in which
army logistical responsibility is vested in a communications zone,
control of aerial ports is usually delegated to the communications
zone commander. The communications zone commander normally
establishes an aerial ports command which operates similar to
any intersectional service of the communications zone. When the
geographics of the theater are such that logistical responsibility
is delegated to commanders of base or island commands, the re-
sponsibility for operation of aerial port facilities may be given to
such commanders or may be retained directly under the theater
Army commander. In the latter case, the theater Army com-
mander usually establishes an aerial ports command for the con-
trol of aerial ports.
g. When an airborne operation is carried out, troop carrier
forces are normally placed under the command of the airborne
force commander. The size of the operation and its duration will
dictate the portion of the troop carrier forces available in the the-
ater which are so used. Aerial port organizations may be called
upon to assist in mounting airborne operations and/or to perform
the terminal operations in connection with the logistical support
of airborne operations. The number of aerial ports involved in sup-
port of an airborne operation ordinarily will be the minimum
number determined essential to provide adequate operational and
22
AGO 2150B
logistical support to the operation. Since airborne operations nor-
mally will be mounted from a considerable number of airfields
other than those which have been designated as aerial ports, per-
sonnel from aerial port organizations may be placed on tempo-
rary duty at such departure airfields for the purpose of assisting
the mounting, when so required. When the aerial port facilities
are controlled by communications zone and communications zone
is given responsibility for mounting the operation, control of the
port organizations will usually remain with the communications
zone. Where theater Army Commanders directly control the ports,
the required number of ports will normally be assigned to the air-
borne force commander who will be responsible for their operation
in supporting the airborne force. Where aerial ports are under a
base command which is responsible for mounting the airborne
operation, they will normally be retained under control of the base
command.
I
i....heter
air transportation
JoinI
5
__
mrmt ct
-
_
Trp ar:r
Aerial ports
forjce
S
wg.T_
__
_
f
e
_
Figure
M
. Type command structure for theater air transport operations.
20. MOUNTING AGENCIES
a. Normally the army communications zone is given the respon-
sibility for mounting airborne operations.
Communications zone
delegates mounting responsibility to one of its subordinate sections
if the mounting area and the major portion of the departure air-
AGO 2150B
23
fields are within the territorial limits of a single section. Where the
mounting area and airfields are in more than one section, communi-
cations zone assigns appropriate missions to each section and
closely coordinates and supervises their activities.
b.
In unusual situations, or where a communications zone or
similar agency has not been established, or where the communica-
tions zone facilities are not located in the vicinity of the mounting
area, an organization for mounting the operation may be estab-,
lished under the command of the airborne task force commander.
24
AGO 2150B
CHAPTER 2
PLANNING AND PREPARATION FOR
AN AIRBORNE OPERATION
Section . PLANNING PROCEDURE
21. PRELIMINARY PLANNING
a. At theater, preliminary tactical planning includes selection
of tentative airborne missions based on-
(1) Predicted rate and extent of advance of ground opera-
tions.
(2) Predicted state of readiness for combat of airborne and
other air-transported units.
(3) Predicted availability of logistical support.
(4) Predicted availability of aircraft.
(5) Enemy capabilities and probable enemy reaction to
planned ground operation.
(6) Terrain analysis.
b. By correlating these factors, the theater planning staff con-
ceives possible airborne operations. From among these emerge cer-
tain probable operations which are assigned to subordinate units
for development.
c. A unit directed to plan one or more airborne operations begins
planning immediately on receipt of a directive and continues until
the operation is either canceled or executed. The unit plans its
tactical operation within the limits of availability of aircraft, logis-
tical support, and intelligence of the projected landing area. The
amount of detail in planning, and the detail in which intelligence
is sought, will vary with the echelon of the headquarters.
d. Collection, evaluation, and interpretation of information
should result, for preliminary planning, in dissemination of the fol-
lowing intelligence planning data to subordinate units:
(1) Small-scale air photos of the landing area.
(2) Large-scale photos of the landing area for selecting as-
sembly areas and planning ground operations.
(3) Air photo and interpretation reports covering enemy
activities and ground and air installations within and
adjacent to the projected airhead.
AGO 2160B
25
(4) Aerial reconnaissance reports.
(5) Overlays prepared with descriptions of obstacles, defen-
sive works, navigational hindrances, and landing areas.
(6) Necessary maps.
(7) Enemy capabilities.
(8) Information concerning enemy methods and tactical pro-
cedures.
(9) Special studies applicable to the airhead.
(10) Accurate large-scale terrain models of the landing area.
22. PLANNING DIRECTIVE
a. Warning directives from higher headquarters may be oral and
fragmentary in the early stages of planning. A complete directive
is issued later, usually as a result of a joint theater conference.
b. Directives issued at all levels of command should contain
the following information:
(1) General mission and plan.
(2) Approximate time and duration of operation.
(3) Necessary intelligence (including enemy order of battle).
(4) Plans for deception and secrecy.
(5) Friendly troop list.
(6) General landing area.
(7) Composition, equipment, and departure airfields of air
force units.
(8) Necessary logistical information and instructions.
(9) Signal communication arrangements.
(10) Pathfinders and guides.
(11) Special equipment.
(12) Arrangements for altering or canceling operation.
23. PLANNING TECHNIQUE
a. General. An airborne operation plan is the outgrowth of con-
tinuous preliminary planning developed by theater and unit staffs.
This continuous planning must be consistent with the changing
tactical and logistical conditions in the theater. Detailed planning
is then best developed by backward planning from the objective
area and in the following sequence:
(1) Develop ground tactical plan, determine strength and
composition of the forces required, and then begin de-
velopment of the logistical plan.
(2) Develop a landing plan which indicates the sequence,
time, and place of arrival of troops and materiel.
Zi6
AGO 21GOB
(3) Prepare flight and air movement plans based on the land-
ing plan.
(4) Prepare marshalling plan based on plan of air movement.
b. Simplicity. Simplicity must be the guiding principle if an
involved operational plan and an excessive time requirement for
planning are to be prevented. To attain simplicity-
(1) Do not inject an airborne operation into a major ground
operation which is already planned, when sufficient time
is not available to integrate completely the airborne
participation.
(2) Do not depend on a plan which is entirely contingent
upon the arrival of any one air serial or tactical unit.
(3) Do not prescribe difficult and distant objectives immedi-
ately after landing.
(4) Do not duplicate objectives.
(5) Avoid involved assembly plans.
(6) Prescribe directional changes in the air route only at
prominent check points.
(7) Use landmarks which are easy to locate and identify from
the air.
(8) Avoid a complicated scheme of landing.
(9) Make sufficient allowance in air-movement tables for
operational delays in take-off, assembly of air forma-
tions, and landings.
(10) Avoid splitting a tactical unit between serials.
(11) Avoid a complicated plan for distribution of troops at
departure airfields.
c. Standing Operating Procedures. Planning time requirements
can be reduced by development of airborne, troop carrier, and com-
munications zone standing operating procedures.
Section II. TACTICAL PLANNING
24. AIRBORNE FORCE ASSAULT PLAN
a. General. Paragraphs 25 and 26 are generally based upon
planning for an airborne division in the assault, however, the
sequence of planning and the tactical principles and techniques
are equally applicable to larger units.
b. Responsibilities. For responsibilities of the airborne com-
mander in planning, see appendix VII.
(1) Upon receipt of a directive and assembly of necessary
planning data and intelligence, active planning is be-
AGO 2150B
27
gun. Planning follows the same principles as in normal
ground operations but must include appreciation of air
and airborne technical problems.
(2) The plan for the airborne assault and seizure of the air-
head must be prepared with minimum delay. Much de-
tailed planning, particularly as to supply, communication,
and air operations is dependent on this plan. Develop-
ment of the plan involves consideration of the strength
and composition of forces; mission assignments; area of
attack to include principal drop and landing zones, air-
strips, and airfields to be captured; the general plan of
maneuver for major combat elements; enemy capabilities;
the approximate date and time of the landing; the general
plan of supply for the force; and the assignment of troop
carrier units to lift elements of the force.
(3) The final attack plan is based on assault plans as modi-
fied by and integrated with troop carrier and tactical air
capabilities.
c. Composition of the Airborne Force.
(1) The airborne force must be organized to execute the mis-
sion or missions assigned. No standard organization
can be prescribed in advance to meet all conditions.
(2) Combat elements of the airborne force are selected in
accordance with the mission and operating conditions
imposed. These may include parachute, assault aircraft,
or other air-transportable forces, or any combination
thereof.
Supporting elements may include chemical
weapons, field artillery, antiaircraft artillery, aviation
engineers, combat engineers, medical, and other service
units, depending on the need. If ground link-up or junc-
ture is expected within a relatively short time, some of
these elements may move with an overland or sea element.
(3) When practicable, reinforcing combat and supporting
service units should be made available to the airborne
commander throughout the period of preparation for, and
the execution of, the airborne operation.
(4) Troop and cargo-carrying capabilities, availability of
aircraft, the initial landing capacity of the airhead, and
other limitations impose definite restrictions on the or-
ganization of the airborne force.
Special planning is,
therefore, necessary to reduce aircraft requirements and
insure maximum fire power and mobility in the parachute
or assault aircraft elements.
28
AGO 2150B
25. ORGANIZATION FOR COMBAT
a. General. Upon the assignment of a specific airborne mission,
the airborne division is habitually organized into three echelons:
the assault echelon, the follow-up echelon, and the rear echelon.
b. Assault Echelon. The assault echelon is composed of the
parachute and assault aircraft elements which are used to seize an
airhead. The assault echelon consists of the combat teams, the
division reserve, division troops, and combat units not attached to
combat teams.
(1) Combat teams. The basic combat team organization for
an airborne assault is an infantry regiment and an artil-
lery battalion with such attachments or detachments as
the situation requires. Combat team formations should
be terminated as soon as centralized control is practic-
able, usually as soon as initial objectives are seized.
(2) Division reserve. The division reserve normally consists
of an infantry battalion. Units designated as reserve may
have a limited combat mission upon landing, such as pro-
tecting a landing zone. Thereafter, these units assemble
in a central location for employment as division reserve.
(3) Division troops. Division troops consist of the command,
control, and administrative elements necessary for cen-
tralized direction.
c. Follow-up Echelon. The follow-up echelon is that part of the
division (less rear echelon) which is not initially brought into com-
bat by air transport but which joins the assault echelon as soon as
possible after the airhead has been seized and secured. This eche-
lon may move by sea, air, overland, or a combination of these meth-
ods. Depending upon the means of transportation used, the follow-
up echelon will consist of additional vehicles and heavy equipment
of units in the assault echelon and organic units of the division not
in the assault echelon.
d. Rear Echelon. The rear echelon is that part of the division
which is left at the base camps to perform administrative functions
which are most efficiently accomplished in the rear. It normally
consists of the parachute maintenance company, and the adminis-
trative elements of the division and its subordinate units.
26. OPERATIONAL PLANN'NG PROCEDURE
a. Preliminary Planning. Preliminary planning is essential if
any specific operation is to be executed efficiently on short notice.
A major task in this planning is the preparation of aircraft require-
AGO 2150B
29
ment tables. Obviously, it is impossible to have tables covering
every conceivable combination of parachute airplanes and assault
aircraft. However, a group of tables showing the number of air-
planes required for optimum operating conditions and the require-
ments for minimum operating conditions should be prepared. Sup-
plementary tables for conditions between optimum and minimum
expedite planning upon receipt of a mission. These tables serve
as a basis for scaling down the division after the allocation of air-
craft for a particular operation is received.
b. Planning Sequence. The orderly development of a complete
plan for an airborne operation is based on backward planning from
the objective area in the sequence: tactical plan, landing plan, air-
movement plan, and marshalling plan.
c. Tactical Plan.
(1) The mission of an airborne operation as assigned by
higher headquarters may vary from a very general mis-
sion such as "Land in the vicinity of
and block the movement of enemy troops from the north"
to a very specific mission such as "Seize and hold the
bridges at
and
until relieved by III
Corps."
(2) On receipt of an assigned mission, the airborne division
commander translates the mission into terms of objectives
on the ground which must be seized and held to accom-
plish the mission. After considering the delay required,
the frontages, the terrain, the enemy, and our own forces,
positions are selected forward of the objectives, on each
major route of enemy advance on which the division will
stop or delay such advance. A line connecting these de-
fensive or delaying positions is drawn and becomes the
airhead line. A reconnaissance and security line is placed
in advance of the airhead line. Outposts and patrols are
pushed forward to this line immediately on landing. It
may be desirable to designate defensive positions inside
the airhead line in order to facilitate organization of the
ground and to coordinate any retrograde movements.
(3) Each of the three combat teams is then assigned an area
by drawing boundaries including the objectives and the
portions of the airhead and reconnaissance and security
line which it is to seize and defend.
Normally, each
combat team is assigned primary objectives and defensive
objectives. However, one or more combat teams may be
entirely committed to blocking dangerous routes of enemy
approach, or one or more may be committed to capturing
30
AGO 2150B
an extensive or heavily defended objective. The combat
team furnishing the division reserve is given a smaller
sector or fewer objectives so that it is not overextended.
The standing operating procedure organization for com-
bat or aircraft allocations may be altered in order to
adjust the combat teams to their missions.
(4) Once the combat teams have been assigned their tasks,
an assembly area for the division reserve is located
either centrally or close to the probable area of commit-
ment. Initial locations for division troops are selected
where the terrain and road net facilitate their function-
ing.
(5) Temporary boundaries may be used initially to facilitate
the assault, changing to other boundaries during the de-
fensive phase.
d. Landing Plan.
(1) Army and troop carrier commanders make an over-all
allotment of supporting troop carrier units based on the
mission, forces required, and general landing areas
selected.
(2) Division and supporting troop carrier commanders study
assigned landing areas to select and agree on specific
drop and landing zones, airstrips and airfields. In formu-
lating the division tactical plan, the sequence and exact
place for landing of all units is established in the follow-
ing manner:
(a) Concurrently with the development of the tactical
plan, troop carrier A2 and the division G2 select all
usable drop and landing zones in or near the airhead.
(b) Based on this information, the division G3 decides
what drop and landing zones will be used by each unit
of the division and the order in which these units will
land. Troop carrier command maintains close touch
with this process.
(c) If a combat team does not have enough drop or land-
ing zones, boundaries may be shifted or the unit may
be permitted to land in the area of another unit.
(d) Priority or order of landing is applicable only within
the parachute and assault aircraft elements. Except
under very exceptional circumstances the entire para-
chute element (both normal personnel loads and heavy
equipment drops) is delivered followed by the entire
assault aircraft element.
