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Manual of American Steel
& Wire Company^s Process
of Water Purification With
Sulphate of Iron
>v
Sales Offices
CHICAGO 208 S. LaSalle Street
NEW YORK 30 Church Street
WORCESTER 94 Grove Street
BOSTON 120 Franklin Street'
CLEVELAND Western Reserve Building
PITTSBURGH Frick Building
BUFFALO :W Washington Street
DETROIT Foot of First Street
CINCINNATI Union Trust BuUding
OKLAHOMA CITY State National Bank BuUding
ST. LOUIS Third National Bank Building
ST. PAUL-MINNEAPOLIS .... Pioneer Building, St. Paul
DENVER First National Bank Building
SALT LAKE CITY Walker Bank Building
PHILADELPHIA Wijdepe.r Building
BALTIMORE : . : ,S2 SpMl/ Clk^rlps ^Jriilei'
WILKES-BARRE, PA '.' Mifefs Baftk 'Bu'iWmg''
BIRMINGHAM. ALA ;.{iroici->farx' building
» - ■* *
' ' - • - . - . •
United States Steel Products Company
EXPORT DEPARTMENT: New York . . . .SO Church Street
PACIFIC COAST DEP'T: San Francisco . . Rialto Building
Portland, Sixth and Alder Streets
Seattle, 4th Ave. So. and Conn. St.
Los Angeles, Jackson and Cent. A ves.
Copyright 191G by American Steel & Wire Company
1. VVr Ui / •-•
WE PRESENT this Manual of
the American Steel & Wire
Company's Process of Water
Purification in briefest form consistent
with a fair treatment of the essential
features, and because of the emergency
which has suddenly arisen in the chemical
world on account of prevailing foreign
conditions.
These conditions seriously affect the
operation of water purification plants
employing other chemicals, while those
using Sulphate of Iron are not affected.
We endeavor to set forth the formula
of the Sulphate of Iron Process in ad-
vance of further data which may develop,
and solicit inquiries on the subject with
statement of water conditions upon which
we *:' will givfe*-' the expert advice of our
Eftgtrieerihg Bureau of Water Purification.
ATrt'encan Steel & Wire Company
January, 1916
Water Puriticatian
Chemical Formulas, see Tabic No. 5.
Chemical Impurities in Treatment 98
Chemical SubsUmccs. Names, For-
mulas and "Wdelits 113
Chemical Treatment, miere Applied 14
Chemical Treatment, How Applied 14
Chemical Treatment, Difficulties
InvoLved in 14
Chemical Treatment, Success of . . 14
Chemical Tr«atment, Demands for 14
Chemical Treatment for Turbidity 96
Chemical Treatment for Color . . 96
Chemical Treatment for Bacteria . 96
Chemical Treatment, Point of Ap-
plication 47
Chemical Treatment, Sulphate of
Iron 47
Chemical Treatment, Caustic Lime 47
Chemical Treatment, Errors in . . 46
Chemical Treatment, Wastefulness
in Fixed Rate ....-.,.. 46
Chemical Treatment, Inaccuracy of
Fised Rate 46
Chemical Treatment, Formulas for 43
Chemical Treatment, to Determine 43
Chemical Treatment, Poimds Re-
quired 43
Chemical Treatment, Grains per
Gallon Required 44
Chemical Treatment, Rule tor Use
of Iron Sulphate 99-102
Chemical Treatment, Rule for Use
of Caustic Lime 99-102
Chemical Treatment, Size of Orifice
Required 44
Chemical Treatment, with Calcium
Oxide 96
Chemical Treatment, with Calciimi
Hydrate 96
Chemical Treatment, with Sodium
Carlionale 96
Chemical Treatment, with Sodium
Hydrate 96
Chemical Treatment, with Sodium
Oxide 96
Chemical Treatment, Influenced by
Plant ConstriutKm 99
Chemical Trc^iUm-nt, Factors for
AlLiriliTlllill Sul].hiilO 13.5
Chemical Treatment, Factors tor
Barium Oxide 135
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Caldum Hydrate
Ch.--mital Treatment, Factors for
Caldum Oxide
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Caldum Nionocarbonate . - .
Chemica Treatment, Factors for
Caldum Bicarbonate ....
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Iron Sulphate
Chemical Treatment, Factors tor
Magnesium Oxide
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Magnesium Hydrate
Chemical Treatment. Factors for
Magnesium Monocarbonate
Chemical Treatment Factors for
Magnesium Bicarbonate . .
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Magnesium Chloride
Chemica Treatment. Factors for
^(agnesium Sulphate ....
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Sodium Owde
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Sodium Hydrate
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Sodium MonOLarlrf)nate . . .
Chemic;il Treatment, Factors for
Substances Remaining in So-
Chetnical Treatment, Factors for
Sulphuric Anhydride
Chemical Treatment, Factors for
Sulpburiu Afid
Chemical Reactions, Use of ... .
Chemical Reactions of Aluminum
Comjjtjunils
Chemicat Reactions of Barium Com-
Ciiemical Reactions of Caldum
Compounds
Chemical Reactions of Carbonic Add
Chemical Reactions of Copper Com-
pounds
Chemical Reactions of Iron Sulphate
Chemical Reactions of Magnesium
Compounds
Chemical Reactions of Sodium Com-
VI
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
Chemical Reactions of Sulphuric
Add 120
Chemical Wastage in Treatment . . 98
Chemical Weight Table 113
Chloride Hardness, Defined .... 151
Chlorine Compounds, Factors for . 125
Circular Orifices, Discharge .... 25
Circular Orifices, Diameters .... 25
Circular Orifices, Areas 25
Circular Orifices, Factors .... 24-33
Clarification and Purification ... 99
Clarification and Purification, Rule
for Chemical Treatment . 99-102
Clarification and Purification, Rule
for Use of Iron Sulphate . . 99-102
Clarification and Purification, Rule
for Use of Caustic Lime . . 99-102
Coagulation, by Sulphate of Iron,
Rule for 99-102
Coagulation, by Caustic Lime, Rule
for 9^102
Coagtilation, by Soda Ash .... 102
Coagulation, by Sodium Carbonate 102
Coagulation, Forming 56
Coagulation, Size of 56
Coagulation, Quality of 56
Coagulation, Test for 56
Coagulation, Breaking up ... . 60
Color of Water 75-84
Color of Water, to Determine . • . 75-83
Color of Water, Standard .... 81-82
Computing Chemical Equations . . 120
Constant Head Device for Lime . . 51
Constant Rate Filter Controller . . 70
Constant Rate Filter Controller,
Function of 70
Control for End Point in Chemical
Work 91
Controllers, Filter Constant Rate . 70
Controllers, Function of 70
Controllers, Imperfections of Early
Types 71
Controllers, Over-running .... 71
Controllers, Breaking Beds .... 71
Controllers, Bacterial Inefficiency
due to 71
Controllers, Newer Types .... 72
Controllers, Functions of 72
Controllers, Objections to ... . 72
Controllers, Variable Rate .... 72
Pagb
Controllers, Functions of 73
Controllers, Advantages over Fixed
Rate Type 73
Controllers, Economy of Variable
Rate Type 72
Controllers, Filter, Increased Ca-
pacity of Filter due to . . . 73-74
Controllers, Filter, Increased Ca-
pacity of Clear Well due to 73
Controllers, Filter and Chemical,
Meter Type 74
Controllers, Filter and Chemical,
Meter Type, Advantages ... 74
Controllers, Filter and Chemical,
Meter Type, Economy .... 74
Co-operation to Prevent Disease . . 8
Copper Chloride, Chemical Formula 113
Copper Chloride, Chemical Weight 113
Copper Compounds, Factors for . . 124
Copper Hydrate, Chemical Formula 113
Copper Hydrate, Chemical Weight 113
Copper Oxide, Chemical Formula . 113
Copper Oxide, Chemical Weight . 113
Copper Sulphate, Chemical Formula 1 13
Copper Sulphate, Chemical Weight 113
Copper Sulphate, Equivalents of . 133
Core, Liunp Lime, Containing ... 47
Cubic Centimeter, Equivalents of . 153
Cubic Inch, Equivalents of ... . 153
Cubic Foot, Equivalents of .... 153
Cubic Yard, Equivalents 153
Cubic Millimeter, Equivalents 153
Cubic Meter, Equivalents .... 153
Cupric Sulphate, Equivalents ... 133
Decagram Equivalents 153
Decaliter Equivalents 153
Deciliter Equivalents 153
Decameter Equivalents 153
Decatonne Equivalents 153
Decastere Equivalents 153
Decimeter Equivalents 153
Decistere Equivalents 153
Determinations of Discharge ... 24
Determinations of Velocity of Flow 32
Determinations of Velocity of Flow,
Factor 32
Determinations of Gallons Dis-
charged 32
Water Pnrllioation
VII
Page
Determinations of Diameters of
Pipes or Orifices 32
Determination of Chemical Dis-
charge 43
Determination of Pumpage .... 43
Determination of Grains per Gallon
of Chemicals 44
Determination of Size of Orifice . . 44
Determination of Coefficient of Dis-
charge 45
Determination of Depth of Sludge . 62
Determination of Proper Coagula-
tion 56
Determination of Turbidity . . . 75-81
Determination of Color .... 81-84
Determination of Free Carbonic
Add 84
Determination of Alkalinity, Caustic
89-92
Determination of Alkalinity, Mono-
carbonate 93
Determination of Alkalinity, Bi-
carbonate 93
Determination of Alkalinity, Caus-
tic and Monocarbonate ... 94
Determination. of Alkalinity, Mono
and Bicarbonate 94
Determination of Alkalinity, Bi-
carbonate and Free Carbonic
Acid 95
Determination of Alkalinity, Total 94-95
Determination of Alkalinity, Treat-
ments 96
Determination of Bacterial Count 105-108
Determination of Chemical Quan-
tities 120
Disease, Responsibility for ... . 7
Disease, Water Borne 7
Disease, Kills Civilization .... 7
Disease, Early History, Epidemics,
and Pestilences 7
Disease, Cause of, and Co-operation
to Prevent 8
Disease, Ignorance Causes, Knowl-
edge Prevents 8
Disease, Effects on Progeny ... 8
Disease, Cost of 9
Disease, Breeds Ignorance .... 10
Displacement Factors for Aluminum
Sulphate 135
Pace
Displacement Factors for Barium
Oxide 135
Displacement Factors for Caldtun
Oxide 135
Displacement Factors for Calcium
Hydrate 136
Displacement Factors for Calcium
Monocarbonate 136
Displacement Factors for Caldtun
Bicarbonate* 136
Displacement Factors for Iron Sul-
phate 136
Displacement Factors for Mag-
nesium Oxide 136
Displacement Factors for Mag-
nesium Hydrate 137
Displacement Factors for Mag-
nesium Monocarbonate . . . 137
Displacement Factors for Mag-
nesium Bicarbonate 137
Displacement Factors for Mag-
nesium Chloride 137
Displacement Factors for Mag-
nesium Sulphate 137
Displacement Factors for Sodium
Oxide 137
Displacement Factors for Sodium
Hydrate 137
Displacement Factors for Sodium
Monocarbonate 137
Displacement Factors for Sulphuric
Anhydride 138
Displacement Factors for Sulphiuic
Add 138
Distributing Weir in Settling Basins 60
Earl Type Variable Rate Filter
Controller 73
Earl Type Variable Rate Chemical
Controller 46
Effective Size of Sand 75
Effective Size of Sand 65-66
Effective Size of Sand 95
End Point of Indicators ..... 89
End Point of Methyl Orange ... 91
End Point of Methyl Orange De- >
tecting 91
End Point, Use of Cotv\.\'c\ . . - ^"^
VIII
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
Engineering Bureau, Function of 5
Epidemics, Ancient 7
Equivalents, Tables of Factors 123-128
Equivalents, Tables of Alkalinities
129-130
Equivalents, Tables of Hardness 131-134
Equivalents, Tables of Incom-
patibles 135-138
Equivalents, Tables of Treatments
96-135-138
Equivalents, Tables of Heads and
Pressures 34-40
Equivalents, on Analysis Form . . 150
Equivalent Pressures under Varjring
Heads 34-40
Example of Chemical Computation 120
Exceptions to Rule for Use .... 102
Explanations of Terms on Analysis
Form 151