AGO 2150B
31
e. Selection of Landing Areas. The nature and location of land-
ing areas are important considerations in formulating the scheme
of maneufver. The general area in which they are to be established
is nebessarily governed by the mission. On the higher command
levels landing areas may be assigned in broad general terms. In
lower units more specific designation of their locations is required.
Their actual sites, as finally selected, are dependent to a large ex-
tent upon the number, type, and relative position of the drop zones,
landing zones, and airstrips or airfields. Landing areas must pro-
vide initial disposition of troops favorable to the attack and must
be of sufficient size to accommodate the landing forces. As a'guide,
a battalion of parachutists can land on a field 1,700 yards square.
Assault aircraft can land at the rate of 15 to 20 per minute per air
column, but the size of landing zones required is dependent on
obstacles on the final approach line and on landing characteristics
of the aircraft.
(1) Desirable characteristics of drop zones and landing zones
are-
(a) Ease of identification from the air under expected
conditions of visibility.
(b) A straight approach by aircraft.
(c) Close proximity to ground objectives.
(d) Cover and concealment in close proximity to landing
areas.
(e) Relative freedom from antiairborn6 obstacles and
antiaircraft defenses.
(f) Close proximity to dominating terrain, covered routes
of approach to objectives, good road nets, and terrain
favorable for defense against armored attack.
(g) Capability of being mutually supporting.
(2) Desirable characteristics of airstrips and airfields are-
(a) Runways of sufficient length and strength to accom-
modate the type of aircraft to be landed.
(b) Parking and dispersal areas of such size as to accom-
modate anticipated forces and mat6riel to be landed.
(c) A road net capable of handling all traffic to and from
the field.
(d) A suitable bivouac area for the operational personnel
at the field.
(e) An area in close proximity suitable for assembling
troops on arrival.
(f) Adequate areas and facilities for supply and evacua-
tion establishments when required.
(g) Clear air approaches to runway.
32
AGO 2150B
f. Air-Movement Plan.
(1) The air-movement plan involves the loading of units into
parachute and assault aircraft serials of 15 to 60 air-
planes based on the initial decisions reached in the land-
ing plan. The work sheet in appendix XII is an invaluable
aid and explains the process briefly.
(2) All parachute (or assault aircraft) elements landing on
the same drop zone or landing zone are divided into
serials. It is desirable to avoid the splitting of battalions
or companies between two serials. Serials are assigned
to take-off airfields so that combat teams will be on the
same or on neighboring airfields during the briefing peri-
od. Troop carrier units, on the other hand, attempt to
keep all aircraft of each group on their home airfield, or
if that is not practicable to restrict transfers between
groups to complete squadrons.
Obviously, compromises
between troop carrier and airborne units will be neces-
sary.
(3) The air-movement plan is completed by transferring
data on the work sheets to an air-movement table.
g. Marshalling. See paragraph 37 for details.
h. The Airhead.
(1) In an airborne operation the airhead is the area in hostile
or threatened territory which has been seized by the air-
borne assault force. The airhead consists of the entire
area under control of the airborne force. It must contain
adequate space to insure contemplated landing of troops,
supplies, and mat6riel and to protect critical installa-
tions. It includes the specific objectives, landing area,
airstrips, and airfields that are available or to be con-
structed. The principal factors which determine the lo-
cation, extent, and form of an airhead are-
(a) The mission of the entire force.
(b) Specific objectives to be seized.
(c) Landing areas available.
(d) Size and organization of forces involved.
(e) Offensive and defensive characteristics or capabilities
of the terrain.
(f) Time available for organization of ground.
(g) Expected time of link-up or reinforcement.
(h) Enemy capabilities and expected enemy reaction.
(2) Since an enemy counterattack against an airhead may be
launched from any direction, the airborne force responsi-
AGO 2150B
33
ble for maintaining the airhead must assume dispositions
for all all-around defense.
(3) The scheme of maneuver for seizing and defending an
airhead is prescribed by assigning missions to subordin-
ate units and by selecting objectives, phase lines, and
boundaries.
(4) Normally, the operation map or overlay shows a recon-
naissance and security line, an airhead line, and neces-
sary additional objectives or phase lines. These lines
may vary in location as the operation develops. The air-
head line marks the outer limits of the area which is to
be denied to the enemy by employing the principles of
mobile defense.
(5) The reconnaissance and security line is located forward
of the airhead line. It is established immediately on land-
ing in order to afford security to the airborne force during
the critical landing and reorganization period. Whenever
possible, the reconnaissance and security line is located
on dominant terrain which gives observation of likely en-
emy avenues of approach and it is normally located within
supporting range of artillery within the airhead. It is
composed of a series of observation posts and road blocks
which may or may not be mutually supporting. In the
early stages of an airborne operation it performs the same
type mission as a screening force and in the later stages,
when assault missions have been accomplished and the
airhead is relatively secure, it performs generally the
same function as does the outpost line of resistance in a
conventional defense. In large operations where light
armored units or special highly mobile units are attached,
the reconnaissance and security line may be located at
a greater distance in advance of the airhead line.
i. Scheme of Maneuver. The general scheme of maneuver after
landing is 'based upon normal considerations governing the conduct
of ground operations but is modified by the special conditions which
develop from dispersed landings and lack of initial command con-
trol. Special consideration must be given to time and place at which
the assault and reserve elements are landed; consolidation and re-
organization of the assault forces; and capabilities of the airhead
organization to continue fire and logistical support.
j. Assembly. Plans for use of all available assembly aids must
be made. Once landed, speed in obtaining equipment and reorganiz-
ing troops into their combat organization is of paramount impor-
tance. The speed of assembly of air-landed troops exceeds that of
34
AGO 2150B
parachutists if the former are transported in small complete tacti-
cal units. Units having immediate specific missions should proceed
on those missions without waiting for assembly of entire units.
k. Regaining of Command Control. The dispersion of troops
during landing requires that the initial effort of all commanders
and staff officers be devoted to regaining the command control.ne-
cessary for effective direction of the assault force. This requires
plans for adequate briefing, predetermined location of command
posts, and rapid establishment of communication.
1. Alternate Plans. Alternate plans which will accomplish the
mission should be prepared. They should provide for such contin-
gencies as failure of any part of the assault force to attain all ob-
jectives and changes in weather conditions which may interfere
with the landings. A means must be provided for communicating
to subordinate units the decision to execute an alternate plan.
m. Reserves. Reserves are normally located in the airhead. Un-
der special conditions they may be held at departure bases ready
for commitment. Lack of suitable airfields in the airhead may re-
quire planning to retain some combat elements in departure bases
for use as reserves.
n. Timing of Operation.
(1) In selecting the hour of landing, consideration is given
to the enemy situation and capabilities, the influence
of predicted weather, visibility as affected by daylight
and darkness, and plan of cooperating or supported
forces.
(2) Daylight permits better air support and better visibility
both from the air and from the ground. Operations can,
therefore, normally be executed more accurately in day-
light.
(3) The principal advantages of landing at night are that
darkness aids tactical surprise and reduces the effective-
ness of the defender's fire. Its disadvantages are the in-
creased dispersion on landing, with consequent diffi-
culties of assembling troops, and the decrease in effec-
tiveness of close air support.
(4) Before resorting to a night landing, consideration should
be given to the use of smoke in conjunction with a day-
light landing.
o. Air-landed Operations. When required, plans are developed to
bring in air-landed troops and mat6riel after the seizure of an air-
head and the construction or capture of suitable airfields. These
troops may include infantry divisions, corps and army troops, and
service elements to support them.
AGO 21650B
35
27. AIR SUPPORT PLAN
a. The air support plan is based on the over-all Air Force mis-
sion and the amount of strategic, tactical, and troop carrier air ef-
fort available.
b. The detailed air plan is based on the following:
(1) Required degree of air superiority, and extent of the
area (s) over which it must be maintained.
(2) Battle area (s) to be isolated.
(3) Extent of visual, electronic, and photo reconnaissance
required.
(4) Requirements for air defense of departure areas, air
cover of serials, air neutralization of assault area, and
close support of ground forces in the objective area.
(5) Particular emphasis is given to tactical air control par-
ties, troop carrier combat control teams, and advanced
landing field parties.
(6) Plan for air transportation and air supply.
(7) Requirements for air security, that is, premeditated em-
ployment of air power, prior to attack, to prevent dis-
closure of intent.
(8) Air deception plan or diversionary measures during at-
tack.
(9) Effect of forecasted weather on the proposed operation
and alternate plan(s) of action.
(10) Effect of enemy ground antiaircraft defenses.
c. The air plans should include provisions for-
(1) Visual reconnaissance to locate and report hostile move-
ment into, within, and away from the airhead; and to ad-
just long-range artillery.
(2) Photo reconnaissance for intelligence purposes and tac-
tical air operations.
(3) Elements of the strategic air command may be employed
when the theater commander deems it advisable and the
Joint Chiefs of Staff concur.
(4) Close support missions.
(5) Armed reconnaissance.
(6) Column cover.
(7) Air defense of the airhead day and night (including de-
nial of the air to enemy artillery observation planes).
d. When the distance from rear air bases to the proposed air-
head is great, consideration should be given to the early establish-
36
AGO 2150B
ment of fighter and reconnaissance aircraft in the airhead for the
purpose of accomplishing the missions listed in c above.
28. TROOP CARRIER PLANNING FOR AIR MOVEMENT
a. For general responsibilities of the troop carrier commander
for planning, see appendix VII. Upon designation of the general
landing area (s), troop carrier staffs will initiate planning for an
air movement. The troop carrier commander's plan for the air
movement should prescribe the use and allocation of troop carrier
units and facilities as favorable to the requirements of the airborne
commander as technical and tactical limitations permit. Backward
planning from the landing area is the best approach to the prob-
lem. Final approach route(s) and air traffic in the target area,
route over enemy and friendly territory, serial formation assem-
bly, air traffic, and concentration for the air movement are con-
sidered in that order. Plans are made for each based upon the
following considerations:
(1) Estimate of enemy air and ground dispositions which can
be avoided or neutralized.
(2) Enemy capabilities.
(3) Distinctive terrain features for use as aids to navigation,
or control, or both, and coordination points.
(4) Conformation of suitable landing areas and location of
terrain obstacles.
(5) Anticipated weather.
(6) Concept of air traffic density as it may be affected by a
day or night operation.
(7) Other terrain features which affect ground observation
and ground fire. Centers of population, main roads, prox-
imity to interceptor airfields, radar and air warning sys-
tem, antiaircraft defense system, thinly held front-line
areas and time and distance in enemy territory are all
considered for effect on the air movement and routes.
Friendly land and naval forces are also considered.
b. The air route selected should be as short as practicable,
delay alerting the enemy air defense system, take advantage of
terrain features for navigation and control points, establish a free
air-passage corridor over naval forces, where required, and mini-
mize conflict with other theater air traffic.
c. The take-off and formation assembly of group serials into
division, air force, and troop carrier command columns resemble
the tributaries of a river. They involve a detailed air traffic analy-
sis which will indicate, if not dictate, the sequence of take-off of
AGO 2150B
37
serial components. At this point, the air-movement plan and the
ground commander's landing priorities can be coordinated to form
the basis for the marshalling plan and air-movement table. The
plan is checked for accuracy, timing, effective operating radius, and
payload before being approved for coordination with other air,
land, and naval agencies. The partially completed plan is coord-
inated with other theater agencies such as strategic and tactical
air commands, air defense command, Air-Sea Rescue Service,
Navy, and senior Army headquarters. Final details for emergency
procedure, recognition signals, and the siting of electronic and
visual navigation aids are then added to complete the air-movement
plan.
29. INTELLIGENCE PLANNING
a. Intelligence planning for the collection of information and
for producing and disseminating intelligence of the objective area
is concurrent with and integrated with the planning of other staff
sections. It begins as soon as the objective area is assigned and
is a continuous operation.
b. (1) When the operational mission is announced, G2 will nor-
mally receive from higher headquarters all available intel-
ligence pertinent to the enemy situation and characteris-
tics of the area of operations. This must, be made avail-
able to other staff planners at the earliest possible mo-
ment, in order to enable them to proceed with their plan-
ning. To this end, G2, as soon as possible, prepares a
preliminary estimate based on immediately available in-
telligence. Deficiencies in this estimate will be apparent
and plans must be made at once to produce the additional
intelligence necessary for effective planning. In addi-
tion, the G2 must prepare the necessary detailed intel-
ligence studies to enable the troops to understand the
enemy situation and to produce their own plans. These
functions require that G2 prepare or procure all or some
of the following:
(a) A collection plan.
(b) Intelligence estimates.
(c) Tactical study of the weather and terrain.
(d) Landing area intelligence study.
(e) Order of battle studies.
(f) Enemy airfield summary.
(g) Defense overprints.
(h) Charts, maps, models of the objective area.
38
AGO 2150B
(i) Air photos.
(j) Photo interpretation summaries.
(k) Counterintelligence plan.
(1) Censorship instructions.
(m) Instructions regarding deceptive measures.
(n) Weather service plan.
(2) Information contained in the above plans and studies is
published in the intelligence annex to the operation order.
However, some or all of the studies may and should be-
published separately for earliest possible dissemination
to the combat troops.
c. To insure that the plan for the collection of information is
complete, the G2 must prepare a collection plan similar to the one
described in FM 30-5. The only item peculiar to airborne opera-
tions in the preparation of this plan is the almost complete de-
pendence of airborne units on higher headquarters for informa-
tion and intelligence.
d. The preparation of the intelligence estimate is a continuing
function and differs in no way from the task cohfronting units plan-
ning for other types of operation.
e. The preparation of tactical studies of the weather and terrain
assumes adided importance in airborne operations. The limits of the
airhead, the size of the assault echelon, and the assignments of
missions to subordinate units will, in some measure, be determined
by the terrain and the effect of various weather conditions. These
studies are normally disseminated as an appendix to the intelli-
gence annex.
f. (1) The landing area intelligence study is peculiar to an air-
borne unit. After the army announces location of general
landing areas, the corps G2, in conjunction with the in-
telligence officers of divisions and troop carrier units
involved in the operation, makes an intensive study of
the landing areas based on photo cover. This study is
continued until the last possible moment prior to H-hour
and is furnished the combat troops in the form of an-
notated mosaics, overlays, or written summaries.
For
each area the study should include the following:
(a) Location and landmarks.
(b) Size and shape of landing areas including maximum
absorption of assault aircraft and parachutists.
(c) Terrain, including location of assembly areas and
cover.
(d) Obstructions-natural and artificial.
AGO 2150B
39
(e) Location of enemy defenses and troops capable of
interfering with landings.