Factors for Aluminum Compounds 123
Factors for Barium Compounds . . 124
Factors for Calciimi Compounds . 124
Factors for Carbonic Acid Com-
pounds 124
Factors for Copper Compounds . . 124
Factors for Chlorine Compounds . 125
Factors for Iron Compounds . . . 125
Factors for Magnesium Compounds 126
Factors for Sodium Compoimds . . 126
Factors for Sulphuric Acid Com-
pounds 127
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Calcium Oxide 129
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Calcium Hydrate 129
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Calcium Monocarbonate . . 129
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Calcium Bicarbonate ... 129
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Magnesium Oxide 129
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Magnesium Hydrate ... 129
Factors for' Alkalinity Equivalents
of Magnesium Monocarbonate 130
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Magnesium Bicarbonate . . 130
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Sodium Oxide 130
Page
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Sodium Hydrate 130
Factors for Alkalinity Equivalents
of Sodiimi Monocarbonate . . 130
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Altuninum Sulphate 135
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Barium Oxide 135
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Calcium Oxide 135
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Calcium Hydrate 13(5
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Calcium Monocarbonate . . . 136
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Calcium Bicarbonate 136
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Iron Sulphate 136
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Magnesium Oxide 136
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Magnesium Hydrate 137
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Magnesium Monocarbonate . . 137
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Magnesium Bicarbonate . . . 137
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Magnesium Chloride 137
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Magnesium Sulphate .... 137
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Sodium Oxide 137
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Sodium Hydrate 137
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
So<iium Monocarbonate . . . 137
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Sulphuric Anhydride .... 138
Factors for Chemical Treatment of
Sulphuric Acid 138
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Aluminum Sulphate 131
Factors for Hardness Ecjuivalents of
Calcium Oxide 131
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Calcium Hydrate 131
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Calcium Monocarbonate . . . 131
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Calcium Bicarbonate .... 132
Water Pnrifioatlan
Pace
Factors for Hardness Eqmvalents of
Caldum Chloride 132
Factors tor Hardness Equivalents of
Calcium Sulphate 132
Factors for Hardness Eqmvalents of
Carbonic Acid 132
Pactore for Hardness Equivalents of
Copper Sulphate 133
Factors for Hardness Eqtiivalents of
Iron Sulphate 133
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Magnesium Oxide . 133
Pactors for Hardness Equivalents of
Magnesium Hydrate . 133
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Magnesium Monocarhonate 134
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Magnesium Bicarbonate ■ 134
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Magnesium Chloride 134
Factors for Hardness Equivalents of
Magnesium Sulphate .... 134
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lentsofAluminumSulphate . . 135
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Barium Oxide .... 135
Factors for Incompatible Eqtiiva-
lents of Calcium Oxide .... 1 35
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Calcium Hydrate 136
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Caldimi Monocarbonate 136
Factors of Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Calcium Bicarbonate . 136
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Iron Sulphate .... 136
Factors for Incompatible Eqtiiva-
lents of Magnesium Oxide . , 136
Factors for Incompaiilili; Equiva-
lents of Magnesium llyrlrati- . 137
Factors for Incompalil ilc Equiva-
lents of Magnesium Mono-
carbonate 137
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Magnesium Bicarbonate 137
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Magnesium Chloride 137
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Magnesiimi Sulphate 137
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Sodium Oxide . . . , 137
Factors tor Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Sodium Hydrate
Pactors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of Sodimn Monocarbonate
Factors for Incompatible Equiva-
lents of -Sulphuric Anhydride
Factors for Ini-ompatible Equiva.
lents of Sulphuric Acid ....
Fargo Mining Chamber, Require-
Filters, Sand Beds of
Filters, Bottoms
Filters, Neccessity for Good Filters
Filters, Design of
Filters, Cleaning
Filters, ExperiTucnt.il
Filters, Suspended Matter ....
Filters, Size of Sand
Filters, Rale of Filtration ....
Filters, Air Wash
Filters, Length of Run
Filters, Wash Troughs
Filler Controllers, Variable Rate
Filter Controllers, Function of . .
Filter Controllers, Advantages over
Fixed Rate Controllers ....
Filter Controllers. Economy of . .
Filter Controllers, Increased Capac-
ity of Filters due to
Filter Controllers, Increased Capac-
ity of Clear Well due to . . ,
Filter Controllers, Meter Controller
Filter Controllers, Meter Controller,
Advantages of
Filter Controllers, Meter Controller.
Economy of
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate . . .
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate,
Function of
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate, Im-
perfections of Early Type . . .
Filter Controllers, Fbted Rate, Over-
ruiirting
Filtt-r Controllers, Fixed Rate,
Breaking Beds
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate, Bac-
terial Inefficiencj' due to . . .
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate, Newer
Type
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate,
Newer Type, Funetiovi lA . ■
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
Filter Controllers, Fixed Rate,
Newer Type, Objections to . . 72
Filter Manifold for Water .... 68
Filtration without Softening ... 99
Filtration, Rule for Chemical Treat-
ment 99-102
Fixed Alkali Bicarbonates, Defined 151
Fixed Alkali Carbonates, Defined . 151
Fixed Alkali Caustics, Defined . . 151
Fixed Alkali Monocarbonates, De-
fined 151
Fixed Rate Filter Controllers ... 70
Fixed Rate Filter Controllers, Func-
tion of •. 70
Fixed Rate Head Tank for Lime . . 51
Foot Equivalents 153
Formula for Chemical Charges . . 43
Formula for Pumpage 43
Formula for Grains per Gallon
Treatment 44
Formula for Calibrating Orifices . . 45
Free Acid Hardness, Defined . . . 151
Free Carbonic Acid Incompatibles 136-148
Free Carbonic Acid, to Treat ... 96
Free Carbonic Acid, to Determine . 84
Free Mineral Acid, to Treat ... 95
Free Sulphuric Acid Incompatibles
138-147
Furlong Equivalents 153
Gallon Equivalents 153
Gelatine Count, Importance of . . 105
General Chemistry of Water . . . 104
Gill Equivalents 153
Grain Equivalents 153
Grains per Gallon, Explained . . . 122
Grains per Gallon, Conversion to
Parts per Million .... 122-145
Grains per Gallon, Conversion to
Pounds per Million 145
Gram Equivalents 153
Gravel in Filters 66
Hardness, Defined 151
Hardening Compounds in Water . . 110
Hardness Equivalents of Aluminum
Sulphate 131
Hardness Equivalents of Calcium
Oxide 131
Pac
Hardness Equivalents of Calcium
Hydrate 13
Hardness Equivalents of Calcium
Monocarbonate 13
Hardness Equivalents of Calcium
Bicarbonate 13
Hardness Equivalents of Calcium
Chloride 13
Hardness Equivalents of Calcium
Sulphate 13
Hardness Equivalents of Carbonic
Acid 13
Hardness Equivalents of Cupric
Sulphate 13
Hardness Equivalents of Iron Sul-
phate 13
Hardness Equivalents of Magnesium
Oxide 13
Hardness Equivalents of Magnesium
Hydrate 13
Hardness Equivalents of Magnesium
Monocarbonate 13
Hardness Equivalents of Magnesium
Bicarbonate 13
Hardness Equivalents of Magnesium
Chloride 12
Hardness Equivalents of Magnesium
Sulphate 13
Hardness Equivalents on Analysis
Form U
Hard Spots in Filters C
Hard Water Defined II
Head Tanks for Lime t
Head Tanks for Constant Rate
Chemical Feed Device .... t
Hectare Equivalents IS
Hectogram Equivalents It
Hectoliter Equivalents It
Hectometer Equivalents It
Hogshead Equivalents It
Hook^ Gauge for Drop in Level . . 4
How to Use American Steel & Wire
Co.'s Process €
Hydrated Lime, Commercial Prod-
uct 4
Hydrated Lime, Magnesia in . . . 4
Hydrated Lime, Requirements . . 4
Hydrated Lime, Loss of 4
Hydrated Lime, Solubility .... 4
Hydrated Lime, Milk of 4
Water Pniilication
XI
Page
Hydrated Lime, Metals Used to
Handle 49
Hydrated Lime, Suspension of . . . 49
Hydrated Lime, Agitating Suspen-
sions of 49
Hydrochloric Add, Chemical For-
mula 113
Hydrochloric Acid, Chemical Weight 113
Importance of Gelatine Count 105-106
Impractical Treatment Table ... 96
Improved Odor by Iron Sulphate . 144
Improved Taste by Iron Sulphate . 144
Impure Water, Danger of ... . 10
Impure Water, Responsibility for . 10
Impure Water, No Necessity for . 10
Impure Water can be Purified . 10
Impure Water should noti be] Tol-
erated 11
Inch Equivalents 153
Incompatibles on Analysis Form 147-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Alumi-
num Sulphate 136
Incompatible Equivalents of Bari-
um Oxide 135
Incompatible Equivalents of Cal-
cium Oxide 135
Incompatible Equivalents of Cal-
cium Hydrate 136-147
Incompatible Equivalents of Cal-
cium Monocarbonate . . 136-147
Incompatible Equivalents of Cal-
ciimi Bicarbonate .... 136-147
Incompatible Equivalents of Cal-
cium Chloride ...... 136-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Cal-
cium Sulphate 136-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Free
Carbonic Acid 136-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Iron
Sulphate 136
Incompatible Equivalents of Mag-
nesium Oxide 136
Incompatible Equivalents of Mag-
nesium Hydrate 137
Incompatible Equivalents of Mag-
nesium Monocarbonate .... 137
Incompatible Equivalents of Mag-
nesium Bicarbonate 137
Page
Incompatible Equivalents of Mag-
nesium Chloride 137-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Mag-
nesium Sulphate 137-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Sodium
Oxide ........... 137
Incompatible Equivalents of Sodium
Hydrate 137-147
Incompatible Equivalents of Sodium
Monocarbonate 137-148
Incompatible Equivalents of Sodium
Bicarbonate 148
Incompatible Equivalents of Sul-
phuric Anhydride 138
Incompatible Equivalents of Sul-
phuric Acid 138-147
Incrustation Due to Lime . . .
Incrustation in Softening . . .
Indicators, Chemical
Iron Carbonate, Chemical Formula
Iron Carbonate, Chemical Weight
Iron Chloride, Chemical Formula
Iron Chloride, Chemical Weight
Iron Compounds, Factors for . .
Iron Hydrate, Chemical Formula
Iron Hydrate, Chemical Weight .
Iron Oxide, Chemical Formula .
Iron Oxide, Chemical Weight . .
Iron Sulphate, Chemical Formula
Iron Sulphate, Chemical Weight .
Iron Sulphate Equivalents . . .
Iron Sulphate, How to Use . . .
Iron Sulphate Incompatibles . .
47
100
86
113
113
113
113
125
113
113
113
113
113
113
133
^9
136
Kilogram Equivalents 153
Kiloliter Equivalents 153
Kilometer Equivalents 153
League Equivalents 153
Length of Run of Filters .... ()5-66
Lime, Use of, in Treating Water . . 99
Lime, Rule for Use 99
Lime, Testing for Proper Usage . 99
Lime, Loss of 48
Lime, Strength 48
Lime, Solubility 48
Lime, Milk of 49
Lime, Agitating 49
Lime, Metals to Handle ^^
XII
American Steel and Wire Company
Pagb
Lime Head Tank or Constant Head
Device 51
Linear Equivalents 153
Liter Equivalents 153
Litmus for Testing 87
Lump Lime, Commercial Product . 47
Lump Lime, Core 47
Lump Lime, Requirements .... 47
Lump Lime, Slaking 48
Lump Lime, Loss of 48
Lump Lime, Solubility 48
Lump Lime, Milk of 49
Lump Lime, Metal to Handle ... 49
Magnesium Bicarbonate, Chemical
Formula 113
Magnesium Bicarbonate, Chemical
Weight 113
Magnesium Bicarbonate Equiva-
lents 130-134
Magnesium Bicarbonate Incom-
patibles 137
Magnesium Chloride, Chemical For-
mula 113
Magnesium Chloride, Chemical
Weight 113
Magnesium Chloride Equivalents . 134
Magnesium Chloride Incompatibles
137-147
Magnesium Compounds, Factors for 126
Magnesium Hydrate, Chemical For-
mula 113
Magnesium Hydrate, Chemical
Weight 113
Magnesium Hydrate Equivalents 12^133
Magnesium Hydrate Incompatibles 136
Magnesium Monocarbonate, Chemi-
cal Formula 113
Magnesium Monocarbonate, Chemi-
cal Weight 113
Magnesium Monocarbonate Equiv-
alents 130-134
Magnesium Monocarbonate Incom-
patibles 136
Magnesium Nitrate, Chemical For-
mula 113
Magnesium Nitrate, Chemical
Weight 113
Magnesium Oxide, Chemical For-
mula 113
Page
Magnesium Oxide, Chemical Weight 113
Magnesium Oxide Equivalents . 129-133
Magnesium Oxide Incompatibles 136
Magnesium (Tri-Magnesic) Phos-
phate, Chemical Formula . . 113
Magnesium (Tri-Magnesic) Phos-
phate, Chemical Weight ... 113
Magnesium Pyrophosphate, Chem-
ical Formula 113
Magnesium Pyrophosphate, Chem-
ical Weight 113
Magnesium Sulphate, Chemical For-
mula 113
Magnesium Sulphate, Chemical
Weight 113
Magnesium Sulphate Equivalents . 134
Magnesium Sulphate Incompatibles
137-148
Mass Equivalents 153
Mechanical Filtration, Early Results 1 1
Mechanical Filtration, Progress . . 11
Mechanical Filtration, Chemical
Methods 11
Meter Equivalents 153
Meter Filter Controllers 74
Meter Filter Controllers Save Wash
Water 74
Meter Filter Controllers Indicate
Filter Troubles 74
Meter Filter Controllers Indicate
Filter Inefficiencies 74
Metering Flow of Chemicals by
Chemical Controller 74
Meter Flow of Water by Filter
Controller 74
Methods of Using American Steel
and Wire Co.'s Process .... 99
Methyl Orange Indicator 88
Mile Equivalents 153
Milk of Lime, Preparation .... 49
Milk of Lime, Strength 49
Milk of Lime, Agitating 49
Milk of Lime, Metals to Handle . . 49
Millier Equivalents 153
Milligram Equivalents 153
Milliliter Equivalents ..... 153
Millimeter Equivalents 153
Miniature U. S. Gallon, Defined . . 122
Mineral Matter in Relation to Health 1 10
Mixing Chambers, Types 53
Mixing Chambers, Function ... 63
Water Porifioation
XIII
Page
Mixing Chambers, Requirements 53
Mixing Chambers, Efficiencies . . 59
Mixing Chambers, Economy of
Chemicals 59
Mixing Chambers, Capacity ... 53
Monocarbonate Alkalinity Defined 151
Monocarbonate Alkalinity, to Treat 96
Monocarbonate Alkalinity, Conver-
sion to Bicarbonate 90
Monocarbonate Alkalinity, Conver-
sion to Sulphate Hardness . . 90
Monocarbonate Alkalinity Deter-
mination 93
Monocarbonate Aklalinity Limita-
tions 86
Monocarbonate and Bicarbonate
Alkalinity Determination ... 94
Monocarbonate Hardness Defined . 151
Moral Tone Lowered by Disease . 8
Mortality in United States .... 8
Myriameter Equivalents 153
Myriogram Equivalents 153
Myrioliter Equivalents 153
Neutral Water Defined 87
Neutral Water Test 87
Neutralization Factors for Alumi-
num Sulphate 135
Neutralization Factors for Barium
Oxide 135
Neutralization Factors for Calcium
Oxide 135
Neutralization Factors for Calcium
Hydrate 136
Neutralization Factors for Calcium
Monocarbonate 136
Neutralization Factors for Calcium
Bicarbonate 136
Neutralization Factors for Calcium
Chloride 136
Neutralization Factors for Calcium
Sulphate 136
Neutralization Factors for Iron Sul-
phate 136
Neutralization Factors for Magne-
sium Oxide 136
Neutralization Factors for Magne-
sium Hydrate 137
Neutralization Factors for Magne-
sium Monocarbonate .... 137
Page
Neutralization Factors for Magne-
sium Bicarbonate 137
Neutralization Factors for Magne-
sium Chloride 137
Neutralization Factors for Magne-
sium Sulphate 137
Neutralization Factors for Sodium
Oxide 137
Neutralization Factors for Sodium
Hydrate 137
Neutralization Factors for Sodium
Monocarbonate 137
Neutralization Factors for Sulphuric
Anhydride 138
Neutralization Factors for Sulphuric
Acid 138
Neutralization Values on Analysis
Form 149
New Orleans Mixing Chamber . . 53
Normal Carbonate Alkalinity ... 75
Normal Carbonate Alkalinity Limi-
tations 86
Normal Twenty-Secondth Sodium
Carbonate Solution 85
Normal Fiftieth Sulphuric Add
Solution 89
Normal Fiftieth Sulphuric Acid
Solution, Equivalent 90
Odor Improved by Use of Sulphate
of Iron 144
Oil Barrel Equivalents 153
Operating Guide, Gelatin Count . . 106
Organic Matters in Water .... 104
Orifices, Diameters, Areas, and Dis-
charges 25 to 31
Orifices, Factors for 24-33
Ounce Equivalents 153
Overrunning of Filter Controllers . 71
Parts per Million Explained . . . 121
Parts per Million Converted ... 121
Parts per Million, Conversion
96-121-122-145
Phosphorus Pentoxide, Chemical
Formula 113
Phosphorus Pentoxide, Chemical
Weight ^>^^
Pmt 'Eq\xiva\e?cvt's.
XIV
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
Phenolphthaleine Test Solution or
Indicator Solution 85
Phenolphthaleine Test Solution,
Misuse of 89
Pipes, Velocity of Flow Through . 31
Pipes, Diameter of 32
Pipes, Discharge Through .... 32
Pipes, Factor for Formula .... 32
Plant Construction Influences Chem-
ical Treatment 99
Planting Bacterial Samples .... 108
Planting Bacterial Samples, Pre-
cautions 109
Planting Bacterial Samples, Control 110
Plant Operation, Data for ... . 75
Pound Equivalents 153
Precautions in Taking and Handling
Bacterial Samples ...... 108
Precipitation Factors for Aluminum
Sulphate 135
Precipitation Factors for Barium
Oxide 135
Precipitation Factors for Iron Sul-
phate 136
Prevention of Disease, 9
Prevention of Disease, Efifects of . 9
Prostitution Caused by Disease . . 8
Pumps, Low Service 13
Quart Equivalents 153
Quick Lime, Commercial Product . 47
Quick Lime, Requirements .... 47
Quick Lime, Slaking 48
Quick Lime, Loss of 48
Quick Lime, Solubility 48
Quick Lime, Milk of 49
Quick Lime, Metals to Handle . . 49
Quick Lime, Homogeneous Suspen-
sion of 49
Quintal Equivalents 153
Reactions of Aluminum Compounds 114
Reactions of Barium Compounds 115
Reactions of Calcium Compounds . 115
Reactions of Carbonic Acid Com-
pounds 116
Reactions of Copper Compounds . 117
Reactions of Iron Sulphate .... 117
Page
Reactions of Magnesivun Com-
pounds 117
Reactions of Sodium Compounds . 118
Reactions of Sulphuric Acid Com-
pounds 120
Rate of Filtration 73 to 75
Rate of Filtration, Past and Present 65
Raw Water, Recording Flow of . . 46
Red Water Defined 140
Red Water, Effects on Linen, and
Fixtures 140
Red Water, Destruction of Mains
and Services 141
Red Water Causes Water to be
Wasted 141
Red Water, Cause of 141
Red Water, Cure for 142
Red Water, Reactions Explaining . . 142
Removing Odor 144
Removing Taste 144
Replacement Factors for Aluminum
Sulphate 135
Replacement Factors for Barium
Oxide 136
Replacement Factors for Calcium
Oxide 136
Replacement Factors for Calcium
Hydrate 136
Replacement Factors for Calcium
Monocarbonate 136
Replacement Factors for Calcium
Bicarbonate 136
Replacement Factors for Calcium
Chloride 136
Replacement Factors for Calcium
Sulphate 136
Replacement Factors for Iron Sul-
phate 136
Replacement Factors for Magnesium
Oxide 136
Replacement Factors for Magnesium
Hydrate 137
Replacement Factors for Magnesium
Monocarbonate 137
Replacement Factors for Magnesium
Bicarbonate 137
Replacement Factors for Magnesium
Chloride 137
Replacement Factors for Magnesium
Sulphate 137
Water Purilication
XV
Page
Replacement Factors for Sodium
Oxide 137
Replacement Factors for Sodium
Hydrate 137
Replacement Factors for Sodium
Monocarbonale 137
Replacement Factors for Sulphuric
Anhydride 13^
Replacement Factors for Sulphuric
Acid 138
Responsibility for Disease .... 8
Responsibility of Public Officials . 7
Responsibility for Human Life . . 8
Responsibility, Purpose of ... . 9
Rod Equivalents 153
Rood Equivalents 153
Rules for Chemical Treatment with
Lime 99-102
Rules for Chemical Treatment with
Iron 99-102
Sand Beds in Filters
Sand Catchers
Sand, Effective Size
Scale Forming Substances . . .