(2) The above intelligence should be disseminated separately
when required for planning by the combat units and
should be amended when changes are indicated as a re-
sult of photo interpretation or other information.
g Order of battle studies are similar to those for any type com-
bat unit. However, because of the extreme vulnerability of airborne
units to armored attack, the location of all known enemy armored
formations must be ascertained. The disposition of all uncommitted
enemy forces is determined, in order to insure that the enemy can-
not bring overwhelming forces to bear on the objective area before
the airhead has been established or before ground link-up has been
effected.
h. Enemy airfield summary includes information regarding the
number, condition, capacity, and description of all enemy airfields
in the objective area. It also includes description of possible sites
for construction of airstrips and airfields in sufficient detail to
guide engineer planning. It may be issued as a separate study but
is normally published as an appendix to the intelligence annex.
i. Defense overprints are not peculiar to airborne operations
but are of particular importance to them. They are kept up to date
by photo interpretation reports. Their distribution is described in
paragraph 5 of the intelligence annex (maps and photographs),
j, Discussion in i, above, regarding defense overprints, applies
to maps, charts, and models.
k. Air photos are the major source of information. As a result,
special emphasis is placed in planning on their procurement. Their
distribution is described in paragraphl5 of the intelligence annex,
1. The preparation of the other paragraphs of the intelligence
annex (summary of enemy situation; measures for handling pris-
oners, captured documents, and mat6riel; and distribution) are the
same as for normal ground operations. (See intelligence annex
example-app. XVII.)
m. Deceptive measures will be executed in accordance with
directives from theater headquarters; Such measures are designed
to deceive the enemy as to the actual destination, the time of the
assault, and the friendly order of battle.
n. (1) The dependence of airborne operations on proper
weather conditions make it essential to prepare a de-
tailed plan for obtaining weather information. The thea-
ter or joint airborne force weather service plan should
include the following:
40
AGO 2150B
(a) Provisions for a weather central at the highest tac-
tical headquarters involved in the operation.
(b) Instructions for aerial weather reconnaissance of all
areas that may affect the mission.
(c) Instructions for naval weather reporting from all ad-
jacent sea areas.
(d) Instructions for obtaining weather reports from all
air weather service detachments in areas that may
affect the mission.
(e) Communication instructions for the dissemination and
collection of all required weather information.
(f) Instructions for the establishment of weather service
in the objective area.
(2) Army units involved in airborne operations publish only
that weather information which affects their own task.
This information is normally published as an appendix
to the intelligence annex.
o. As in any type operation, intelligence planning conducted
during the operational phase must provide for the collection and
reporting of necessary information and the dissemination of intel-
ligence produced from this information. Existing intelligence must
be revised continuously as new intelligence is developed. Essen-
tial elements of information and the collection plan are altered as
the situation develops so as to reflect current intelligence needs.
Airborne units are initially dependent upon higher headquarters
for the bulk of the intelligence required. This is because of their
comparative unfamiliarity with the terrain and the enemy situa-
tion. This condition is alleviated to some degree in the later stages
of the operation by the fact that airborne operations normally be-
come defensive in nature after the seizure of the objective and an
opportunity is offered to become completely familiar with the ter-
rain and the enemy situation.
30. COUNTERINTELLIGENCE
PLAN
a. General.
(1) The security problems of airborne operations are com-
plicated by the fact that airborne units are fewer in num-
ber than other types of units. For this reason they are
more easily followed by enemy agents. The massing of
cargo aircraft, movements to airfields, and associated
marshalling activities are also rather easily detected.
The security of these activities becomes even more im-
portant with the enemy capability of the tactical use of
AGO 2150B
41
atomic weapons.
There are, however, certain factors
which tend to counterbalance these difficulties, namely,
the extreme mobility of airborne troops and the fact that
units are normally located some distance to the rear.
this necessitates penetration by enemy aircraft or use of
agents with long-range communication to obtain informa-
tion on the marshalling or location of our forces.
(2) The fundamental purpose of security regulations is to
deny to the enemy all information relating to the date,
time, and place of the airborne operation and the strength,
disposition, tactics, and equipment of the troops em-
ployed.
Since the success of the majority of airborne
operations depends on attaining surprise, it is essential
that security surrounds all operations.
(3) Security is a responsibility of all ground, air, and com-
munications zone commanders.
(4) Security instructions, including those on censorship, are
usually so detailed that they are published as an appen-
dix to the intelligence annex.
b. Security During the Planning Phase.
(1) Vital information concerning the pending operation
should be disseminated only to those who absolutely need
it for completion of their work. To this end, a table is
generally prepared indicating at what date various eche-
lons of command may receive certain portions of the
operation plan.
(2) All actual work on the operation should be done in a
war room which is thoroughly secure. All maps, charts,
tables, and documents should be kept in the war room.
When the appropriate time arrives for lower echelons to
receive planning information, similar secure installa-
tions should be prepared and operated by these echelons
under the direction of unit intelligence officers. A special
pass system should be initiated for the planning phase
for all those whose official duties require them to have
access to the planning rooms.
(3) Complete unit censorship should be effected prior to
movement to the marshalling areas. Unit identification,
vehicle markings, and distinctive items of uniform may be
removed, covered, or changed when considered necessary.
(4) No civilian or unauthorized military personnel should be
allowed in the headquarters, training areas, troop bivou-
acs, or other installations except upon specific authority
42
AGO 2150B
of the intelligence officers. Accredited war correspond-
ents, photographers, and Red Cross personnel should be
treated as military personnel, once they have been offi-
cially recognized and approved by G2.
(5) The Counter Intelligence Corps should be required to as-
sist in the control of civilians in and about troop areas
and should initiate activities to provide a check on the
effectiveness of the security measures in the base camp
and in the surrounding areas.
(6) Leaves are normally concluded by a specific date before
the operation. The resulting disappearance of airborne
personnel from recreational centers may cause a breach
of security and requires special measures to prevent con-
clusion that an operation is pending.
c. Security During the Marshalling Phase.
(1) During this phase the enemy has the greatest oppor-
tunity to determine intentions of the airborne force.
Therefore, the most stringent of security measures must
be effected.
(2) Prior to departure for the marshalling areas the Counter
Intelligence Corps detachments should make a security
check of all marshalling areas. They should conduct a
further security check of the base camp after the depar-
ture of troops for the marshalling areas.
(3) Time of movements to any location of the marshalling
areas should not be revealed to any person except those
who require the knowledge in the performance of mili-
tary duty. Departure to the marshalling areas in hours
of darkness is desirable if practical.
(4) All personal papers, and items bearing unit identifica-
tions should be collected from individuals prior to take-
off. All mail written during the last few days in the base
camp and in the marshalling areas should be collected
and held until the operation has been announced by
higher headquarters-normally after the airborne force
has landed in the objective area.
(5) When troops are sealed into the marshalling areas, de-
parture therefrom or communication with unauthorized
military or civilian personnel is prohibited. A special
pass system should be prescribed for those whose offi-
cial duties require them to leave the marshalling area.
(6) All personnel sent to hospitals after departure from base
camps and prior to commitment to action should be in-
AGO 2150B
43
formed regarding security precautions. They should be
isolated from all other patients until the operation is
officially announced.
(7) Briefing of troops should be initiated at the latest prac-
tical moment and should not begin until troops are sealed
in the marshalling area. Guarded huts, tents, or build-
ings within the marshalling area should be used for brief-
ing. Care should be exercised to keep briefing aids from
personnel not authorized to see them.
(8) Only official messages are received or dispatched after
arrival in the marshalling areas. Communication systems
are monitored to insure compliance with this directive.
d. Security During Air Movement and After Arrival in Airhead.
Orders, marked maps, overlays, or other intelligence or operational
material should not be carried in the air echelon except as author-
ized by higher headquarters and then some means must be pro-
vided for their instantaneous destruction should the necessity
arise. After arrival in the airhead, the problems of security are
substantially the same as those for normal ground operations, but
the G2 is expected to maintain security with limited personnel and
equipment and over areas much larger or more widely dispersed
than are usually encountered in ground operations.
31. SIGNAL COMMUNICATION
PLAN
a. Joint signal plans must be prepared in order that communi-
cation facilities of each component of the force may be integrated
and coordinated. Joint plans for signal communication are neces-
sary with-
(1) The troop carrier units.
(2) Naval, air force, and artillery units providing fire sup-
port.
(3) The command which retains control until contact is
made with advancing ground forces.
(4) The commander of advancing ground forces.
(5) Friendly advancing units with whom contact is expected
in the airhead.
b. Signal plans for airborne forces should include the following
insofar as they may be appropriate:
(1) Procurement of additional personnel required for special
installations.
(2) Preparation of standing operating procedures and signal
operation instructions.
44
AGO 2150B
(3)
Headquarters communication and communication to sub-
ordinate, adjacent, higher, and other interested head-
quarters.
(4) Allocation of frequencies, channels, codes, and ciphers
not covered in signal operation instructions.
(5) Instructions to subordinate communication officers con-
cerning proposed signal communication responsibilities.
(6) Coordination measures with higher and other headquar-
ters.
(7) Distribution of plans and orders for all units in the mar-
shalling area.
(8) Communication intelligence and communication security.
(9) Use of joint and special cryptographic aids.
(10) Signal personnel and equipment to go into the airhead,
by teams and air serials, for each tactical plan.
(11) Signal equipment and supplies to be landed by aircraft
and the sequence of their delivery to include extra equip-
ment to replace losses expected in the assault.
(12) Elements of signal units, if any, which are to remain at
the departure areas to aid in the movement of signal sup-
plies and equipment.
(13) Location of the division rear echelon-in the airhead, or
at departure area, and the signal personnel required.
(14) The installation and operation of air support request
communication channels.
(15) Provision of public information signal communication
facilities.
(16) In addition to provisions for the standard ground com-
munication system, airborne signal plans must provide
for pathfinder units, small unit assembly in the forward
area, contact nets; and communication to and within base
elements which remain in the departure area.
32. PLANS FOR CONSOLIDATION AND BUILD-UP OF TROOPS
AND MATERIEL
a. After assault units have seized their objectives and accom-
plished initial missions, a transition to the defensive is usually
necessary. Units must effect a change in passing from an attack on
the initial objectives to a perimeter defense formation. This change
of front can be effected if the'plan of the airhead commander in-
cludes selection of an airhead line and prescribes boundaries be-
tween units.
AGO 2150B
45
b. Phase lines may be designated as the D-day-, or D + 1- or
D + 2-day, line. They should be placed on the best defensive ter-
rain which the commander feels he can seize by a particular day.
c. The conduct of the defense of the airhead is usually dele-
gated to the commander of the assault force. In preparation for
this defense, the commander plans to phase in troops and supplies,
to reinforce his artillery, to furnish an integrated antitank de-
fense, to reinforce his reconnaissance and security units, and to
supplement his antiaircraft defense. The plan must be flexible to
permit changes as the tactical situation varies.
d. The plan for building up troops and supplies in the airhead
must support the over-all size and mission of the airborne force.
The plan, after coordination and adjustment, is translated into an
air-movement plan. Some major factors to be considered in the
build-up plan are-
(1) Airfield construction.
(2) Development of a system for the reception of troops and
mat6riel.
(3) Concentration of units for further operations.
(4) Installation of logistical facilities on a scale to support
contemplated operations.
33. PLANS FOR EXPLOITATION
The exploitation phase insures the fulfillment of the operational
mission. Plans for successful exploitation may include-
a. Enlarging the airhead as an advanced air-base, naval base,
port, or missile site.
b. Denying the enemy use of critical terrain, road and rail nets,
canals, natural resources, and potential allies.
c. Destruction or capture of manufacturing areas, resources,
missile sites, airfields, or enemy forces.
,
d. Seizing terrain inaccessible to other type ground troops.
34. PLANS FOR CONTACT WITH ADVANCING FRIENDLY FORCES
a. If the initial contact is with naval forces, at a port or shore
line, plans should be made for eliminating enemy opposition, co-
ordinating naval gunfire and air support, and signalling safe entry
to waterborne units.
b. If an inland contact with advancing ground forces is con-
templated, plans must be made for coordinated use of air and artil-
lery support. Requirements are-
46
AGO 2150B
(1) Prearranged plans for juncture and assumption of com-
mand by senior headquarters.
(2) Command and staff liaison.
(3) A system of mutual recognition and identification pre-
scribed in signal operation instructions.
(4) Early radio contact to establish front-line positions, fire
coordination line and bomb safety lines.
(5) Maximum use of available army aircraft to describe
positions and to azssst in making final link-up.
35. PLANNING BY UNITS LOWER THAN DIVISION
a. Subject to the security restrictions placed on the operation,
the planning of subordinate units proceeds concurrently with that
of higher units. Units lower than battalions complete planning on
supply, air movement, and matters other than tactics without
complete knowledge of the tactical plan.
b. Regimental commanders participate in division planning.
They advise the division commander as to any recommended
changes in drop zones, landing zones, boundaries, and objectives,
and submit requests for special weapons and equipment needed.
Once the division plan is fixed, lower units prepare detailed tacti-
cal plans which assign assembly areas, objectives, and sectors to
their lower units.
c. Planning for air movement in lower units involves prepara-
tion of flight forms shown in appendix XIII. The assignment of
subordinate units and personnel to departure airfields is made in
accordance with the unit tactical plan and in conformity with
available air transport as prescribed in the air movement table.
This will insure that the proper unit arrives at its assigned loca-
tion in the airhead at the scheduled time to accomplish its mis-
sion. Plans for assignment of personnel to departure fields must,
also, give consideration to the problem of unit briefing, communi-
cation security, control, and supply. Subordinate unit commanders
make the final detailed adjustment of units or individuals to ac-
complish these essentials.
Section III. ADMINISTRATIVE PLANNING
36. GENERAL
Continuous collection and compilation of administrative plan-
ning data are essential. Proper planning is initiated to obtain
such pertinent facts as are available and to modify and supple-
AGO 2150B
47
ment them continuously. All commanders and staff sections per-
form functions as outlined in FM's 100-10 and 101-5, and, in addi-
tion, solve the various problems which are injected by technical
requirements.
37. MARSHALLING
a. Marshalling includes four principal and related activities.
These are-
(1) The establishment of required number of marshalling
camps, and the provision of necessary facilities and serv-
ices at these camps.
(2) The allocation of tactical units to marshalling camps.
(3) The movement of tactical units to marshalling camps,
(4) Plans for locating and loading aircraft on departure air-
fields.
b. When theater plans for airborne operations are developed,
communications zone establishes marshalling camps based on the
maximum number of assault airborne forces to be mounted simul-
taneously and on troop carrier dispositions on departure airfields.
In theaters in which many airborne operations are contemplated,
communications zone establishes marshalling camps which are so
sited that they may be utilized in mounting several operations.