Settling Basins, Capacity in Hours
Settling Basins, Cleaning ....
Settling Basins, Cross Section Flow
Through
Settling Basins, Collecting Weir, or
Skimming Weir
Settling Basins, Distributing Weir
Settling Basins, Diverted Flow
Settling Basins, Efficiency of . .
Settling Basins, Efficiency of, In
creased by Mixing Chamber
Settling Basins, Experimental . .
Settling Basins, Function of . .
Settling Basins, Observation of
Settling Basins, Requirements
Settling Basins Saves Wash Water
Settling Basins, Sludge Zone . .
Settling Basins, Straight Flow
Settling Basins, Successful . . .
Settling Basins, Surface Flow . .
Settling Basins, Testing Sludge Zone
Settling Basins, Water Enters . .
Settling Basins, Water Leaves
Silicon Dioxide, Chemical Formula
Silicon Dioxide, Chemical Weight
66
66
66
110
95
60
60
60
60
60
59
56
62
59
62
60
59
60
60
60
60
62
56
60
114
114
Page
Silver Nitrate Test for Caustic Al-
kalinity 89
Skimming Weir in Settling Basin . 60
Slaking Lump Lime 48
Slaking Loss 48
Sludge Zone Test in Settling Basins 62
Sodium Bicarbonate, Chemical For-
mula
Sodium Bicarbonate, Chemical
Weight
Sodium Bicarbonate Incompatibles .
Sodium Carbonate Volumetric Solu-
tion, N/22
Sodium Chloride, Chemical Formula
Sodium Chloride, Chemical Weight
Sodium Compounds, Factors for . .
Sodium Fluoride, Chemical Formula
Sodium Fluoride, Chemical Weight
Sodium Hydrate, Chemical Formula
Sodium Hydrate, Chemical Weight
Sodium Hydrate Equivalents . . .
Sodium Hydrate Incompatibles 137-
Sodium Monocarbonate, Chemical
Formula
Sodium Monocarbonate, Chemical
Weight
Sodium Monocarbonate Equivalents
Sodium Monocarbonate Incom-
patibles 137-
Sodium Nitrate, Chemical Formula
Sodium Nitrate, Chemical Weight
Sodium Nitrite, Chemical Formula
Sodium Nitrite, Chemical Weight
Sodium Oxide, Chemical Formula .
Sodium Oxide, Chemical Weight .
Sodium Oxide Equivalents ....
Sodium Oxide Incompatibles
Sodium (Di-Sodic)
Chemical Formula
Sodium (Di-Sodic)
Chemical Weight
Sodium (Tri-Sodic)
Chemical Formula
Sodium (Tri-Sodic)
Chemical Weight
Sodium Sulphate, Chemical Formula
Sodium Sulphate, Chemical Weight
Softening Process, Abuse of ... .
Softening Process, Advantages . .
Softening Process, Bacterial E€&.-
v:\CTvc\^s»
Phosphate,
Phosphate,
Phosphate,
Phosphate,
114
14
48
85
14
14
26
14
14
14
14
30
47
14
14
30
48
14
14
14
14
14
14
30
37
14
14
14
14
14
14
03
03
>iSS>»
XVI
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
Softening Process, Cost 103
Softening Process, Drawbacks ... 100
Softening Process, When not De-
sirable 104
Softening Process, Objections to . . 102
Softening Process, Rule for Using . 102
Softening Process, Substances Re-
maining in Solution 138
Standard Methods of Analysis,
Criticism of Last Edition ... 105
Standard Orifices 23
Standard Orifices, Coefficient of
Discharge 24
Standard Orifices, Discharge Table
for 25
Standard Orifices, Factor for . . . 24
Standard Orifices, Formula of Dis-
charge 24
Stere Equivalents 153
Strainers in Filters 66-68
Substances Producing Alkalinity 150
Substances Producing Hardness . . 150
Substances Producing Alkalinity and
Hardness 150
Substances Producing Neither Al-
kalinity or Hardness 150
Substances Remaining in Solution
as Result of Chemical Treat-
ment 138
Sulphate Hardness Defined .... 151
Sulphate of Iron, Add Resisting
Metals 19
Sulphate of Iron, Applying .... 22
Sulphate of Iron, Chemical Orifices
for 23
Sulphate of Iron, Chemical Formula
15-113
Sulphate of Iron, Chemical Weight 15-1 13
Sulphate of Iron, Crystals .... 15
Sulphate of Iron, Deterioration of . 16
Sulphate of Iron, Dissolving ... 17
Sulphate of Iron, Economy in Pur-
chasing 16
Sulphate of Iron, Fixed Rate Ap-
plication 22
Sulphate of Iron, Handling .... 15
Sulphate of Iron, Head Tank ... 22
Sulphate of Iron, How Shipped . . 16
Sulphate of Iron, Metals Affected . 19
hate of Iron, Pumping Solutions 19
Pack
Sulphate of Iron, Size of Packages . 16
Sulphate of Iron, Solubility .... 17
Sulphate of Iron, Standard Orifice for 23
Sulphate of Iron, S tirring Devices for 1 9
Sulphate of Iron, Stirring Solutions 17
Sulphate of Iron, Strength .... 15
Sulphate of Iron, Sugar 15
Sjilphate of Iron, Unloading ... 16
Sulphate of Iron, Variable Head
over Orifice 23
Sulphate of Iron, Water of Cr>' stal-
lization 1.5
Sulpho-Cloride Hardness Defined 151
Sulphuric Acid, Chemical Formula . 114
Sulphuric Acid, Chemical Weight . 114
Sulphuric Add Compounds, Fac-
tors for 127
Sulphuric Acid Incompatiblcs . 138-147
Sulphuric Acid, Normal Fiftieth So-
lution Equivalent 90
Sulphuric Anhydride, Chemical For-
mula 114
Sulphuric Anhydride, Chemical
Weight 114
Sulphuric Anhydride Incompatibles . 138
Superficial Equivalents 153
Suspended Matter in Water to
Filters 65
Synthesis, Chemical 122
Tables, No. 1 25
Tables, No. 2 34
Tables, No. 3 41
Tables, No. 4 112
Tables, No. 5 113
Tables of Alkalinity 129-130
Tables of Atomic Weights .... 112
Tables of Areas of Orifices . . 25 to 31
Tables of Chemical Weights 113-114
Tables of Cubic Feet 41-42
Tables of Cubic Feet per Second
Flow 41-42
Tables of Cubic Feet per Minute
Flow 41-42
Tables of Diameters of Orifices 25 to 31
Tables of Discharge Under One
Foot Head 25 to 31
Tables of Equivalent Heads, Pres-
sures and Disci Kir^cs . . . 34 to 40
Tables of Factors 123 to 128
Water Purifioation
XVII
Page
Tables of Gallons per Day Flow 25 to 32
Tables of Gallons per Day Flow 34 to 40
Tables of Gallons per Minute Flow 25 to 32
Tables of Gallons per Minute Flow 34 to 40
Tables of Gallons per Second Flow 34 to 40
Tables of Gallons per Second Flow 41-42
Tables of Hardness .... 131 to 134
Tables of Heads and Pressures . 34-40
Tables of Incompatibles . . . 135 to 138
Tables of Liriiitations of Chemical
Treatment 95
Tables of Million Gallons and
Equivalents in Flow .... 41-42
Tables of Substances Remaining in
Solution 138
Tables of Variable Heads and Dis-
charges through Fixed Orifice 34 to 40
Tables of Velocities of Flow Under
Varying Heads 34 to 40
Tables of Water Heads, Pressures,
Velocities and Flows ... 34 to 40
Taste Improved by Iron Sulphate . 144
To Compute Chemical Quantities . 120
Tonne Equivalents 153
Total Alkalinity 92
Total Carbonate Hardness .... 151
Total Hardness 151
Treatment Factors for Alumintmi
Sulphate 135
Treatment Factors for Barium Oxide 135
Treatment Factors for Calcium
Oxide 135
Treatment Factors for Calcium Hy-
drate 136
Treatment Factors for Calcium Mon-
ocarbonate 136
Treatment Factors for Calcium Bi- .
carbonate 136
Treatment Factors for Calcium
Chloride 136
Treatment Factors for Calcium
Sulphate 136
Treatment Factors for Iroh Sulphate 136
Treatment Factors for Magnesium
Oxide 136
Treatment Factors for Magnesium
Hydrate 137
Treatment Factors for Magnesium
Monocarbonatc 137
Pagb
Treatment Factors for Magnesium
Bicarbonate 137
Treatment Factors for Magnesium
Chloride 137
Treatment Factors for Magnesium
Sulphate 137
Treatment Factors for Sodium Oxide 137
Treatment Factors for Sodium Hy-
drate 137
Treatment Factors of Sodium Mono-
carbonate 137
Treatment Factors for Substances
Remaining in Solution .... 138
Treatment Factors for Sulphuric An-
hydride 138
Treatment Factors for Sulphuric
Acid 138
Turbidity of Water 75
Turbidity, Character of .... 75-84
Turbidity, To Determine ... 75 to 80
Turbidity, Standard 78
Turbidity Rod, Graduations ... 78
Turbidity Rod, May be Purchased . 84
Typhoid Fever, Caused by ... . 9
Typhoid Fever, Cost of 9
Typhoid Fever, Lives Lost by . . 9
Typhoid Fever, and Other Water
Borne Diseases 9
Use of Chemical Factors .... 122
Use of Chemical Reactions .... 120
Use of Hydraulic Tables ... 43 to 45
Unnecessary Loss of Life 10
United States Miniature Gallon . . 122
Value of Human Life 9
Value of Lives Lost 9
Variable Rale Chemical Controllers 46
Variable Rate Chemical Controllers,
Function of 46
Variable Rate Filter Controllers . . 72
Variable Rate Filter Controllers,
Function of 73
Vegetable Matter 104
Velocities, under Varying Heads and
Pressures 34 to 40
Volumetric Solutions and Their Use 88
XVIII
American Steel and Wire Company
Page
W^ater, Chemical Formula and
Chemical Weight 114
Water, Free from Chemicals Used . 12-13
Water, Low Lift of 13
Water, Hard, Defined 110
Water, Bacteriology 104
Water Borne Diseases 7
Water Heads, Table of Heads, Pres-
sures, Velocities and Discharge 34 to 40
Water, Manifold of Filter .... 70
Water Purification Prevents Disease 8
Water Purification Lowers Death
Rate 8
Water Ways Between Mixing Cham-
ber and Settling Basins .... 56
Page
Water Ways Between Settling Basins
and Filters 60
Wash Troughs of Filters, and Re-
quirements ()6
Wash Water Saved by Properly De-
signed Chemical and Filter Con-
trollers 74
Wash Water Saved by Settling
Basins 59
Wine Barrel! Equivalents 153
Yard Equivalents 153
Yellow Light to Assist in Reading
End Point 91
Preface
THIS volume is issued by
the Engineering Bureau
Water Purification, Ameri-
can Steel & Wire Company. It
may be well to go briefly into the
policies which led to its preparation,
publication and circulation.
The function of the Bureau is
to assist, as far as practicable, in
helping either municipally or pri-
vately owned water piuification
plants to obtain the best and most
economical results possible.
The number of these plants in
the country is already large and is
increasing each year. Many of
these have been admirably planned
and built. Others have not been
so fortunate. In few branches of
engineering work have such ad-
vances been made as along the
lines of water purification. Some
plants, built years ago, and ntmi-
bered among the best at the time
of construction, are now more or
less obsolete, either on accoimt
of their deterioration or because of
progress in the art.
Some of these older plants have
been or are being remodeled, en-
larged or replaced with more
modem plants. Some remain as
originally constructed. With all
these styles and types of plants,
either building or working, there
has arisen many problems of de-
sign and operation.
The Engineering Biu-eau Water
Purification of the American Steel &
Wire Company was organized to
exploit the use of Sulphate of Iron
in these plants. It was realized
from the beginning that we cotdd
only be successful in^ this work
insofar as we made the interests of
our clients our supreme care. In
order to do this it was necessary
to have men who could and would
give our clients and possible clients
such assistance as would enable
them to get the best results at the
lowest possible cost. It was soon
found that these results could not
always be secured unless certain
conditions, both as to water supply
and arrangement of plant, could
be made effective.
At many plants these conditions
were not obtainable. At some
points the arrangement of the
plant positively prohibited the
attainment of satisfactory results
even when the water supply was
all that could be asked.
Where the plant arrangement
was the only thing preventing the
successful employment of our proc-
ess and where it was apparent
that the saving to be effected would
warrant the expense of the neces-
sary alterations it became neces-
sary to make such recommenda-
tions as to permit of the process
being used. It was also found
that where these things could be
done at the time the plant was
being constructed the results were
more satisfactory and econom-
ical. Such installation could be
more economically made and the
general efficiency of the plant im-
proved thereby.
For these and other reasons
which will be obvious it was soon
found to be necessary to furnish
a certain amount of engineering
6
American Steel and Wire Company
advice to the city, corporation or
engineer desirous of availing them-
selves of the services of this
Bureau.
This Bureau therefore stands
ready to assist in any practicable
manner those cities, corporations
or engineers who desire assistance
in working out any of the problems
connected with the design, con-
struction or operation of Water
Purification Plants.
The process known as the Ameri-
can Steel & Wire Company's Process
employs Sulphate of Iron and caus-
tic lime to either partially soften
and purify municipal water sup-
plies or merely purify them. Dur-
ing the last twelve years our engi-
neers have encountered many diffi-
cult problems in this line of work
and have obtained a large fund of
information on the subject. Where
this process is employed we stand
ready to furnish experts to assist
local operators in securing the best
obtainable results and to instruct
them in proper methods of opera-
tion. The services of these experts
are free to those requiring or de-
siring them. Where trouble is found
in obtaining the desired results
owing to imforseen difficulties
these services may be of value in
overcoming the difficulty and show-
ing how it may be avoided in
the future.
Where cities are contemplating
building new plants or remodelling
old ones the advice of these men
may be of material assistance,
either in helpful criticism of plans
already drawn or the working out
of plans for properly carrying on
the work. Where a city is in doubt
as to the best course to pursue in
order to attain a certain result we
are ready to do all we can to assist
in finding the proper solution and
for such services we make no
charge. Where engineers desire
such assistance the same holds true.
It must be understood that where
our services are asked for in either
of the above cases we act only in
an advisory capacity and do not
prepare plans or specifications for
the work to be done. We earnestly
recommend on all work of this kind
a thoroughly competent and re-
liable engineer be employed to pre-
pare such plans and specifications.
In order to assist in this work we
have prepared this volume.
Water Porilicatlon
The American Steel & Wire Company's
Process of Water Purification
Responsibility of Poblio Oflioials
Every public official is more or less
personally responsible for every death
from water borne diseases which
occurs within his city, Tlie para-
graphs immediately following are,
therefore, of direct application to
each and every public official in
every city where water borne diseases
and deaths are to be found.
Disease Kills Civilization
There is no doubt that disease
has materially helped to overthrow
civilization in the pact. History
abounds in tales of pestilence and
from the writings of the ancients it
is observed that the Egyptians of
the Pharaohs were hygienic, drained
the land, reared temples and cities,
maintained law and order and de-
veloped the elements of literature
and science. With the later de-
cline in learning and wisdom,
Egypt was visited and desolated
by pestilence. Still later, Gibbon
the historian denounced Egypt
as the original source and breeding
place of the plague.
Greece, progenitor of the most
magnificent civilization of antiq-
uity, felt the enervating influ-
ence of the lack of scientific sanita-
tion, and under the depressing
effects of disease the culture of this
great people slowly but surely de-
cayed.
The ancient Roman Empire,
wonderfully promising in world
wide influence, gave but little to
science, and the history of her de-
cline indicates disease as an im-
portant factor leading to her down-
fall. From the year 251 to 265
(fifteen years) pestilence carried off
half the inhabitants of the empire.
In 1343 an epidemic reduced the
population of the Eternal City to
20,000. In Florence, during the
scourge, upwards of a hundred
thousand persons perished.
In Justinian's time the plague
mortality was extraordinary, the
historical record stating that with-
in three months four to ten thou-
sand persons died daily at Con-
stantinople, while other cities were
stripped entirely of human beings.
This epidemic traversed all Eu-
rope, and a centiu^y later it reaped
a harvest in England. We are told
that between the years 88 and 92
A. D. the deaths in Scotland from
the plague aggregated 150,000,
possibly one-half the population
at that time. In 80 A. D., Rome,
with a population of a million,
lost her citizens at the rate of 10,000
a day. In 114 A. D., 45,000 died
of plague in Wales. In 173 A. D.,
the Roman army was nearly deci-
mated. Five great epidemics
swept England between the years
1485 and 1665 and it was shown
that the strong bodied were the
most susceptible.
After the last epidemic in Lon-
don, in 1665, the death rate fell
to between 1^ ^'cA ^^ ^^-^ V^i^^
American Steel and Wire Company
During the next centiuy it fell as
low as 50. In the nineteenth century
it decreased to 14 per 1,000.
Here in the United States the
first year of mortality statistics
(187^80) showed a death rate of
19.8 per 1,000 and in 1912 it was
13.9, which marked a decrease of
30 per cent. The mortality from
typhoid in the same time decreased
50 per cent., showing that the effec-
tiveness of the work of sanitation
and medicine has not been merely
theoretical. The modem sani-
tarian is quite competent to re-
build the home in which the cradle
of civilization was rocked.
Our present civilization, of which
we are somewhat inclined to boast,
is truly an improvement; but the
boasting is justified only within
limits. While science more nearly
dominates the world than at any
other time within the past, in this
country of a hundred million people
there are thousands who impede
progress because of greed and
ignorance.
Co«operation to Prevent Disease
An intelligent people must co-
operate in the great work of erad-
ication of disease, for the right to
enjoy health is quite as sacred as
that to possess i)ropcrty. As a general
proposition, our sanitary laws. are
very good but their administration
still leaves much to be desired.
To ignorance and carelessness
must be attributed much of the
causation of disease in the centu-
ries gone by. Out of the throes of
offering and death of the myriads
who have preceded us we have ob-
tained a certain enlightenment,
which while not perfect still makes
it absurd to plead ignorance and
lack of knowledge.
The day is not far distant when
it will be considered a crime for a
citv to continue to murder its
citizens by furnishing them an im-
pure water supply. Diseases which
consign thousands to the grave
leave even worse results in their
wake by passing on to the children
a hopeless poverty, opening the
gate to crime, prostitution and
mendicancy. All the authorities
agree that contagions react on the
moral fibre of a community or
people, and contrariwise, where they
live under healthful conditions great
advancement in government, liter-
ature and science has been made.
There is a moral obligation to
be intelligent. Ignorance is a vice
and when it results in injury to any-
one it becomes a crime, moral, if
not statutory. There is no excuse
in this day for ignorance of any
one in relation to the necessity for
the purification of all water sup-
plies in cities where the death rate
from water borne diseases is higher
than that in cities having perfectly
satisfactory water.
Responsibility for and Value of
Human Life
Responsibility is a word of tre-
mendous import. Its significance
is akin to trust, and those men who
are responsible for and serious
minded in the conduct of human
affairs realize their liability to be
Water Pujilication
9
called to account when honored
with leadership.
• There are men, however, upon
whom responsibility rests lightly,
perhaps not wilfully but because
of circumstances beyond their con-
trol and in the management of their
trusts they become indifferent to
the only too common signs of
inefficiency, which ultimately re-
sult in retrogression, if not disaster.
The purpose of government is to
protect its citizens, and a govern-
ment which fails to shield the peo-
ple from infection cannot be truth-
fully called either responsible, in-
telligent or moral.
The greatest asset of any city
or town is the health of the citizens,
and the officials who secure this
in the highest degree are those
who appreciate the responsibility
placed upon them in this very im-
portant matter.
Preventive measures in conserv-
ing the health of the community
records success in direct ratio to
the number of lives saved, and it
is pleasing to note that the statis-
tics of the last century show an
increase of fifteen years in the
average human life. There is rea-
son to hope that, in the future, this
increase may be duplicated in a
considerably shorter time, if earnest
use is made of present day science.
^he Value of Human Life
The value of human life is some-
thing not to be trifled with. It is
measurable, in cold finance as well
as in ethics. Students who have
made a digest of the former view-
point stand upon the assertion that
the monetary value of a human
life ranges between $1,000.00 and
$7,500.00, from the ages of 70 down
to 5 years, the highest value be-
ing attained at the age of 30; the
lower value given is at 5 years,
while the average value comes very
close to $6,000.00.
In the year 1900, according to
the United States Census Reports,
there were 35.379 reported deaths
from typhoid fever in this country.