The locations of these camps are then a factor to be considered
by the airborne G3 in his planning. G3 coordinates closely with
G2 on deception and security measures to insure secrecy. As soon
as the airborne G3 has completed the air movement table (airborne
assault echelon), he informs the G4 as to the units, personnel,
and vehicles to be transported from each departure airfield, and
the dates on which they should arrive and depart from these air-
fields. Additional information, such as the location of headquar-
ters, which require additional signal communication facilities
is included. Thereafter the G4 is the general staff officer who has
primary interest in developing and supervising the marshalling
process. He arranges with communications zone for the final prep-
aration of facilities and services at each marshalling camp; pre-
pares movement tables for the movement of tactical units and ac-
companying supplies to the designated marshalling camps; and
coordinates with communications zone for the supply of airborne
units, and for evacuation and hospitalization of sick and wounded
while at the camps.
c. Because of his primary interest in the marshalling process,
the airborne G4 is normally the coordinating general staff officer
for all plans affecting marshalling.
48
AGO 2150B
d. The preparation of standing operating procedures for mar-
shalling and rehearsals are essential to smooth execution of plans
made for marshalling. For details of the marshalling process see
chapter 3.
38. LOGISTICAL PLAN-GENERAL
a. Planning Information. Preliminary data needed to prepare
the logistical plan include-
(1) Troop lists and strength reports.
(2) Station lists.
(3) Casualty rate tables.
(4) Location and capacities of departure airfields.
(5) Location and capacities of possible landing areas with
particular attention to airfields.
(6) Number and type of aircraft available at any stated time.
(7) Typical loading plans for division, corps, and army
troops.
(8) Typical supply loadings.
(9) Supply levels required.
(10) Supply levels available within the theater.
(11) Logistical support required by participating air forces.
(12) Equipment status reports.
b. Logistical Responsibilities for Planning.
(1) Airborne forces responsibilities.
(a) Concentration, organization, and equipping of the air-
borne forces.
(b) Loading troops, accompanying supplies and equip-
ment.
(c) Recovery of air-dropped supplies and equipment and
the provision of service units for the unloading of air-
craft in the airhead.
(d) Movement of supplies from landing fields to airhead
supply points by airhead supply units.
(e) Operation of airhead supply points.
(f) Logistical operations within the perimeter of the air-
head by normal logistical agencies.
(g) Repair on construction of the required airfields within
the airhead until ground link-up.
(h) Evacuation to airhead airfields.
(2) Communications zone responsibilities.
(a) Receipt, procurement, and delivery of equipment and
supplies to rear air bases for transporting to the air-
head.
AGo 2160B
49
(b) Movement of airborne forces to the marshalling camps
and the provision of accompanying equipment and
supplies.
(c) Evacuation from rear air bases.
(d) Operation of marshalling camps.
(3) Aerial ports responsibilities.
(a) Performance of all army duties incident to the load-
ing and lashing of equipment and supplies not specif-
ically concerned with the operation and maintenance
of aircraft, except that airborne forces are responsi-
ble for loading supplies, weapons, vehicles, and equip-
ment to accompany troops, assisted by the aerial port.
(b) Receipt, unloading, and temporary storage of sup-
plies at rear air bases.
(c) Packaging and loading of supplies for delivery to the
airhead.
(d) Procurement of aerial delivery containers and cargo
parachutes.
Note. If aerial ports are assigned to communications zone,
planning to meet the above responsibilities is a responsibility of
communication zone.
(4) Air Force responsibilities.
(a) Air movement of troops, equipment and supplies to
landing areas within an airhead. (Within the air forces
most of these are operational considerations.)
(b) Assistance in the logistical organization for the re-
ceipt of supplies on airfields in the airhead.
(c) Evacuation from airfields in the airhead.
(d) Construction, rehabilitation, and maintenance of air-
fields in the airhead after ground link-up.
(e) Logistical support of Air Force units except items of
common supply.
(f) Supervision of loading and lashing operations at the
rear air bases for flying safety responsibility only.
c. Basic Decisions Required.
(1) In order that the preparation of a logistical plan may
progress, certain basic decisions are made as early as
possible. This enables the responsible services to pre-
pare and execute plans for procurement and assembly of
aircraft, supplies, equipment, and personnel. These deci-
sions include-
(a) Forces involved, their organization, and the principal
objectives to be attained.
50
AGO 2150B
(b) Tentative strength and composition of logistical units
in the airborne force.
(c) Scale of equipment to accompany the airborne force.
(d) Initial supplies to be taken.
(e) Level of supplies to be maintained in airhead.
(f) Selection of airfields for the landing of troops and sup-
plies.
(g) Location of marshalling camps and determination of
the troops and materiel to be marshalled at each camp.
(h) Estimated duration of airhead organization required
in the landing areas.
(i) Organization and method of movement for follow-up
echelons of major units of the airborne force.
(j) Location of rear air bases to be used for supply pur-
poses.
(k) Allocation of available aircraft for troops and supply.
(1) Date on which airborne forces must be ready for em-
barkation by aircraft.
(m) Capacity of intransit areas to be maintained at ad-
vance air bases to facilitate supply.
(n) Evacuation policies.
(2) Detailed logistical plans may be prepared, based on the
decisions outlined above. In addition, the following con-
siderations will affect the plan:
(a) Facilities required for the staging of troops at mar-
shalling camps.
(b) Supplies in desired quantities delivered to rear air
bases at the proper time.
(c) The number, size, type, and loading characteristics of
aircraft available.
(d) Materials handling equipment.
(e) Distance between rear air bases and landing areas.
(f) Characteristics of the proposed airhead, including road
net, storage, and other facilities.
(g) Duration of follow-up supply phase before normal
supply procedures can be established. This includes
the time required to construct, repair, or capture air-
fields.
(h) Estimate of supplies, equipment, and materials within
the proposed airhead for possible exploitation.
(i) Climate and season of the year.
39. LOGISTICAL PLAN-DEVELOPMENT
a. General. Logistical plans of an army, corps, or division, vary
AGO 2160B
51
in scope, coverage, and sequence in planning. The logistical plans
of all commands encompass supply, evacuation, and hospitaliza-
tion, transportation, service, and management.
bo Supply.
(1) Phases of supply. Supplies of all classes are divided into
three phases in order to facilitate delivery and insure
adequate and continuous supply for an operation. The
phases of supply are classed as assault supply, follow-up
supply, and maintenance and build-up supply.
(a) Assault supplies are those supplies of all classes which
accompany the assault elements of airborne units into
the objective area. Such supplies are carried as fol-
lows:
1. Unit prescribed load. On individuals, in aerial deliv-
ery containers, in unit vehicles of the airborne as-
sault echelon, and by service elements of division,
corps, and armies.
2. Additional supplies. In vehicles of service elements and
in bulk-loaded assault cargo aircraft. Assault sup-
plies are issued to units prior to movement to mar-
shalling camps.
(b) Follow-up supply consists of supply delivered direct
to assault airborne forces or to any unit which becomes
isolated because of enemy action or weather. Delivery
is made by powered cargo aircraft, parachute, or free
fall (b (5) below). Normally, follow-up supply is pack-
aged to correspond to anticipated daily requirements.
Provision must be made which will permit flexibility
in composition of daily requirements. Follow-up sup-
ply will be discontinued as soon as practicable. There
are three categories of follow-up supply:
1. Automatic. Scheduled amounts of follow-up supply
are planned for delivery to assault airborne units
within 48 hours after the assault landings have been
made. The number of days of scheduled follow-up
supply will depend on the specific situation and
should be sufficient to enable the airborne forces to
continue their operations until maintenance supply
is available.
2. On call. Normally, 2 or 3 days of follow-up supply is
prepared for delivery to all units employed in the
airhead but will not be delivered except on call of a
requesting unit. Whenever any of the on-call fol-
52
AGO 2150B
low-up supply is used, the expended amounts are
reconstituted.
3. Emergency. Provisions are made for delivery of sup-
plies to meet unforeseen circumstances. These sup-
plies are requested by forces in the airhead by item.
(c) Maintenance and build-up supplies consist of those
supplies brought into the airhead for distribution by
normal supply procedures. These include the moving
of the supplies in bulk to supply points in the airhead
or, for later phases, the maintenance area. By shipping
in bulk, maximum efficiency in utilization of lift and
service support permits the rapid build-up of reserve
stocks with the minimum number of planes. Distribu-
tion to units is effected by the logistical organization in
the objective area. When practical, bulk supplies may
be delivered directly to the using unit in the airhead
by air from the rear bases.
(2) Quantity of supplies. The quantity of supplies carried
by the assault airborne forces is dependent on the initial
combat requirements, the carrying capacity of the air-
craft used, the availability of aircraft for parachute,
free fall, or air-landed supply, and the projected date of
link-up. Overland follow-up forces normally carry sup-
plies for the entire division to insure operations until
supplies are available through normal channels. All air-
landed forces which arrive in an airhead after air-land-
ing of maintenance and build-up supplies has started,
need carry only prescribed or basic loads.
(3) Special equipment and supplies. Airborne operations nor-
mally necessitate some changes and additions to stand-
ard equipment and basic loads of all units. The decision
on what is to be taken will be based on operational re-
quirements and available cargo space. Substitution of
smaller equipment such as the 3/a-ton truck for the 21/2-
ton truck may be necessary. Certain vehicles are equipped
with cargo lifting devices to facilitate initial unloading
of aircraft. Pallets and mat6riel handling equipment
may expedite the handling of cargo in the more advanced
supply phases.
(4) Type of loading.
(a) All assault airborne forces are combat loaded so the
equipment and supplies essential to initiation of com-
bat are readily accessible on landing.
(b) Supplies are dispersed by distribution among aircraft
AGO 21POB
53
transporting a unit to insure that all units are self-
sustaining on landing.
(c) Follow-up supply to assault airborne forces is dis-
persed among aircraft delivering the supply to offset
losses of one type of item should the aircraft be lost
en route.
(d) When maintenance or build-up supply by air is in ef-
fect, supplies are segregated and loaded by classes of
supply to facilitate unloading at landing fields.
(5) Methods of delivery. There are three methods of deliver-
ing supplies by air. Supplies may be landed by cargo air-
plane, dropped with parachute, and dropped free fall.
(a) Landing supplies by cargo airplane is the most effi-
cient of these methods of air supply. Airplanes are
capable of landing larger loads than they can deliver
by parachute or free fall and the landing airplane may
be used for evacuation purposes on leaving the airhead.
This method is dependent on the availability of air-
strips in the airhead capable of taking the type air-
plane being used for supply; it also entails the use of
additional service troops and equipment for unloading
purposes.
(b) Dropping supplies by parachutes, in aerial delivery
containers, is the most economical method of supply
when airplanes cannot land. This method entails the
use of a large amount of delivery equipment and a
large number of specially trained personnel. This
method is used most frequently to supply assault air-
borne forces immediately after they have landed or to
supply units which are isolated. In some situations
enemy action or weather may dictate the use of para-
chute delivery using heavy drop techniques even
though suitable landing strips are available in the air-
head.
(c) The free fall of supplies is the least efficient method
of aerial-supply. When facilities for dropping by para-
chute are not available, this method may be used.
There is a saving of delivery equipment but this is
offset by the greater loss or damage to the supplies
dropped.
(6) Supply by class.
(a) Class I.
1. Assault type rations are carried by assault airborne
forces.
54
AGO 2150B
2. Combat-type rations are carried by airborne forces
other than assault and are used for follow-up sup-
ply to assault airborne forces.
3. All types of rations are included in maintenance and
build-up supply.
4. Rations are provided for prisoners of war and civil-
ians in the airhead.
(b) Water.
1. Airborne forces carry filled canteens and water puri-
fication tablets.
2. Location of possible water supply points must be pre-
determined.
3. Organic water containers are carried filled for use
both en route and for consumption in the airhead.
4. Water purification units are made available in the air-
head as early as practicable.
(c) Class II.
1. Airborne forces normally carry replacement and
maintenance parts for essential items for a period
of from 5 to 7 days.
2. Limited amounts of class II items are included in the
follow-up supply.
3. Provisions for the replacement of individual clothing
and equipment must be included in maintenance sup-
ply.
(d) Class III.
1. All vehicles are enplaned with gasoline tanks filled
and crank cases full of oil. Additional filled cans of
gasoline, motor oil, and lubricants are carried on
each vehicle.
2. Follow-up supply includes gasoline and oil for the
number of vehicles transported.
3. Supply of gasoline is in small containers except when
facilities in the airhead permit the use of bulk gaso-
line in large tanks or in dumps.
(e) Class IV. Since supplies brought into the airhead will
be limited because of weight, resources within the air-
head are exploited to their fullest extent.
(f) Class V (see FM 101-10 for ammunition supply data
for an airborne division). During the assault phase,
careful consideration is given to the fact that ammu-
nition tonnages normally are greater than the com-
bined weight of all other supplies. A prescribed load,
AGO 2150B
55
which is feasible to carry, accompanies the units. This
amount is specified in a number of rounds per weapon.
Follow-up supply to assault airborne forces is nor-
mally a specified amount of all types of ammunition
but must be sufficient to allow continuity of combat
operations. These amounts are based on the type
weapons with the airborne forces. Changes in the spec-
ified amounts may normally be expected depending on
the type of operations and the degree of enemy oppo-
sition. Ammunition delivered in follow-up supply
should consist of composite loads to offset losses of
one type of item when aircraft are lost. Provisions
must be made in advance for possible additions or de-
letions of certain types of ammunition. Expenditure
rates can be based only on staff estimates and must
take into consideration the following factors:
1. Degree of opposition to be encountered during and
after the landing.
2. The number and type of weapons landed with airborne
forces.
3. Planned time of follow-up supply.
4. Number and types of aircraft to be used.
(g) Captured and salvage supplies.
1. Full utilization should be made of captured or aban-
doned enemy materiel.
2. Logistical considerations require the recovery of all
salvable equipment. This applies especially to para-
chutes and aerial delivery containers.
a. Rear Air Bases. The air force organizes and operates rear
air bases to effect the delivery of all required supplies to the ob-
iective area. The communications zone commander controls the
receipt, storage, and delivery of supplies for the airborne units in
conjunction with the air force commander, and performs all du-
ties incident to loading and unloading of supplies at rear air bases
including the receipt, storage and issue to the airborne forces. The
army determines the over-all supply requirements which are to be
delivered to the objective area. The Army coordinates with the
Air Force for the movement of supplies to rear air bases.
d. Evacuation and Hospitalization.
(1) General. In an airborne operation close behind enemy
lines, normal ground evacuation and hospitalization pro-
cedures may follow shortly after the ground link-up has
been made. In an airborne operation where the airhead is
56
AGO 2150B
to be located at great distances behind enemy lines, all
evacuation of casualties is by air for an indefinite period.