If we accept $6,000.00 as the aver-
age value of a human life, the
grand monetary loss as represented
in the lives lost from this one dis-
ease amounts to $212,274,000.00
in one year. It is to be noted
that only a portion of the lives
lost because of typhoid fever were
reported and that the actual loss
of life must have been considerably
in excess of that reported.
It is generally assumed that the
larger portion of the deaths result-
ing from typhoid fever are either
directly or indirectly attributable
to impure water. It is also gen-
erally assumed that for each case
of typhoid caused by impure water
there are at least ten other cases of
disease other than typhoid result-
ing from the same cause.
Prof. Irv^ing Fisher, of Yale
University, has estimated that over
600,000 deaths occur each year in
the United States which could be
postponed by systematic applica-
tion of scientific knowledge already
available. In dollars and cents
this estimate places the national loss
per annum at an appalling figure.
IM
The plain fact is that not only
does ignorance breed disease but the
converse is almost as true and that
disease breeds ignorance, immo-
rality and strife. In the light of
the scientific work at the present
time, disease in its horrible whole-
sale form is controllable if it cannot
be entirely eliminated. This con-
trol or elimination is possible only
when there is an awakening of the
sense of responsibility on the part of
th^'^se who have been elevated to
the high places in government.
Short sighted humanity fails to
appreciate nature's gifts imtil
threatened with their loss. This
is true even of the greatest of them
all, life itself. It is significant of
our failure to value health.
Kmu, Mr. Public Official, do you,
as a city official, realize that you,
personally, are responsible for every
death from a water borfie disease,
which occurs in your city unless you
are consistently and persistently do-
ing everything possible to prevent
such death^
Impure Water Daii|t®>^M
The most imperative need of
mankind is jmrc water, pure air and
pure food. Few water supplies in
this country are pure enough to be
used in their natural state. Imi)ure
water has killed more men, women
and children than all the wars the
wfjrld has seen. Not only may a
conservative statement of this kind
be made, but it may be said with
equal truth that impure water is
now killing, and will continue for
manv rears to come, to Idll more
people than any or all probable
wars. This condition is due very
largely to a lack of knowledge of
this truth. If ever>' one knew and
really appreciated this one fact, it
would soon cease to be a fact. The
reason is that if everv one knew and
appreciated the results of the con-
tinued use of impure water, public
opinion would compel the author-
ities to pro\nde a remedy.
laipiire Water Un m e cea aary
There is scarcely any one thing
more unquestionably established
than the practicability of furnishing
a piu*e, safe and satisfactor\* water,
irrespective of the condition or de-
gree of pollution of the a\^ilable
natural supplies.
An authority on this subject has
emphasized this by saying : "When
any one dies of typhoid fever, it is a
crime, and some one should be pun-
ished; by hanging, if necessary."
This may appear to be a rather
harsh statement, but it is a thor-
oughly well established fact that
typhoid is an almost wholly unnec-
essary and preventable disease.
Causes IHaease
Manv seem to believe that this
well known disease is the only one
caused by impure water, and this,
in general with much other knowl-
edge of the la>Tnan along sanitary
lines, has little real foundation. In
fact, it is estimated that impure
water, while causing typhoid, really
causes probably ten times as many
complaints other than typhoid,
Water Purification
11
hence the danger from an impure
water cannot be safely gauged by
the amount of typhoid which it
causes. An allowance should be
made for the other and more nu-
merous ills arising from the same
source.
The main thing to be borne in
mind is that impure water should
not be tolerated. While good
streets, lights, parks, sewers and
other public utiUties are important,
the first and foremost essential to
public health is pure water, and the
only reason cities do not always
have this is because the citizens do
not consistently and persistently
demand it. Politicians never dis-
regard any such demand on the
part of the public as a whole.
Mechanical Filtration
Various methods have been used
at different times to purify public
water supplies, but no real and prac-
tical solution of the problem for
American cities was ever reached
until American engineering genius
took the matter in hand and pro-
ceeded to give the world the Amer-
ican or Mechanical System of Fil-
tration.
Early Work
Some very good work was done
in the early days by the Massachu-
setts State Board of Health. These
experiments were followed on a
larger scale by the famous Louisville
Experimental Work in the years
1896-1897. One of the first me-
chanical filters for municipal use
was built at Lorain, Ohio, in 1896-
1897 and subjected to test in 1897.
This plant was the first in practical
municipal use to demonstrate the
feasibility of purifying the city sup-
ply and removing 98 per cent, of
the bacterial pollution under work-
ing conditions, and thus rendering
the water safe and wholesome. This
was proven by a long and exhaust-
ive test lasting six months, during
which time the water was subjected
to at least four bacterial analyses
every day except Sunday. The
State Board of Health of Ohio par-
ticipated in the test and accepted
and recognized the results as accu-
rate and reliable.
Since this time the art has pro-
gressed so rapidly that engineers,
unless devoting their entire time
and attention to the work, have
been unable to keep pace with the
advances made and making.
Cheniical Methods
From 1897 to 1903 the method
of coagulating water most gen-
erally employed required the use of
alum. In the latter year, the
American Steel & Wire Company's
process was first employed at
Quincy, Illinois. A little later it
was used at Vicksbierg, Mississippi,
and Lorain, Ohio, at almost the
same time. St. Louis followed,
and since then the use of this proc-
ess has extended, until nearly one
hundred cities now employ it to
purify their water supplies.
Principles
All chemical methods for water
purification by mecha.T^<J:»l^ ^^r^-
12
American Steel and Wire Company
-t
•'I
nl
•lit
••>
■ ■
■■a
ii
'■^
t !
id
i
•A
tion are based upon a relatively
simple principle. Every housewife
knows that if she mixes the white
of an egg with her cofTee and heats
it, the egg albumen will coagtdate
and in so doing will gather the
groimds together and leave the
coffee clear and brilliant. One
thing not so generally known is that
when this is done all of the egg is
removed in the process, none of it
remaining in the clear resultant
coffee. It is on this simple principle
that all chemical methods of water
purification by mechanical filtra-
tion are based.
While this principle is employed,
none of the methods used in me-
chanical filtration requires the water
to be heated, although all of them
would be expedited if it were prac-
tical to do so.
The reason for our ability to
secure results without heat is found
in the fact that water contains
enough chemical compounds in so-
lution in the natural state to unite
\\4th the chemicals which we em-
ploy, and when the chemical com-
pounds present in the water do so
unite with those added, a new
chemical compound is formed and
this new compound is insoluble in
water just as the white of egg be-
comes insoluble by heating the
coffee, and all of the chemicals
added in the water are removed in
the process just as the egg is re-
moved from the coffee. Likewise,
as the egg clears the grounds from
the coffee by coagulation, so also
does the chemical coagulation clear
the water from mud and bacteria
and by so doing the water is purifi'
and clarified and rendered suitat
for further treatment by mecha
ieal filtration.
Action of Chemicals
The action of coagulants is briel
described in City Document No. 1
Providence, R. I., as follows:
"If the diameter of matter floating
in water is much less than that of the
interstices between the grains of sand
composing the filter bed, such matter,
except so much as is caught upon the
sharp edges of the quartz, will gc
right through the filter with the
water. Now, if a substance could be
introduced, drop by drop, in the
water before it comes to the filter,
which would have the effect ol
curdling this matter together, so that
every hundred or so of the smallei
particles were made to join togethei
and become one large particle, much
as vapor or steam is condensed io
drops, it would follow that they
would be caught and held from going
through the filter.'*
The American Steel & Wire Coi
paiiy*8 Process— Hew It Wbrki
In the American Sted & Wi
Company's process, this is accoi
plished by adding very small q\ia
tities of sulphate of iron and causl
lime to the water as it passes fro
the pumps to the filters. The a
tion is the same as when coffee
cleared by means of the white of 1
egg. No white of egg goes to t
drinker of the coffee. It is i
turned out with the grounds, ai
likewise no sulphate of iron
caustic lime goes to the drinker
the water. They unite with the ii
ptmties in the water and settle 01
Water ParificMition
13
in feathery flocks in the settling
basin or on top of the filter, and are
washed out together with the im-
purities when the filter is washed.
No Chemicals Left
Analysis of the filtered water
shows no trace of either sulphate
of iron or caustic lime. The
feathery floculent hydroxide of iron
or magnesia; monocarbonate of
lime or magnesia produced in the
process forms an excellent material
of insoluble mineral matter which
catches and retains all small par-
ticles in the water.
Bacteria, like fine clay particles
so small as to pass through the sand
filter bed, are caught and retained
by the filtering layer of mineral
matter and the pure water passes
through bright, clear and sparkling.
Stages
In a modern mechanical filter
plant, there are several well-defined
stages of the process of purification.
These may be noted in the order of
their occurrence as follows:
First, bringing the raw water
into the plant.
Second, chemical treatment of
the raw water.
Third, fonnation of the coagula-
tion.
Fourth, sedimentation of the sus-
pended matter.
Fifth, filtration.
Sixth, high service distribution.
Water Supplied
In general, there arc two different
methods in use to bring the natural
water into the plant. Where the
conditions are such as to permit,
it is customary to locate the plant
at a lower level or lesser elevation
than the minimum level obtaining
in the raw water supply, and to
conduct the water into and through
the purification system by gravity.
Lilt
In few cases, however, are the
conditions such as to allow of this.
Usually the plant must be placed
above the level of the natural suf)-
ply, and hence it becomes necessary
to pump the water from the lower
level up to that required to allow it
to pass through the purification
works by gravity.
The distance through which the
water is lifted in order to do this
varies largely in different plants.
In some it is only a few feet, in
others it may be from forty to
seventy feet, while in others it may
be even greater than this.
Pampe
Where the lift is low, it is the
usual practice to employ a single
stage centrifugal pump. This may
be driven by belt from a steam en-
gine or motor, or, in a few places,
from gas engines. In some in-
stances the pump is coupled direct
to a steam engine of either the
turbine or reciprocating type, to
gas engine or to motor, while in iso-
lated cases, the high service pumps
may be used to drive a water wheel
directly connected to the centrif-
ugal pumps. In such instances,
the discharge from thc\va.t.^xx^^\5^^^
14
Amerioan Steel and Wire Company
returns to the clear water reservoir.
In some cases, water wheels or
water turbines driven by water
power are used to drive the pumps
to lift the water into the plant. In
others the low service pumps or
even high service pumps may be
employed to lift the water to a
reservoir from which it flows by
gravity to the purification plant, or
the water may pass by gravity into
a reservoir .from which it passes,
also by gravity, into the plant.
Point of Treatment
There are a few plants where the
water is treated with chemicals as
it enters these reservoirs and is then
lifted to the filter, but no engineer
with even a fair knowledge of the
art would think of advising this
with our present knowledge.
The method of introducing the
water into the plant is of no mo-
ment in the process of purification,
save in the last named instance.
The main object is to make the lift
to the plant as economically and
certainly as possible.
Chemical Treatment
With the water flowing into the
plant, the next step is its proper
treatment with chemicals. The
difficulties here are many and
varied, and seldom the same in
any two plants. Too much stress
cannot be placed upon the im-
portance attaching to this matter.
Most of the plants which fail cither
partially or wholly, fail because of
faults in applying or handling the
chemicals.
Preparation of Chemicals
Before the iron sulphate can be
applied it is necessary to prepare a
solution of known definite strength
or to arrange to add a known and
predetermined weight of the ma-
terial to a known volume of water.
The same statement holds true as to
the lime.
Engineering Diffiooltiea
Several different ways of doing
this obtain. All are possessed of
advantages and disadvantages and
much engineering ability has been
and is being directed towards the
problems involved. Much of the
difficulty in overcoming the troubles
arises from the lack of comprehen-
sion on the part of engineers of the
real troubles and demands. This
occurs because designing engineers
as a rule are not operating engineers
and arc thus unable to obtain a cor-
rect knowledge of the facts, for the
reason that what knowledge they
obtain is second hand and some of
it unreliable.
The operator may have a strong
disinclination to inform the design-
ing engineer that trouble exists, for
fear of being considered incom-
petent or through fear of angering
the designer by criticism. Further-
more, the operator may be really
incompetent to formulate a proper
criticism. If every designing en-
gineer had to operate every plant
he designs for six months, he might
design fewer plants, but it is hardly
conceivable that he would not
design better ones. For this reason
the opinions of competent operating
Water Purilication
15
men should receive much more
careful consideration than they
have in the past.
In order to commence at the
proper point, we shall begin with
a description and the handling of
the chemicals from the railroad
station adjacent the plant.
Sulphate of Iron
Sulphate of iron is a pale green
salt. In the old process of manu-
facture the size and quality varied
within rather large limits. It
usually varied quite as much in
the water content, both of crystal-
lization and mechanical moisture.
The chemical formula of this
substance is FeSO*, 7H,0. This
means that one part of iron with an
atomic weight of 56.0, one part of
sidphur with an atomic weight of
32.0, and f otir parts of oxygen, each
with an atomic weight of 16.0, or a
combined one of 64.0, are united
with seven parts of water each
having a molecular weight of 18.0
or a combined one ot 126.0, to form
one part of sulphate of iron with
a molecular weight of 278.0, of
which 45.32 per cent, is water of
crystallization.
Strength
When of exactly this composition
and free from all impurities, the
material is 100 per cent, pure or, as
the chemist puts it, chemically
pure. The water of crystallization
amounts to 45.32 per cent, and if
part of the water be driven off, it
will be evident that each pound of
the material will contain less water
and more iron sulphate, and that
the strength of the material, as far
as the percentage of iron content is
concerned, will be increased, thus
the strength may go to 102 per
cent., 104 per cent., or even 106 per
cent, by driving off part of the
water of crystallization.
In the process of manufacture
this is actually done, and the new
product, called sugar sulphate of
iron, usually averages about 102
per cent, strength.
Larger Crystals
The older material in larger
crystals contained all the water of
crystallization and in addition some
moisture mechanically held, and
seldom ran above 94 to 96 per
cent, strength, the balance being
water.
There were two grades, known as
prime green, selects or stick crys-
tals, and seconds or bottoms. The
prime green or stick crystals were
large cr>'stals from half inch to four
inches in size, and formed the best
quality. Bottoms or seconds were
small, large and medium size crys-
tals, containing more dirt, water
and impurities, and were of second
quality.
Sugar Sulphate
These two grades have been
largely restricted in manufacture
and replaced by the sugar sulphate
of iron. This is finely granular and
derives its name from its appear-
ance, which is very much like granu-
lated sugar except for its pale green
16
American Steel and Wire Company
color. It does not deteriorate with
age if kept in a dry, cool place. If
kept in a very warm room for
several months, it may set into a
mass more or less difficult to break
up, but this does not affect its
strength injuriously or render it
less suited for any commercial
purpose except to slightly increase
the time required to dissolve it.
Packages
Sulphate of iron is shipped in
five different forms of packages: in
25-lb. paper cartons; 100-lb. bags;
200-lb. bags; 350 to 400-lb. barrels,
and in bulk. Where it can be
properly handled it is cheaper in
bulk than in 200-lb. bags. The
100-lb. bag or barrel is the next
cheapest, and the 25-lb. carton costs
a little more than an equivalent
quantity in barrels or 100-lb. bags.
Purchasing
Most of the material for water
purification is sold either in bulk,
200-lb. bags, 100-lb. bags or in
barrels. That packed in cartons
should never be purchased for this
use. It is usually better to buy in
bulk if proper provisions are made
to handle it. If this cannot be done,
the 100-lb. bag or barrels is the next
best proposition. The 200-lb. bag
is cheaper than the barreled product
or the 100-lb. bag, but harder
to handle and usually less satis-
factory. Ordinarily it is not feas-
ible to buy in bulk if the material
is to be hauled to the plant by
wagon.
Handling
If the car can be switched up i
the chemical room on railroad sidii
and if proper unloading and storaj
facilities are available, then pu
chase in bulk becomes advisab
and profitable. Some form of m
chanical unloader and conveyor '
storage is desirable. Men cann^
unload cars with a shovel, unle
provided with aspirators, as tl
dust from the material, while n^
so objectionable as some oth
chemicals used for water purific
tion work, is not pleasant to breatl
and does a workman no real goo
If purchased in 100-lb. bags,
can be unloaded from a car
hauled by wagon with great fac
ity, and it is easily and economical
handled and stored. The bags a
of good quality cotton duck ai
free from lint, hence they do n
shed fibres, such as always con
from jute bags, to stop up orific
and pipes and cause trouble aroui
the plant in many ways. Usually
ready sale of empty bags at a go<
price may be found. This siie pac
age can be stored very conve
iently in almost any dry stora
place, to excellent advantage, ai
are so accurately weighed ai
packed and contain so nearly t
exact amount of 100 pounds, th
unless the bag is torn, it is nev
necessary to weigh it.
This is a considerable conve
ience, saving time and labor. F
plants desiring to buy bulk siilpha
of iron, the provisions to hanc
it satisfactorily vary with loc
conditions, and information a
Water Pnrificatioii
17
be secured from the manxifac-
turer regarding this by asking for
it. It is not a subject which
can be gone into in a book of
this size.
When the material has been un-
loaded and stored in the chemical
stock room of the plant, it is ready
for use.
SolabiUty
Every one knows that sugar is
very soluble in water, and yet a tea-
spoonful of sugar can be placed in a
cup of water, tea, or coffee, and un-
less stirred, it dissolves very slowly.
So also sulphate of iron, while very
soluble, if placed in water and un-
disturbed, will not go into solution
very rapidly; therefoie, some ar-
rangement shoiild be provided to
expedite bringing it into solution.
It is only slowly affected by running
water passing over it, and has a
tendency to fall through a screen;
but if a flow of water can be forced
up through it, a very strong solu-
tion can be easily and quickly pre-
pared. We show a sketch of a
device which has proven very effec-
tive and satisfactory for this pur-
pose.
Sulphate of iron is placed in the
cylinder having a conical shaped
bottom and the vslve 1 is opened
on the water main 2. The pressure
forces the water upward through
the iron sulphate and valve A or B
is opened to carry the dissolved
iron sulphate to the solution tank
to be charged. The sulphate is
quickly dissolved and carried away
to the storage or chemical solution
tank, which, when filled with water
to the proper mark, gives us our
chemical solution.
Stirring Solatioo
It is not enough to run this into
the chemical solution tank and then
fill the tank to the mark and pro-
ceed to use the solution without
further ado, as is done in some
placeJs; it is essential that the
strength of the solution should be
homogeneous throughout the tank,
and this can be obtained only by
thoroughly agitating the contents
of the tank after it has been filled.
If this is not done, the bottom
layers of the solution will be stronger
and heavier than the top layers,
and if used without stirring, that
first drawn from the tank may be
very much stronger than that
drawn from the nearly empty tank.
Drawing off always occurs from the
bottom and thus the stronger solu-
tion is first used, the top being the
last to be drawn off. In fact, prac-
tically all of the iron sulphate may
be drawn off before the tank has
been half emptied, and the last half
tank may, under these conditions,
be of absolutely no value as a chem-
ical solution to treat water. The
contents of the tank should there-
fore be thoroughly agitated after the
tank has been filled. With some
chemicals, it does not matter ma-
terially how the solutions are
stirred or agitated. Any method
which will result in making and
maintaining solutions of homogen-
eous strength is all that is required
in such cases.
American Stc«l and Wire Company
1** Cast Ihvh
I~ PiMHC Bl«CR I
Dissolving Tank For Sulphate Of Iron
/»/^yy
CNEMiCAL SrOffA$£ TANM
Concrete
UME A6/TA TING DEVICE
Water Parilication
10
Air for Stirring
With sulphate of iron, however,
this does not hold true. Air agita-
tion should never be used for this
work. The air passing through the
solution tends to oxidize the iron
solution, and thus cause it to lose
strength as well as to bring about
other undesirable results. A me-
chanical method or even the use of a
plasterer's hoe, is preferable to the
use of air agitation.
Mechanical Stirring
In most of the modem plants,
some form of stirring device, power
driven, is employed. Some forms of
these devices are less desirable than
others, although most of them are
suflBcient to accomplish the desired
results, viz: that of making and
maintaining a homogeneous strength
of solution from the time the tank
is filled until it is empty, and keep-
ing the tank free from mud com-
posed largely of iron oxide or hy-
drate. The power required to drive
the stirring device is small in the
case of this solution. Practically
all that is required is to cause a
small circulation from the bottom
of the tank to the top and from the
top to the bottom. An impeller
may be placed in the bottom of the
tank and driven by any type of
motor. If the blades of the im-
peller sweep the larger part of the
area of the tank bottom, the speed
of drive may be quite slow. In
some cases it does not exceed four
revolutions per minute. If the
blades of the impeller are shorter
than this, the number of revolu-
tions per minute should be increased
proportionally.
Pomping
In some plants, instead of using
impellers or stirring devices of this
type, a small pump is used to create
a circulation in the tank. This
pump may be a bronze lined cen-
trifugal or reciprocating type, as
preferred. In either case, it is
necessary to use a bronze lined
pump, as other materials are too
quickly affected by the solution.
Acid Resisting Metala
A solution of sulphate of iron, like
alum, acts similarly to a weak acid
solution, and while not so destruc-
tive as alum solutions, it is good
practice to use acid resisting metals
for all pipe lines, pumps, orifices,
impeller blades, and other metal
parts which are used to handle it.
Chemical tanks may be made of
wood or concrete, while the dissolv-
ing funnel, page 18, may be of either
concrete, heavy sheet steel, or cast
iron, as preferred. The pumps may
be placed above, below, or on a
level with the top of the tank.