In planning for this type operation, provision must be
made for holding a large number of casualties in the air-
head. It is normal to locate battalions of medical holding
companies at airfields in the airhead, the number to be
used depending on the size force and anticipated losses.
Evacuation hospitals should be located in the general
vicinity of the landing fields. The number to be used also
depends on the size force in the objective area, the evac-
uation policy, and anticipated casualties. During the
exploitation phase, evacuation procedures within the air-
head comply with those specified in FM 100-10. The
communications zone receives casualties at rear bases
from the troop carrier command and is responsible for
further evacuation to general hospitals.
(2) Airborne assault phase.
(a) Planning for an airborne operation includes arrange-
ments with the communications zone for medical at-
tention, evacuation, and hospitalization of casualties,
both battle and nonbattle, during the time the airborne
force is located in marshalling camps.
(b) Plans are made for holding casualties in unit medical
installations until either ground juncture has been
effected or air-landed operations permit air evacu-
ation. In airborne operations close behind enemy lines,
plans may be made to use assault aircraft or helicopter
evacuation.
(c) Initial location of an airborne medical clearing station
is generally near the center of the objective area and
close to the area on which the medical battalion landed.
Full use is made of available buildings. The clearing
station is well marked with the Geneva red cross.
(d) Evacuation and hospitalization procedures after junc-
ture has been made with other ground units or when
the airhead has been expanded sufficiently to permit
the establishment of army type medical service, are as
specified in FM 100-10.
e. Transportation.
(1) Air. The only line of communications into an airhead,
established deep within enemy territory, is by air. In
order that this line of communication may be operated to
its fullest extent, sufficient airfields must be available
AGO 2150B
57
both in the rear area and within the airhead. Movement
control of troops and mat6riel over this line of communi-
cations must be planned by the joint airborne force com-
mander. Operations and air routing, however, will be
planned by the troop carrier commander. Full use should
be made of the capabilities of cargo aircraft for landing
supplies as close to using units as practicable. During
the consolidation phase, the number of airfields avail-
able for supply, and the size of the airhead, restrict the
location of supply airfields. After the exploitation phase
has commenced, plans are made to secure additional sites
for supply airfields closer to using forces to economize
on the use of ground transport.
(2) Highway, rail, and pipe line. Procedures for ground
transportation within an airhead conform to the provi-
sions of FM 100-10.
(3) Aerial ports headquarters. Provision must be made for
the receipt, sorting, and delivery of supplies at, and
from, the landing airfields in the airhead. For this pur-
pose an aerial ports headquarters may be organized in
the airhead. This organization controls aerial ports at
each airfield in the airhead which is used for the landing
of supplies and equipment. The number of such aerial
ports and the composition of each will depend upon-
(a) Number and characteristics of airfields.
(b) Tonnages to be handled at the receiving airfield.
(c) Estimated return flow of evacuation casualties, re-
turned personnel, and salvage.
(d) Estimated number of reinforcements to be brought
forward.
(e) Distance between airfield and depots or supply points
to which supplies are to be delivered.
f. Service.
(1) Service troops. Airborne divisions and air-landed divi-
sions, have organic service troops. A corps or an army
in airborne operations should be provided with the serv-
ice units required to support combat operations; these
are listed in a service troop list. The service troop list
cannot be rigid since many factors determine the number
and type of service units required. (See FM 100-10.)
(2) Construction and real estate allocation. Because of the
restricted size of the airhead and the congestion result-
ing therefrom, the airborne force commander must plan
58
AGO 2150B
to exercise strong centralized control over construction
and allocation of real estate for all units in the airhead.
g. Miscellaneous.
(1) Boundaries. As the airhead is consolidated, division and
corps rear boundaries should be concentric with the
perimeter of the airhead.
(2) Headquarters.
(a) In normal ground operations the headquarters of an
airborne division is divided into a forward and rear
echelon in the same manner as that described in FM
101-5, paragraph 58.
(b) In airborne operations, the headquarters is divided in
the same manner except that the composition of the
forward and rear echelons is modified to meet the cir-
cumstances. The forward echelon or command post
participates in the assault and is located in the air-
head. The forward echelon consists of the commander
and all staff officers required to assist him in the con-
duct of the operation. It may be divided in the airhead
by the formation of an advanced command post. The
rear echelon of the headquarters may remain at the
rear base or accompany the follow-up echelon, depend-
ing upon the size and duration of the operation. If the
airborne division is part of a larger force which will
conduct operations in the airhead for an appreciable
period of time or if the airborne division will continue
in a ground role after link-up, the major portion of
the rear echelon of division headquarters joins the di-
vision as early as practicable.
(c) The headquarters of an air-landed infantry division is
echeloned in much the same manner as an airborne
division.
(d) A corps headquarters normally maintains a rear eche-
lon at the rear base area until such time as all units
of the corps have been phased into the airhead.
(e) An army headquarters should maintain a rear echelon
at the rear base until the airhead has been consoli-
dated. A control group from this rear echelon con-
tinues to function at the rear air base under a senior
officer, who is responsible for liaison with the air
forces and coordination of movement of supplies and
personnel to forward supply airfields, until ground
AGO 2150B
59
juncture has been completed or a communications zone
section has been established in the airhead.
(3) References. G4 staff functions follow the principles
enunciated in FM's 100-10 and 101-5. Reference data
are contained in FM 101-10.
40. LOGISTICAL PLAN-PLANNING SCHEDULE
In order that armies, corps, assault airborne divisions, and air-
landed divisions may prepare their logistical plans for an airborne
operation, and be prepared to participate in an operation in as
short a time as possible, it is necessary that the theater logistical
planning staff prepare plans for the support of subordinate ground
and air commands to insure that adequate facilities and supplies
are available at the proper time. Sufficient time must be given all
units of an airborne force to make the required logistical prepara-
tions. Armies, corps, airborne .divisions, and particularly air-
landed divisions must have detailed prior plans drawn up to be
used in an airborne operation. These plans should include air-
craft requirements, equipment to be exchanged for air-transport-
able equipment, and equipment that will rejoin the unit with the
land or sea tail. Suggested planning time tables for army, corps,
and division G4s are as follows:
a. Army.
Prior to*
D-45: Determination and tentative selection of required num-
ber of marshalling camps.
Determination of the estimated duration of airhead oper-
ations.
Determination of the approximate amount of daily main-
tenance and build-up tonnages required.
Determination of the level of supply to be maintained in
the airhead.
Determination of availability of required supplies for an
operation.
Determination of the availability of logistical resources
within probable airheads.
Determination of the availability of aircraft for an oper-
ation.
Determination of the ability to deliver required supplies
to rear supply air bases at the required times.
Determination of the characteristics of airfields within
probable airheads.
* Based on theater planning directives.
60
AGO 2150B
Determination of the availability of evacuation and hos-
pitalization facilities for the support of an operation.
D-45:
Major subordinate commands receive from theater an
operational directive, including logistical plan.
Preparation of army logistical plan commences.
Preparation of detailed service troop list commences.
Preparation of marshalling camps commences.
D-40:
G4 conference on logistical support with corps concerned.
Alerting of service units to be used for the operation.
Selection of bivouac and assembly areas for use of all
units to participate in the operation in order that they
may be reorganized and reequipped for the operation.
Conference with communications zone section con-
cerned on availability of required equipment and sup-
plies and on the program of readiness of marshalling
camps.
D-37:
Conference with troop carrier command on supply or-
ganization and facilities for supply to the contemplated
airhead.
D-33: Logistical plan completed.
D-30:
Completed logistical plans furnished assault corps.
Assault corps relieved of current tactical operations.
Service troop list completed and service troops receive
directive for participation in operation.
D-25: Coordination with corps on phasing of army service units
into the airhead.
D-20:
Movement of army service units to assembly areas com-
mences.
Follow-up corps relieved of current tactical operations
and furnished completed logistical plan.
Planning for build-up commences.
D-15: Assault airborne divisions, not at home stations, close-in
assembly areas.
D-14: Delivery of build-up supply to rear air supply bases com-
mences.
Packaging of build-up supply commences.
D-10:
Air-landed divisions close into assembly areas.
D-8:
Reorganization and equipping of army service units com-
pleted.
Construction of marshalling camps completed.
D-4:
Movement of assault airborne forces and specified service
units to marshalling camps completed.
AGO 2150B
61
D-1:
Movement of follow-up divisions and service units to mar-
shalling camps commences.
Loading of equipment of assault airborne forces and
initial service units.
D-day: Loading of personnel and individual equipment.
Departure of airborne assault forces.
b. Corps.
D-40: Alert order for airborne operation received.
Initial logistical planning commences.
D-35: Organic corps units to participate alerted for airborne op-
eration.
D-30:
Complete army logistical plan received by assault corps.
Assault corps relieved from current tactical operations.
D-28: Assault airborne divisions attached to assault corps and
alerted for operation.
D-21: Assault corps logistical plans completed.
D-20: Follow-up corps relieved from current tactical operations
and furnished complete logistical plans.
Follow-up divisions alerted for operation.
Detailed corps logistical plans furnished assault divisions.
D-11: Detailed corps logistical plans furnished follow-up divi-
sions.
D-9:
Assault corps completes reorganization and equipage of
corps troops.
D-7:
Assault corps checks on follow-up supply at rear air sup-
ply bases.
D-4:
Assault airborne force completes move to marshalling
camps.
D-1:
Follow-up corps troops commence move to marshalling
camps.
Loading of equipment of assault airborne forces.
D-day: Loading of personnel and departure of assault force.
c. Division.
D-28: Assault airborne divisions receive alert for operation to
include future attachment to assault corps.
D-20: Assault airborne divisions receive completed logistical
plan for operation from assault corps.
Preparation of assault division administrative order com-
mences.
D-18: Follow-up divisions receive alert for operation to include
future attachment to follow-up corps.
62
AGO 2150B
D-11: Follow-up divisions receive completed logistical plan
from follow-up corps.
Preparation of follow-up divisions administrative order
commences.
D-10: Procurement of accompanying supplies for operation
from communications zone section depots commences.
Sufficient personnel and cargo parachutes packed for the
operation.
D-7:
Completed administrative order from corps received by
both type divisions.
Final shortages of supplies determined and requisitions
submitted.
Issue of assault supplies to units is made.
Determination of changes in follow-up supply and initia-
tion of procurement-issue verbal administrative in-
structions.
D-6:
Determine composition of road convoys.
Obtain routes and road clearances and complete plan for
movement to marshalling camps. Communications zone
section makes final report on accommodations at mar-
shalling camps; ration strengths for marshalling camps
submitted to communications zone section.
Determine landing areas for follow-up supply.
D-5:
Obtain replacement of remaining shortages of supplies.
Obtain priority for movement of units to marshalling
camps.
Complete arrangements for additional transportation for
movement to marshalling camps.
Complete preparation of administrative order and issue
to units.
Review completeness of supply and equipment.
Assault airborne divisions complete movement to mar-
shalling camps.
D-4:
Assault airborne divisions maintain close contact with
division liaison sections and marshalling camp com-
manders to coordinate replacement of last-minute sup-
ply shortages.
D-1:
Follow-up divisions begin movement to marshalling
camps.
Assault divisions load equipment.
D-day: Loading of personnel and departure of assault airborne
divisions.
AGO 2160B
63
41. PERSONNEL PLAN
a. Troop Strengths and Locations. As in all other combat units,
every effort must be made to keep the command at its full author-
ized strength. This will require energetic action to eliminate exist-
ing understrengths of trained airborne personnel and to eliminate
mental and physical ineffectives.
b. Replacements.
(1) It is advisable to requisition airborne replacements on
estimated losses prior to an engagement. This is because
of the relatively small number of airborne troops and
the extra time required to train an airborne soldier.
(2) In estimating losses for the assault phase, casualties
must be computed for parachute and airplane landings.
Casualty reports should indicate these types of losses
under killed in action and wounded in action and, for
future estimates, should also give other pertinent data
regarding casualties to include the terrain and weather
in the landing areas.
(3) Other factors to be considered in making an estimate of
casualties are-
(a) Whether the operation is to be conducted during day-
light or at night.
(b) Antiairborne obstacles.
(c) Enemy order of battle in the landing area.
(d) The location of and the time that enemy reserves
might be brought into action.
(e) The amount of enemy armor and artillery in the air-
head area.
(f) Probable enemy interception of planes and gliders.
(g) Enemy antiaircraft artillery installations on flight
route.
(h) The relief plan for airborne troops.
(i) The mobility and fire power of the airborne troops.
(4) In coordination with G3, a combat replacement scheme
must be developed. Except in emergencies, replacements
are not jumped into the airhead.
(5) For further details see FM 101-10.
c. Law and Order.
(1) Provision must be made to detain personnel refusing
either to enter aircraft at departure fields or to leave
aircraft on arrival at the objective area. In combat oper-
ations, such cases are usually disposed of by general
64
AGO 2150B
courts-martial. In training operations, these cases are
normally handled by special courts-martial or other
lesser disciplinary action.
(2) Initially the control of stragglers is usually delegated by
divisions to the regimental combat teams because of the
dispersion and consequent ineffectiveness of division
control. However, division should plan to assume the
responsibility of straggler control as soon as practicable.
d. Prisoners of War. The problems of evacuating and guarding
prisoners of war are initially a regimental combat team responsi-
bility because of the nature of the combat. The higher unit should
plan to evacuate from the lower as soon as sufficient control is
established.
e. Burials and Graves Registration. Decentralization of the
normal responsibilities for burials and graves registration is often
necessary in the initial stages of combat. The establishment of
temporary cemeteries and the evacuation and proper interment of
the dead will be a responsibility of the local commander in the
initial phase. In the combat zone, battle-field search and evacu-
ation to the collecting points usually are the responsibility of com-
bat organizations. Sites for the establishment of temporary mili-
tary cemeteries are selected by the quartermaster with the techni-
cal assistance of the engineer. It is desirable to centralize burials
at the highest command levels as soon as possible.
f. Morale.
(1) Personnel on leave are usually recalled when the mission
assignment, or the general alert, is given to a unit. Dur-
ing the airborne operation, quotas to rest areas are
usually suspended.
(2) Provisions must be made to safeguard unit and personal
funds during the action and funds that are taken into the
objective area, private and Government, should be in the
proper currency. For security-reasons, the departure air-
field is the proper place to make currency exchanges.
(3) Outgoing mail is ordinarily suspended several days prior
to D-day for security reasons. However, this fact need
not be publicized. Because of the critical status of air
transportation, incoming mail is usually suspended dur-
ing the initial stage of the airborne operation.
g. Civil Affairs-Military Government. Consideration must be
given to the problem of entering civil affairs-military government
personnel into the combat area. Ordinarily this personnel should
go into the objective area with the leading assault transport ele-
ments.
AGO 2150B
65
h. Troops Required to Support the Personnel Plan. Troops re-
quired to support personnel functions include units suitable for
graves registration, postal and finance services, replacements,
special services, military government, military police, and for
maintenance of records. In addition, G1 is interested that the
proper allotment of bakery, laundry, and bath units is provided.
i. Training of Replacements. To conserve manpower it may be
desirable to provide training centers for airborne replacements
in the theater of operations. The training centers normally-
(1) Check the training of replacements received from the
zone of interior.
(2) Give additional specialized training.
(3) Train volunteers for airborne duty from the theater of
operations.
(4) Hold overstrengths of airborne units committed to action
until the replacements are required.
j. G1 Functions.
(1) Army and corps GI. Army and corps G1 functions are as
stated in FM 101-5.
(2) Division G1. The G1 of a division which is engaged in
an airborne operation is charged with the staff respon-
sibilities as prescribed in FM 101-5. In addition, the fol-
lowing problems, peculiar to airborne operations, must
be considered.
(a) The problems of overstrengths and replacements aris-
ing from the special training.
(b) The policy of permitting parachute personnel to with-
draw from their voluntary status, other than when in
combat or when an active mission assignment is im-
minent, merits special attention of the G1 in order to
maintain the volunteer status of the maximum number
of individuals.
(c) The dispersion of units during the initial phase of air-
borne combat requires decentralization of certain per-
sonnel functions until division control is obtained. The
division G1 can divide his section into two groups:
one to enter the objective area and one to remain at
the rear echelon. It will be necessary to take several
members of the adjutant general's casualty report
section into the objective area in order to have quick
and accurate data for reports and casualties.
(d) The distance between the command post and the rear
echelon requires that personnel plans be completed
66
AGO 2150B
before the airborne operation begins. Once the troops
are committed in the objective area, it is usually too
late to rectify errors or omissions during the early
phases of the combat action.
(e) Records and reports do not lend themselves to electrical
transmission and must be sent to the rear by aircraft.
k. Public Information. Airborne operations are inherently spec-
tacular and particularly newsworthy. It is, therefore, essential that
airborne public information planning be initiated at an early date
to insure a continuous flow of unclassified information to the ci-
vilian public.
(1) Initiation of planning. Initial public information plan-
ning for an airborne operation should be started at the
highest echelon as soon as possible after the operational
plan has been approved. Although security requirements
will nearly always prevent any advance publicity, this in-
creases rather than decreases the need for early initiation
and complete coordination of public information planning.
Planning is initiated by the highest command by the
issuance of a policy information directive.
(2) Scope of plan. Armed forces public information policies
provide for cooperation with professional civilian war
correspondents who report to the public through estab-
lished civilian news media-press, radio, television, and
motion pictures. Therefore, public information plans for
airborne operations must contain adequate provisions-
(a) To transport correspondents and their essential equip-
ment to the scene of operations.
(b) To insure that correspondents have a sound under-
standing of the action they observe.
(c) To transmit written, photographic, and radio reports
from the airhead to the designated censor.
(3) Coordination. As in any other joint operation, the co-
ordination of all details of the public information must be
complete. This can be accomplished by frequent con-
ferences and a complete understanding between the public
information officers of the Air Force and the Army at all
appropriate echelons.
(4) Security. Public information security is maintained pri-
marily by requiring that all news material be censored
before release and transmittal to the zone of interior.
Plans should be made to establish censorship facilities
AGO 2150B
67
in the airhead as soon as practicable in order to expedite
the release of public information.
(5) Public information annex. A public information annex
to the operation order should be prepared for any airborne
operation of division or larger size to insure that all con-
cerned receive adequate instructions covering the details
of the plan that are peculiar to the particular operation.
Section IV. PREPARATION OF ORDERS
42. GENERAL
Orders and annexes used in airborne operations are prepared in
the same general form by the same methods common throughout
the services. Staff action and staff responsibilities prescribed in
FM 101-5 are applicable to preparation of orders and annexes.
Principal differences are-
a. Information and orders for the assault phase are in detail
since the order initiates a complete new military action.
b. The air movement table and other annexes are either pub-
lished jointly by troop carrier and the army unit or very closely
coordinated.
c. Information peculiar to airborne operations requires annexes
which are not normally used for ground operations. See appendix
XI and FM 101-5 for examples of annexes which may be used.
43. OPERATION ORDER
Appendix XI shows a typical operation order. If the operation
is to be over water, an air-sea rescue annex is necessary.
The
signal annex should include pathfinder arrangements.
44. ADMINISTRATIVE ORDER
Appendix XIV.
45. INTELLIGENCE ANNEXES
For a detailed discussion of the preparation of intelligence an-
nexes, see paragraph 29 and appendix XVII.
Section V. REHEARSALS
46. GENERAL
Since speed is of such importance in airborne operations, every
68
AGO :2150B
detail of the operation should be rehearsed if time permits. This
especially applies to night operations.
47. REHEARSAL PROBLEMS IN AIRBORNE OPERATIONS
a. The complex nature of airborne operations requires a high
degree of cooperation and coordination between the participating
services. Early planning is initiated to insure that the following
are available:
(1) Troop carrier aircraft.
(2) Suitable training areas.
(3) Critical items of equipment to replace those damaged or
lost.
(4) Replacements for casualties sustained during rehearsals.
b. Problems inherent to airborne operations which can be effec-
tively rehearsed are-
(1) Marshalling.
(2) Loading of aircraft in accordance with air force balanc-
ing procedure and requirements.
(3) Unloading of aircraft.
(4) Communication procedures.
(5) Assembly and control procedures after landing.
(6) Execution of the tactical plan.
(7) Supply and transportation procedures in the objective
area.
48. TYPES OF AIRBORNE REHEARSALS
The lack of equipment and suitable training areas often limits
the size of the rehearsal or necessitates the assumption of artificial
conditions.
However, every effort should be made to stage a
rehearsal paralleling the conditions found in the operational plan.
Rehearsals should be held from the battalion to the largest unit as
time and facilities permit. Full-scale rehearsal of units larger
than the division will be exceptional.
49. SECURITY ASPECTS
Rehearsals may cause a breach of security.
Large-scale re-
hearsals when carefully controlled may provide means for mislead-
ing the enemy. Based on counterintelligence considerations, the
commander must determine the conditions under which rehearsals
are to be held.
AGO &150B
69
50. THE COMMAND POST EXERCISE
In the event it is impossible to stage operational rehearsals, a
thorough and complete command post exercise (CPX) should be
held under field conditions as nearly similar to those of the actual
projected combat area as can be located. Few, if any, restrictions
operate against the holding of a CPX on the highest level. They
should be conducted for all echelons including troop carrier forces.
70
-AGO 2150B
CHAPTER 3
MARSHALLING
Section I. GENERAL
51. SCOPE
"Marshalling" is the term commonly used to define the process
by which units of the army forces participating in an airborne
operation move to departure airfields, complete preparations for
combat, and load into aircraft ready for take-off. This definition
of the term "marshalling" should not be confused with a different
connotation given to it in Air Force terminology.
52. PURPOSES
Units are placed in marshalling camps to facilitate close liaison
with troop carrier units; insure adequate briefing; insure complete
security as to the detailed plan for the pending operation; allow
tactical units to be divided into assault, follow-up, and rear eche-
lons; and to control preparations for air movement.
53. METHODS OF MARSHALLING
a. All airborne assault units are marshalled simultaneously at
marshalling camps at or near troop carrier fields. The units re-
main at the marshalling camps long enough to be briefed. A mini-
mum of 4 days in marshalling camps will usually be required. Firm
liaison is established with troop carrier units to permit detailed
coordination. Aircraft are carefully combat-loaded. Assault units
are given necessary service by the communications zone marshall-
ing camp personnel to permit them to prepare for combat.
b. If their home stations are a considerable distance from the
marshalling area, air-landed units are concentrated in centralized
assembly areas from which they will move to the marshalling
camps after the airborne assault units depart. While in marshall-
ing camps units should be fully combat-loaded, but they may or
may not be sealed. The communications zone controls the move-
ment of these units to marshalling camps subject to priorities
designated by the commander in the airhead. Marshalling camp
AGO 2150B
71
personnel and specialists in loading methods furnish required as-
sistance in loading. Liaison with troop carrier units is effected
through a representative of the headquarters controlling the opera-
tion who is permanently stationed at each departure airfield.
54. TROOP CARRIER DISPOSITIONS
The physical locations of troop carrier airfields materially in-
fluence plans for marshalling. The troop carrier units in a theater
are normally stationed on a series of' airfields located in the com-
munications zone and within range of probable objectives, in
enemy-controlled territory. These fields may be widely separated.
,Eaeh,;troop .carrier wing usually occupies one; airfieild. :All;', units
are.lifkedrb3 4a ,system
rbff telephone, teletype, ;radio, arid me'senger
communication.
WV,55<:
BA'SIS' FOR 'MARSHALLING
The tactical, landing, and air-movement plans form the basis
for determining the number of personnel and vehicles' to' be sfta-
tioned at or moved through each airfield.
56&' MOVEM'ENTV TO' THE' MARSHi!LLING CiAMPr
.:The:G4 lofthe
to'nito;be' mashailedI'notifies'the communeicatiomns
zone as to the'naim'bef -of brganic vehicles the unit can' furnish'f6r
the movement of its personnel and equipment to the marshalling
camps. This information and the ti'6oplisf,'furniunishied by G3, must
be vailable, early enoggh dcuring planning for the communications
zonqei;o procure;.the additionalavVehicles or trains required forethe
o 9eme p, -:;The tcqmiunications: zone may control: the. movement
p;rplpetely pr, rmay, be furnished. a copy of the march, table
so that
itl carlocontrnol,the ttraffic out of. the assembl yatre4ii,: along the:ri'ute
f,:mfgmni:rch,'.and iiitr,thie.inarshalling 'camp. ;The 'actual assignment
I bfyrorpsrto areas ism'rade by'advahce: parties of the occupyink tinits
which. &trive:atcthe"cam1i: in ddvancO of the' aini'bidies.'
!,5.71( ;ONTRROL' OF iMARSHALLING CAMPS
!.......
Ili (sWhe.
rariha;lingg camps fare located on airfields, tlhe marshalling
·,,¢apcarle
is: tenpotariy¢. placed at the.disposal of't]he eommunica-
tionPs zoine: :Tiherpermissioni :of the troop-cairier: base commiiander is
:,obtaihed ,br;,,theactical lunits 'Od 'celrry· on 'such activities as ai're-
7quiredrA1stsideof thAe camp':rea.
-
72
'AOb 'iOB
58. ARRANGEMENTS
The G4 of the unit to be marshalled advises the communications
zone, through a liaison officer or by personal contact, of the re-
quirements for his unit for supply and storage facilities at the mar-
shalling camps. G1 requisitions replacements and requests recrea-
tional facilities. G3 submits the troop list and outlines his training,
briefing, and rehearsal requirements.
G2 coordinates arrange-
ments for security and deception measures to insure secrecy. All
arrangements must be made far enough in advance of the mar-
shalling period to enable the communications zone to procure the
facilities and install them where necessary.
Section II. MARSHALLING CAMPS
59. GENERAL
a. The marshalling camp is a sealed area with facilities for
final preparation of troops for combat. The communications zone
constructs the marshalling camps. The selection of areas and de-
termination of accommodations to be furnished at the camps are
influenced by the location of airfields to be used, the existing
facilities, the time available, the availability of construction troops
and materials, and the troop list furnished by units of the army
forces participating in the operation. To insure coordination of
units of the army forces with troop carrier units in briefing and
rehearsals, and to facilitate loading, camps are located at or near
each airfield.
b. For security reasons the camp will normally be within a wire
enclosure.
c. Troop carrier and units of the army forces are usually quar-
tered, rationed, and briefed separately, but are brought together
for joint briefing, rehearsals, and for actual loading, take-off, and
flight. The camp operating personnel are quartered and rationed
separately from airborne forces and troop carrier personnel insofar
as practicable.
60. OPERATION
a. The communication zone section commander is responsible
for the operation and maintenance of the marshalling camps.
Operating detachments and necessary equipment are provided for
each camp. These detachments furnish such services as signal
communication, transportation, medical, and postal. They also
operate mess facilities and utilities. Personnel from the units
AGO 2150B
73
being marshalled or follow-up units of the airborne force may
assist in the operation of the camps when such assistance will
not interfere with their preparations for the airborne operation.
Equipment from these units cannot be used since it must be
packed and loaded for movement to the objective area.
b. Small stocks of supplies and equipment of all services are
maintained at each camp to fill last-minute shortages of the units
being marshalled. Necessary service maintenance support is fur-
nished as required.
c. The number of communications zone troops required for
operation and maintenance of marshalling camps varies. A gen-
eral rule, based upon past experience, is that the number of sup-
porting service troops required will approximate 10 percent of
the troops being marshalled.
61. ADMINISTRATIVE FACILITIES
a. Quarters, unit headquarters, messes, supply rooms, and la-
trines should be constructed and allocated so as to maintain unit in-
tegrity.
b. Cover is required for dry storage and issue of parachutes,
special equipment, and stocks of individual and organizational
equipment.
c. Shop space or hardstanding is required for dismantling equip-
ment for plane loading and for last-minute inspection and repair.
d. Joint troop carrier-army command post facilities are made
available.
e. A coordinated communication system is installed by the com-
munications zone to permit assault troops to exercise control dur-
ing the briefing period and to allow the communications zone to
control the movement of build-up troops.
Section III. BRIEFINGS
62. BRIEFING PLAN
Briefing is a joint responsibility of the intelligence and opera-
tions sections. A briefing plan should be prepared which states
time, place, personnel involved, and scope of detail to be covered.
Within this plan, subordinate unit commanders will brief their
troops to insure that each individual has a sufficient knowledge of
the plan of operations to perform his duties.
63. BRIEFING AIDS USED
a. The G2 should insure that the necessary briefing aids are
available before troops enter the marshalling camps.
74
AGO 2150B
b. An annotated low-altitude air photo of the landing area, ex-
plained by photo interpreter personnel, is the most effective brief-
ing aid. Accurate terrain models and sand tables of the airhead are
effective. Large-scale maps with defenses and obstacles over-
printed from latest air photos are valuable.
64. DATA USED
a. Each unit should be given as much information regarding
the plan as is necessary for it to operate independently. It should
then be briefed thoroughly as to the detailed part it is to play in
the over-all plan. Finally, it should be emphasized that in case
of premature drop or release, or failure to land on designated land-
ing zones, the mission of all troops is to conduct themselves in ac-
cordance with the over-all plan.
b. It is sound practice for commanders of all infantry regiments
and battalions, which are to be in the assault, to be given a common
briefing on all battalion missions. In case of an inaccurate landing,
battalion missions can then be shifted with minimum delay.
c. The briefing facilities used by the assault units should be
retained for use of build-up units. Advanced landing fields, assem-
\bly areas, and routes in the airhead can be shown to interested
personnel and the current situation reviewed on the basis of
situation reports.
65. SECURITY IN BRIEFING
For security measures curing briefing, see appendix XVIII.
Section IV. SUPPLY PROCEDURES
66. SUPPLY PRIOR TO MOVE TO MARSHALLING CAMPS
a. Prior to moving to marshalling camps, all units and individ-
uals obtain the equipment which is to be flown into the airhead
with the unit. Showdown inspections are held to determine the
status of equipment. Parachutes and aerial delivery containers
are packed and prepared at home stations. Units also take addi-
tional clothing and equipment for use in the marshalling camp.
b. Individual clothing and equipment not needed in the airhead
are packed in suitable containers and left for storage by rear
echelon or communications zone personnel.
67. MOVEMENT AND STORAGE OF SUPPLIES
a. Supplies are moved to marshalling camps, in organic or com-
munications zone transportation, either prior to or simultaneously
with the personnel move.
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75
b. Parachutes and aerial delivery containers are kept in dry,
covered storage. Rations, gasoline, and ammunition to be bulk-
loaded in aircraft can be stored in the open if necessary. Supplies
loaded in organic transportation, which is designated to accompany
troops by air, will not normally be removed from such vehicles
while at the marshalling camps. This equipment is guarded and
necessary checks made to determine that it remains in good con-
dition until departure by air.
68. MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT
a. After closing into marshalling camps, all units conduct fur-
ther, inspections to determine adequacy of equipment and supplies.
Requests for replacement or repair are made to the marshalling
camp commander. Camp commanders make necessary replacement
or repair in accordance with the pertinent communications zone
section administrative orders. Items not available in camps are
requisitioned by the camp commander.
b. The stocking of bulk supplies at appropriate airfields by the
communications zone and troop carrier force is not considered part
of marshalling.
Section V. MORALE
69. GENERAL
In all combat units a high state of morale is developed by good
leadership and training. These, in turn, generate an esprit de corps
that will overcome adversities. If the unit spirit is not highly de-
veloped before reaching the marshalling camps, there is little hope
for success on a difficult mission. Therefore, the problem at the
marshalling area is mainly to maintain a high state of morale.
70. PLANNING AND ACTIVITIES
a. During this phase, with combat imminent and the command
sealed in the marshalling camps, tenseness will develop. It is,
therefore, necessary to plan off-duty activities for the troops. This
can be accomplished by providing the maximum amount; of athletic,
recreational, and religious facilities. Efficient administration is
necessary to insure that quarters and food are good and that
necessary personal services for the individual are furnished.
b. Plans must be made to prepare for a possible drop in morale
which may be caused by postponement of operations. Units which
have been placed on continuous alert to facilitate rapid employment
must plan, in advance, to overcome lowering of morale under such
conditions.
76;`
AGO 2150B
Section VI. LOADING
71. LIAISON
a. Upon receipt of directives or orders to participate in an air-
borne operation, commanders of army and troop carrier units
concerned immediately exchange experienced and competent liaison
officers to act as advisers and coordinators on all matters of com-
mon interest. Such exchange of liaison officers extends through
all echelons as orders are issued.
b. Duties of a liaison officer are-
(1) To represent his unit commander at the headquarters to
which he is detailed.
(2) To act as adviser to the headquarters on matters pertain-
ing to his own command.
(3) To coordinate all matters involving dual responsibility
such as-
(a) Joint staff meetings.
(b) Joint briefings.
(c) Availability of equipment.
(d) Provision and implementation of plans for marshalling,
parking, and loading of aircraft.
(e) Examination of parallel orders:
to ensure complete
agreement of plans and arrangements. ,
(f) Procurement of equipment and facilities, ,leongnpg-,to
his own command which are required. by,t-he comxanld
to which he is detailed.
(g) Preparation of joint reports.
(h) Procurement of aircraft parkiihgplans f'romn %the:tro6p
carrier unit as needed.
:
(4) To be familiar with the location and capacity of all in-
stallations at the airfield with which ,hiss conmander,
staff, or troops, will be concerned.
(5) To be familiar with plans and arrangements, for, aer
ate
aircraft in the event of last-minute, failu~res aq ble Pre-
pared to assist the movement of troops fro:, defrective
aircraft to the alternates.
(6) To be familiar with all air-movement forms;',
c. Liaison officers stationed at airfields are dsuall'§y 'd.ta'led'j*,,
and represent, the highest army forces headuarters arti'
'in the operation.
AGO 2150B
7i7
72. AIRFIELD ORGANIZATION
a. An airfield joint command post, plainly marked, is established
at each airfield for the use of the air force and airborne unit com-
manders involved. It is normally in close proximity to the field
operations office. The command post is connected by telephone
with all headquarters and personnel responsible for controlling
movement and enplaning of troops and mat6riel. The command
post is provided with a radio-equipped vehicle tuned in on opera-
tions control channels for the use of the troop carrier commander
or his liaison officer.
b. An aircraft dispatch control unit is established by the air
force on each airfield to control the movement and dispatch of
troop carrier aircraft from the airfield. A transportation move-
ment control unit, which may be an aerial port if one is operating
on the airfield, working in close coordination with the aircraft
dispatch control personnel, coordinates the movement of army
units and cargo to the airfield. Personnel from this movement con-
trol unit also assist airborne unit commanders in loading ex-
peditiously.
73. ALLOWABLE CARGO LOAD
The cargo load of an aircraft varies inversely with the range
or radius of action. It also varies with the anticipated condition
of the landing airstrips and airfields, meteorological conditions, and
the altitude at which the aircraft must fly. As a result, the allow-
able cargo load available to the airborne forces n4ust be established
by the troop carrier commander for each particular operation. This
is done at the earliest possible moment. An estimate of the air-
craft required by units, load manifests, and lashing diagrams for
nonstandard or awkward loads should be prepared well in advance
of a given operation. A preplanning average allowable cargo load
for an average radius of action may be agreed upon between the
troop carrier and army units for this purpose.
74. LOADING OF ASSAULT AND FOLLOW-UP UNITS
a. The troop carrier unit commander provides, through the liai-
son officer, parking diagrams of airplanes. These diagrams show
the number, location, and sequence of take-off of the aircraft and
the location of reserve aircraft.
b. All aircraft are marked, usually in chalk on both sides of the
fuselage, with numbers which correspond to the load numbers on
the load manifests.
c. Movement on the airfield is restricted to a minimum and is
under air force control. Routes to, and from, enplaning and loading
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AGO 2150B
areas are clearly marked. Strict control of both air and ground
traffic is maintained on and across runways and taxi strips. Guides,
when required, may be provided by the army units under the con-
trol of the liaison officer.
d. Aircraft personnel loads are moved to a control point in ac-
cordance with the loading plan. Guides then lead them to their re-
spective aircraft for loading.
e. Army units are responsible for enplaning, loading, and lash-
ing their accompanying supplies and equipment under supervision
of the troop carrier representative. The pilot of the aircraft has
the final decision on matters affecting his aircraft. Loading of
each aircraft is performed, as far as practicable, by the aircraft's
passengers. Air crews are not required to, but may, assist in
loading.
f. Provision for loading aids and materials such as ramps and
tie-down equipment is a troop carrier responsibility. The army
forces commander inspects to insure adequacy of these facilities.
g. A reserve of aircraft (spares) is maintained at each airfield
to insure complete serials in the event of last-minute failure of air-
craft. The time of take-off of allotted reserve aircraft is dependent
on the situation at the moment and is the responsibility of the air
force commander.
h. Certain basic principles apply in loading aircraft-in airborne
operations. They are as follows:
(1) It is desirable, if not imperative, to place enough men in
each load to unlash and unload upon arrival at the des-
tination.
(2) Unit commanders strive for tactical loading. All individ-
uals carry their complete combat equipment. Ammuni-
tion accompanies each weapon.
(3) Key personnel and equipment are distributed throughout
several aircraft.
(4) Essential equipment, such as radios, is duplicated to safe-
guard against loss or damage.
(5) Every load is safely balanced and listed on a flight mani-
fest form.
(6) Safe lashing is accomplished on all loads.
75. AIR-MOVEMENT FORMS
The characteristics of aircraft and the requirements for safety
in flight make it mandatory for aircraft loads to be compiled in
detail. This staff work can best be performed on six forms as
follows:
ACO 2150B
79
a. Basic Planning Guide. This form is completed by the ground
forces unit commander to show the exact status of personnel and
equipment of the unit (app. XIII).
b. Aircraft Allotment Table. This form indicates the type air-
craft available and assignment of aircraft to units. It is a work
sheet used as a reference in accomplishing form 2 (d below and
app. XIII).
c. Aircraft Assignment Work Sheet. This work sheet is used in
airborne units only as a device to simplify preparation of an air-
movement table (app. XII).
d. Air-movement Table. This form is prepared by the army
forces commander in coordination with the troop carrier com-
mander. This form, used as an annex to the operation order,
prescribes the allocation of aircraft to the organizations of the
ground units to be lifted. It further designates the number and
type of aircraft in each serial and specifies the departure area,
and time of loading and take-off (app. XIII).
e. Aircraft Loading Table. This form is a data sheet used by the
army forces company commander and is forwarded to battalion
headquarters. It may be sent to the air forces commander for
his information. It contains information as to the load that ac-
tually goes into the aircraft. This form can be used as an annex
to a battalion operation order (app. XIII).
f. Flight Manifest. This form is a record of personnel by name,
rank, and serial number of the personnel in each aircraft. It also
gives a brief description of the equipment loaded, with the station
number as loaded in the aircraft. Weight and balance computations
6r;lpersonnel and equipment are also listed. The senior army mem-
·ber'of each: aircraft is responsible for the preparation of the flight
manifest for his own aircraft, but the company or similar unit com-
.rander u'su'ally prepares the form for all personnel and equipment
of the unit. One complete copy of the flight manifest must remain
.atythe, departure! ;airdrome (app. XIII).
8O
AGO 2150B
CHAPTER 4
EXECUTION
OF AIRBORNE OPERATIONS
Section I. THE AIR MOVEMENT
76. PREPARATION
a. The air movement of assaulting airbornie troops delivers the
force to its assigned landing areas, with minimum dispersion in
time and space, to achieve maximum benefit from tactical surprise.
To accomplish this, enplaning, take-off, and air assembly of serials
from all airfields are closely scheduled by the air headquarters con-
trolling the overall air movement.
b. Each troop carrier group follows a standing operating proce-
dure to fit the characteristics and local air traffic pattern for its
airfield. This standing operating procedure designates the system
used to expedite take-off or landing, loading points, local formation,
assembly pattern, emergency and crash drill, and other details
concerning airfield operations.
c. Airplanes are normally loaded with both equipment and per-
sonnel in dispersal sites.
d. Rapid marshalling for airborne operations requires a con-
siderable number of trucks and materials handling equipment to
assist in loading of heavy equipment and supplies for aerial de-
livery. This may require vehicles and equipment which are not nor-
mally available to the assault airborne force and will necessitate
use of specially equipped supporting service troops to assist in
loading.
77. IN FLIGHT
a. The flight to the landing area is closely regulated because air
serials must take position in their assigned air space while moving
at a high rate of speed. Each serial takes off and assembles into
formation over its home field before departing on a course to the
division assembly point. By variation of air speed, and minor de-
viations in course, serials pass over air force assembly points and
then to the troop carrier command assembly point on a precise time
schedule. This assembly procedure funnels the air serials into troop
AGO 2150B
81
carrier command column (s) in the desired priority of landing and
with the proper space between serials. From the command as-
sembly point, all type serials fly at a specified air speed over the
remainder of the route.
b. Navigation aids such as lights, radio, and radar beacons are
placed at each control point and at intervals along the route over
friendly territory to insure accurate navigation. All navigation
aids transmit a distinctive code letter.
c. Troop carrier forces can fly serials varying in size from 3 to
64 airplanes. The same number of airplanes flying in large serials
have a shorter time and space length than a greater number of
small serials because of the intervals between serials.
d. A time and space interval is necessary between successive
serials in the air force stream. This interval, usually 4 minutes
(measured from head to head) between serials, is necessary for
three reasons. First, the serial itself varies from 1 to 2 minutes in
time length. Secondly, some tolerance must be allowed for minor
variations in timing at the various control points. The third and
most important reason is the accordion effect which occurs when
parachute serials reduce speed from 180 miles per hour to 120 miles
per hour to discharge their load. Succeeding serials which are still
cruising at 180 miles per hour are closing on the discharging serials
at the rate of about 1 mile a minute. The interval between serials
must absorb the difference in speed between cruising and drop
speed.
e. In airborne operations, all parachute serials are usually
dropped before assault aircraft begin landing. A time interval be-
tween the last parachute landing and the first assault aircraft land-
ing is frequently necessary in order to permit the parachute troops
to clear the landing zones of enemy small-arms fire and to cover the
landing and assembly of the air-landed troops. Assault aircraft and
parachute serials cannot be intermixed in an air-movement stream
because of the air saturation caused by the assault aircraft circling
in flight for landing. Assault aircraft cannot land on a drop zone
following a parachute drop until equipment bundles, vehicles,
weapons, and drop casualties have been cleared from the area.
f. The solution of air-traffic problems in a departure area where
troop carrier airfields are in close proximity will frequently dictate
the sequence of take-off of air-movement serials. When this is true,
the sequence in which serials must take off will be announced by
the troop carrier air force. This sequence of take-off and the air-
borne commander's landing priorities form the basis for the air-
movement table and the airborne marshalling plan.
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AGO 2160B
g. To reduce the time and space length of an air force column,
two columns flying over the same route on a parallel course can be
employed when the route over enemy territory is flown during day-
light. This expedient reduces the time and space length to approxi-
mately half that of a single column. It effects considerable saving
in time since, for example, an air force column of 21 serials would
require approximately 1 hour and 20 minutes to pass a given point
and would occupy an air space approximately 240 miles long. It is
obvious that any reduction that can be made in the time and space
length of the troop carrier column will materially reduce the area
which must be protected by fighter escorts and decrease the time
required to close and reorganize troops in the landing area. Two
columns are not used because of the high risk of collision in the
objective area unless there are two general objective areas sepa-
rated by at least 15 miles.
h. Pathfinder serials, when required, precede the main troop
carrier column to drop parachute pathfinder teams who place and
operate navigation aids in the landing area. Pathfinder airplanes
are equipped with electronic devices for precise navigation and are
operated by highly trained air crews. After completing their prim-
ary mission, pathfinder groups may be used in subsequent lifts in
the same manner as standard carrier groups. Pathfinder airplanes
have a reduced pay load because of the weight of special equipment
installed.
78. THE APPROACH
a. As parachute serials approach the drop zone, troops are
warned by the pilots in sufficient time to make last-minute equip-
ment inspections and prepare for exit. Before crossing the drop
zone, the air formation reduces speed. The drop is made, on signal
of the pilot, at correct speed and altitude.
b. The ground dispersion from parachute serials depends upon
the joint skill of the airplane crews and the parachute troops they
transport. Precise navigation to the proper drop zone; compact
formation; correct speed and altitude for the drop; and rapid and
proper exit of personnel, supplies, and equipment are all combined
to attain good results on the drop.
c. The empty airplanes increase speed, execute the planned
traffic pattern, and usually return over the same route but at a
higher altitude to avoid in-bound traffic.
AGO 21650B
83
Section II. COMBAT OPERATIONS
79. GENERAL
a. Ground combat in airborne operations is conducted along con-
ventional lines but under unusual conditions. Once these unusual
conditions are appreciated, the tactics and technique of normal
ground combat can be applied intelligently to ground combat in
airborne operations.
b. The unusual conditions in airborne combat can be grouped
under the four headings of the mission, terrain, enemy forces, and
our own forces.
80. MISSION
The over-all mission of an airborne operation is invariably one
of these types: either to deny the enemy use of critical terrain, or
to hold critical terrain for our own forces, or a combination of the
two. Strong reliance is placed on the element of surprise in the ac-
complishment of these missions. These missions, when translated
into terms of objectives, usually require the seizure and defense of
certain objectives and surrounding terrain. In early link-up type
operations by airborne divisions, the division defends only the
objectives, a drop zone for supply, and the required maneuver
space. In independent type operations, which require air-landing of
follow-up units, the airborne force defends a much larger area in
order that the airfields can be operated effectively.. In both types
the tactical operation begins with an initial assault and then passes
to the defense. Upon reinforcement or upon juncture with other
ground forces, the airborne units resume the offensive or are with-
drawn to prepare for subsequent operations.
81. TERRAIN
An airborne assault of appreciable size requires areas of reason-
ably level and open terrain to afford landing zones for the assault
aircraft. In the event the entire assault echelon is parachuted,
using heavy equipment drop techniques, much more latitude is
allowed in the selection of landing areas. If the operation entails
landing of airplanes, there must be large areas of level and open
terrain in the objective area to provide airfield sites and un-
obstructed approaches to these sites.
82. ENEMY FORCES
An airborne force usually lands in enemy rear areas where there
84
AGO 2150B
are few fixed defenses and few well-organized combat troops ini-
tially. This condition simplifies the initial seizure of objectives,
particularly when coupled with the high degree of surprise at-
tained and the preponderance of force committed. However, as the
enemy reacts, he may counterattack with appreciable forces. These
attacks are initially hasty, uncoordinated thrusts along main
routes of approach with any units available, but progressively in-
crease in strength and width. Any armored units available are
usually employed in these counterattacks. Defense against armored
counterattacks is, therefore, a major consideration.
83. OWN FORCES
The equipment of units in an airborne assault is normally re-
duced below normal standards because of the technical limitations
of parachutes and airplanes, and because of the requirements for
reducing units to minimum gross weights. Although the degree of
reduction varies, units are usually less mobile than in normal oper-
ations. The airborne force contains no tanks initially, although if
large airfields are available to land the heavy cargo airplane, light
tanks may be landed. The absence of, or limited numbers of, tanks
and the reduced mobility of the force make it difficult to conduct
offensive or defensive operations requiring shock action or high
mobility. The missions assigned require the assignment of wide
frontages.
84. CONTROL
The maneuver of the airborne force is coordinated by the selec-
tion of a reconnaissance and security line, an airhead line, other
defensive lines, and necessary specific objectives, and by the
assignment of boundaries (app. XI).
85. LANDING AND REORGANIZATION OF PERSONNEL AND
MATERIEL
a. General.
(1) These two critical phases of the airborne assault are exe-
cuted with all possible speed and precision. When neces-
sary, security is sacrificed for speed and control of re-
organization.
(2) Airborne troops should normally be landed as close to
their objective as possible. The troops should have a
reasonable time to collect equipment and assemble as
tactical units before engaging in combat. Surprise may be
AGO 2150B
85
enhanced, however, by landing on the objective or making
the move to the objective as short as possible. A short
move will prevent the exhaustion of troops resulting from
forced marches, carrying heavy combat loads and man-
handling equipment over long distances.
b. Landing of Airborne Units.
(1) An airborne division customarily lands in three combat
teams in three general drop zone areas in less than an
hour. Command echelons are placed in assault serials. The
actual landing is made by battalion groups. As much
equipment as practicable is attached to individuals to
increase their combat readiness upon landing and to de-
crease the time required for assembly. Additional equip-
ment and supplies are dropped by separate bundles or
landed by assault aircraft.
(2) The assault aircraft echelon lands in parachute combat
team areas or in a centrally located area. Assault aircraft
normally land after parachutists have cleared the area of
local enemy resistance. Frequently a definite delay be-
tween arrival of the last parachute and the first assault
aircraft serial is prescribed in the air-movement plan.
Only when there is a requirement to saturate enemy de-
fenses should parachute and assault aircraft serials land
simultaneously.
(3) Assault aircraft serials cannot land on parachute drop
zones which have been used until the drop zones have
been cleared of bundles and equipment.
c. Reorganization of Airborne Units.
(1) Battalions and separate units reorganize in a prear-
ranged manner making use of predesignated assembly
areas, assembly aids, and identification markings for per-
sonnel and equipment. Assembly areas are established
just off the landing areas. For reference they are identi-
fied by prominent landmarks and marked by assembly
aids. The first parachute units to land are normally
charged with gaining and maintaining the security of the
drop and landing zones. Other units move directly to their
assembly areas, by planeload, carrying with them all
equipment needed for the assault. Upon arrival in the
assembly areas, groups report to their respective com-
mand posts where the officer in charge directs them to
their unit areas.
(2) To enable the regimental commander to make necessary
changes in missions within the regiment, each battalion
86
AGO 2150B
commander reports location and status of personnel and
equipment before moving from the assembly area to the
objectives. Battalions will normally report readiness for
action in 30 to 60 minutes.
(3) Designated personnel remain on the drop and landing
zones to protect the area, assemble stragglers, establish
prisoner of war collecting points, care for casualties, and
to complete the removal of supplies.
(4) The reorganization of the division is complete when all
units are assembled and communication is established.
86. INITIAL ASSAULT
a. The initial assault stresses the coordinated action of small
units to seize the initial objectives rapidly before the advantage of
surprise is lost. All commanders attack as rapidly as the situation
permits, utilizing all available fire support. Reconnaissance units
assigned to seize the reconnaissance and security line land in the
first serials and move out rapidly to establish road blocks, immobil-
ize enemy forces, disrupt enemy communication facilities, and pro-
vide the commander with early warning and information. If the
initial objectives are heavily defended, the bulk of the force is as-
signed the task of seizing these objectives. If the initial objectives
are lightly defended, the bulk of the force is assigned blocking
missions on favorable terrain, thus establishing the airhead line.
Artillery is placed under centralized control as soon as possible.
b. Units or personnel which are landed in areas other than those
planned direct their efforts to the accomplishment of the general
mission and establish contact with their respective headquarters
as soon as practicable.
c. The regimental commander places himself where he can best
coordinate the actions of his battalions to secure a decision.
d. The division commander shifts the fire of artillery, arranges
for air support, and uses reserves as the situation dictates.
e. As soon as initial objectives have been captured, the combat
teams seize further objectives which facilitate the establishment of
a coordinated division defense. Then defensive positions are organ-
ized, communication supplemented, reserves reconstituted, and
other measures taken to prepare the force to repel enemy counter-
attacks or to resume the offensive.
87. ESTABLISHMENT OF COMMAND POSTS AND COMMUNICA-
TION
a. The immediate establishment of channels of communication,
AGO 2150B
87
as parachute, assault aircraft, and airplane elements arrive in the
combat area, is essential for effective control of ground operations.
The following are necessary for effective command control:
(1) Immediate establishment of command and fire control
channels within the airborne forces.
(2) Communication with supporting air and naval forces.
(3) Communication with troop carrier forces concerned with
build-up, air supply, and air evacuation.
(4) Communication to bases in friendly territory.
(5) Communication to widely separated airborne or ground
forces with a common or coordinated mission.
b. Sufficient communication personnel and equipment must be
moved into the airhead, in advance of the command post they are
to serve, to insure the timely installation of vital communications.
c. The first Signal Corps personnel to be moved into the airhead
will be landed at approximately the same time as the leading ele-
ments of the command post. The signal communication system
then develops by successive steps to meet the requirements of the
commander.
88. DEVELOPMENT OF THE AIRHEAD
a. Seizure and Organization of the Airhead Line.
(1) The major consideration after the initial assault landings
have been made and the initial ground missions accom-
plished is the organization of the airhead line.
The
airhead line extends to a sufficient distance beyond the
landing areas to insure uninterrupted landings of air-
landed troops, equipment, and supplies, and secures the
requisite terrain features and maneuver space for such
further offensive or defensive operations as the mission
may call for. When, due to the mission or enemy resist-
ance within the airhead, units do not land on or near the
airhead line, the advance to, and seizure of, the critical
terrain features of the airhead line is accomplished with
maximum speed. For purposes of coordinating this ad-
vance the airborne assault commander may designate
successive objectives or phase lines. These successive
objectives facilitate such reorganization of attacking
troops, passage of lines, coordination of artillery fires,
and changes in the direction of the attack as may be
desirable.
(2) The airhead line is occupied and organized to the extent
demanded by the situation. Adjustments in the pre-
planned dispositions of troops and installations are made
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AGO 2150B
by appropriate commanders to fit the realities of the ter-
rain and the situation. Appropriate reconnaissance and
security measures are taken, which usually include the
reinforcement of the reconnaissance and security line.
The degree to which the airhead line as actually occupied
and organized for defense is determined largely by the
mission, the enemy capabilities, and the defensive charac-
teristics of the terrain. For any given terrain, if the mis-
sion calls for an early continuation of the ground offen-
sive beyond the initial limits of the airhead and if the like-
lihood of enemy counterattack during the interim appears
negligible, then a minimum of effort only need be expend-
ed on the organization of the airhead line as a defensive
position. On the other hand, if the mission calls for hold-
ing action on the boundaries of the initial airhead extend-
ing over a considerable period of time, or if an enemy
counterattack appears likely, more effort is expended in
organizing the airhead line as a defensive position. In
the early stages of the operation, the defensive positions
are usually lightly held and the bulk of the forces are
held in reserve for counterattacking enemy penetrations.
As reinforcing units are landed in the airhead the posi-
tions are more heavily organized.
b. Build-up. The build-up of the airhead proceeds concurrently
with the seizure and organization of the airhead line. As additional
combat troops arrive and are organized by unit, they are used to
reinforce the frontline positions, to constitute reserves, and to pre-
pare for such offensive operations as the mission may call for.
Logistical development of the airhead is described in section III of
this chapter.
89. DEFENSE
a. The defensive phase covers the time during which the air-
borne units defend the objectives seized and ends when a ground
link-up is effected or when sufficient reinforcements are air-landed
to enable the force to assume the offensive. During the defense
phase the airborne force faces outward from the center of the air-
head. The main body disposes itself to occupy positions on the
airhead line. As enemy reactions develop, the airborne commander
may execute a delaying action, adopt a defense on a wide front, or
adopt a position defense. The normal procedure is to organize
strong defensive positions on the airhead line covering the main
routes of approach with the bulk of the force held in position of
AGO 2150B
89
readiness to the flank or rear patrolling the gaps between forward
positions.
b. Each echelon of command combines a determined defense on
a wide front, massed supporting fires, and strong counterattacks to
defeat enemy forces as they are committed against the position. As
the pattern of the enemy counterattacks is developed, the unit is
regrouped to strengthen defense against more dangerous threats. If
the airhead line becomes untenable, troops are withdrawn to previ-
ously selected positions a short distance to the rear. Local reserves
are used to pinch off penetrations and general reserves are em-
ployed to deliver counterattacks around the flanks. If enemy pres-
sure continues, further withdrawals may be necessary in order to
gain time, and to shorten frontages, thereby increasing troop dens-
ity. The entire procedure is based on forcing the enemy to deploy
prematurely, defeating him in detail by massed fire power and
aggressive maneuver, and retaining maneuver space by withdraw-
ing only when forced to do so.
c. As soon as a juncture is effected or sufficient reinforcements
have been air-landed, and additional administrative support is
available, the airborne force assumes the offensive.. If the enemy
still has a preponderance of tanks, it is necessary to counteract this
advantage by air strikes, deep envelopments, night attacks, and
similar means. During this phase the reinforcing units often at-
tack with the airborne units protecting the flanks. This gives
greater impetus to the exploitation phase and provides the air-
borne units an opportunity to regroup and regain their full com-
bat effectiveness.
90. ARMOR
Defense against enemy armor must be given added emphasis in
airborne operations. The defensive positions selected must take
advantage of all suitable tank obstacles, such as rivers, swamps,
woods, villages, and gullies. Secondary routes around the flanks of
the main forces are physically occupied and obstructed by demoli-
tions, obstacles, and mines. Every attempt is made to avoid day-
light withdrawals. The antitank and antiaircraft units available
are located in depth in the most dangerous sectors.
91. AIR SUPPORT
A sound air support plan is an integral part of the ground com-
bat plans. Reconnaissance to locate enemy forces, armed reconnais-
sance to drive them off the roads, isolation missions, and air
90
AGO 2150B
strikes on forces in contact are planned. ~Ample communications
for liaison and control are provided.
92. SUBSEQUENT OPERATIONS
a. Exploitation. Ground operations to exploit the advantages
obtained by the establishment of the airhead follow the normal
pattern of ground operations.
b. Subsequent Role of Airborne Units. After the airhead has
been firmly established, airborne units are either relieved to permit
preparation for subsequent airborne assaults or are directed to
prepare for sustained ground operations.
c. Withdawal from Airhead. Withdrawal from an airhead may
be forced by the enemy or may be made voluntarily. Advance
planning is imperative as the limitations of transport aircraft and
the circular shape of the airhead introduce complicating factors
not present in the normal ground withdrawal. When the situation
permits, the plan usually provides for eva
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