The suction should extend to the
bottom of the tank and the dis-
charge may occur above the maxi-
mum level in the tank or at any
point below. We prefer to see both
suction and discharge reach the
bottom of the tank, the discharge
being made to occur in a horizontal
plane and on a tangent to the curve
of the tank, with the end of the dis-
charge resting on the tank bottom.
If a head tank is placed at a higher
Americui St»el and Wire Compan)'
tilfclfj
General View
^"'ffinl-e'riiH Co. Parfto FillPr Plant
Filter Operadnt Floor
22
level xhstn the top of the rarV , and
a pump is required to lift the cbed-
ical sohttion to the head tank, as is
done at some stations, the punip
fhould be of ample capacirv and lift
considerably more sohition to the
tank than will be required for use.
or sooghi, r: v-ocld tZien hfrnme a
reiativelv essr rraner to detemitDe
The head tank should be pro-
vided with an overflow in this case,
and this overflow going back to the
solution tank through a discharge
line similar to that preWously
dervc-ribed, forms a very satisfactory
form of agitation apparatus. One
of the most satisfactory forms of
these devices will \jc described im-
der the section relating to the han-
dling of lime.
Qnudty Used
With the solution thus made up
and ready to apply, the next point
to receive attention is that of ascer-
taining how much to apply and how
to do s<^>. Each plant has its own
limitations in this respect and some
of them are remarkable chieflv for
the strictness of these limitations.
The ideal to be sought is, first, to
asfxrtain just how much should be
aj^plied to obtain the best results,
and to do so with the greatest econ-
omy, and then to apply the exact
amfAint required. It is much easier
to state this than to accomplish it,
even in the best plants yet built,
and in most of the others it is prac-
tically impossible to even approach
the ideal in either way.
^ If it were possible in these plants
to aj)ply the exact amount required.
after a certain ncnnber of trials just
ho'x' irnich shoold be used to readi
the acme of perfect results and
greatest economy, but inasmndi as
this is TLsuallv imryractical, we are
therefore always Im in doubt as to
the exact amount required to ob-
tain the best results, and can only
reach a conclusion approadmatdy
correct in this respect. These diffi-
culties are common to all chemical
rnirification methods.
The reasons for our inability to
do better are twofold. Unless we
are able to actually apply a known
quantity to a supply and see what
it accomplishes, we can hardly pred-
icate what can be accomplished by
using another quantity. If we can-
not tell just how much should be
used, we can only approximate the
desired result, even if we knew and
were able to apply exactly the de-
sired or predetermined quantity.
While, by adding a known and defi-
nite quantity, by weight, of chem-
ical, to a known definite quantity of
water by volume, we can prepare a
chemical solution containing just so
many grains or poimds of chemical
per gallon of solution, and while we
can arrange dex-iccs to automatic-
ally apply this solution at a rate
which is sufficiently constant to be
considered a fixed rate, and thus in
a given period of time we can be
certain that we have added just so
many grains or pounds of chemicals
to the water during each minute of
mm
Wotmc PariUcsdon
American Sl««l and Wire Company
■ i
TM
3
31
7: I
3
CD
" n
31
s
CD
'ji^ ' ' iln
f^ "
' — ij
1%
n
Water Parifioatfon
2J
this time period, this does not per-
mit us to know how many grains of
chemicals we have added to each
gallon of water passing into the
plant, unless we know that the
quantity or volume of water has not
varied at any period of this time
interval, and unless we are able to
know just how many gallons have
passed during each minute of the
period in question.
In but very few plants is it pos-
sible to obtain conditions which
warrant us in assuming that the
same quantity of water enters the
plant from minute to minute during
any considerable period of time,
and even if this can be known, the
number of plants where we can
know even approximately how much
is thus constantly flowing are still
fewer.
Hence, we have to do the best we
can to ascertain about how much
water is entering during the times
of maximum and minimum use and
try to adjust our flow of chemicals
to meet these flows as accurately as
conditions will permit.
Head Tank
One can usually ascertain with a
fair degree of certainty about what
volume of water is pumped during
twenty-four hours and can also de-
termine about how many grains per
gallon of chemicals it is desirable
to apply. In most instances, some
form of head tank is employed to
apply the chemical solution, and
some size or even many differing
sizes of orifices may be utilized in
this head box to vary the rate of
flow through the box. In most of
these the head or level of solution
over the orifice is fixed and remains
constant. In a few, the head
varies. Even in the latter case it is
the usual practice to provide a num-
ber of different sized orifices and
thus in an equipment of this kind
we have two ways of changing the
rate of chemical feed. First, by
varying the head over the orifice,
or, second, by varying the size of
the orifice. If the head over the
orifice is fixed, it is usual to fix it at
one foot, and if this is the case, it is
relatively simple to calibrate the
different sized orifices and ascertain
just how many gallons of chemical
solution per minute each orifice will
discharge, and also to obtain a co-
efficient of discharge for each
orifice.
Chemical Orifices
The method generally employed
to do this is to first accurately de-
termine the size of the orifice to be
used and the area in square inches.
A standard orifice is one which is
made in a plane surface, with sharp
inner edges, as shown in the sketch
below.
B is a plane surface through
which the orifice, A, is made. The
water resls on B and flows past the
thin knife edges of the orifice, falling
free into air. The plane surface
around the periphery of A must
extend in a plane in all directions
for at least twice the diameter of
the orifice, A.
24
Ameiieaa Steel mmd Wire Cfiaipaaiy
orifice will be 8.02 feet per second.
Such an orifice, while passing a
velocity of 8.02 feet per second, will
not discharge a stream of the full
size of the orifice at this speed. If
it did, the factor for discharge
would be unity; whereas, the ac-
tual coefl5cient of discharge for such
an orifice is usually estimated at
.62. In an orifice which differs
from this the coefl5cient of dis-
charge will or may vary quite a
degree from .62, and hence the
coefficient must be obtained by
calibration.
The following table, devised by
Mr. Joseph Rowell, Erecting Filtra-
tion Engineer, Pittsburgh, Pa., gives
the discharges for standard circular
orifices under a one-foot head, with
coefficients of unity 1.00, and .62
for different sized orifices. The
discharges are in gallons per minute
and also gallons per day of twenty-
f otir hours.
Diameters of orifices advance
from zero to two inches by him-
dredths and fractions of inches.
Discharge in gallons is given for one
minute and for day of twenty-four
hours. One colunm is calculated
for a coefficient of 0.62 and one col-
umn for unity. To calculate actual
discharge in gallons per minute or
per diem for any other coefficient
than 0.62, multiply the tabular
values in the tmity column by the
desired coefficient.
This table was computed by the
. , (8.02 X 12 X 60)
formulae: 5^ ^~^ 1 x A =
imity discharge in gallons per
. ^ (8.02X12X60X.62) ,
mmute. ^^ ^31 ^XA =
discharge in gallons per minute for
coefficient 0.62. Where (A) = area
of orifice in square inches* first
formula gives Factor A a value of
25, second formula gives Factor A
a value of 15.5.
The area in square inches mul-
tiplied by factor gives tabular value
for discharge in gallons per minute.
Some errors of 1 in the last sig-
nificant figure.
Standard Orifice
**)
Wvler Pnrilloalioii
Discharge in U. S. Gallons Thronfth Circular Orifices-
Constant Head One Foot
DIMENSIONS IN
INCHES
COEFFlCIENT-1.00
COEPFICrENT-0.fl2
Dimm— ™
Am
Gallon.
GBllon.
Gallons
Gallons
per Mmutc
24 Hoot.
p« Mmuu
24 Hourri
.00
.000000
0.000
.0000000
0.00000
.01
.000079
.001975
2.844
.0012245
1.76328
1-64
.0156
.00019
.00475
6,84
.0029450
4.2408
.02
.00031
.00775
11.16
.004805
6.1912
.03
.00071
.01775
25,66
.011005
15.8472
1-32
.0312
.00077
.01925
27,72
.011935
17.1864
.04
.00126
.03150
45,36
.019530
28.1232
»-M
.046S
.00173
.04325
62,28
.026815
38.6136
.Ofi
.00196
.04900
70,56
.030380
43.7472
.06
.00283
.07075
101,88
.043865
63.1656
1-16
.0625
.00307
,07675
110,52
.047585
68.5224
.07
.00385
.09625
138,60
.059675
85.9320
5-&4
,0781
.0048
-1200
172,80
.07440
107.1300
.08
.0050
.1250
180.00
.07750
111.6000
.09
.0063
.1575
226.80
.(»765
140.6160
3-32
.0937
.0069
.1725
248.40
.10695
154,0080
.10
.0078
.1950
280.80
,12090
174,0960
7-64
.1093
.0094
.2350
338,40
,14570
209,8080
.11
.0095
.2375
342,00
.14725
212,0400
.12
.0113
.2825
406,80
,17515
252,2160
1-8
.1250
.0123
.3075
442,80
,19065
274.5360
.13
.0133
.3325
478,80
.20615
296.8560
.14
.015*
.3850
554,40
,23870
343.7280
9-M
.1406
.0155
.3875
558,00
,24025
345,9600
.16
.0177
.4425
■ 637,20
,27435
395,0640
5-32
.1562
.0192
.4800
691,20
.29760
428.5440
.16
.0201
.5025
723,60
.31155
448.6320
.17
.0227
,5675
817,20
.35185
506,6640
U-64
.1718
.0232
,6800
835.20
.35960
517,8240
.18
.0254
.6350
914.40
.39370
566.9280
3-16
.1875
.0276
.0900
933,60
.42780
616,0320
.19
.0284
.7100
1022,40
.44020
633,8880
.20
.0314
.7850
1130,40
.48670
700,8480
13-64
.2031
.0324
.8100
1166.40
.50220
723.1680
.21
.0346
.8650
1245.60
.53630
772.2720
7-32
.2187
.0376
.9400
13,=i3,60
.,58280
839.2320
.22
.0380
,9500
1368.00
.58900
848.1600
.23
.0415
1,0375
1494.00
.64325
926.2800
15-64
.2343
.0431
1.0775
1551.60
.668a')
961.9920
.34
.0452
1.1300
1627.20
.70060
1008.8640
1-4
.2500
.0491
1,2275
1767.00
.78105
1095.9120
.26
.0531
1,3275
1911,60
.82305
1185.1920
17-64
.2656
.0554
1,3850
1994.40
.85870
1236.5280
.27
.0573
1.4325
2062.80
.88815
1278.9360
.28
.0616
1,6400
2217.60
.95480
1374.9120
9-^
.2812
.0621
1.5525
2235.60
.962.5,5
1386.0720
.29
.0661
1.6525
2379.60
1.0245.5
1475.3520
19-6*
.2968
.0692
1.7300
2491.20
i.m'ms
V \yA.^A«4
American Sf«el Bud Wir« Company
Discharge in U. S. Gallons Through Circular Orifices-
Constant Head One Koot — Conlinued
DIMENSIONS m INCHES
COEFFICIENT -1.00
COEFFICIENT -0,02
DUunelen
a™
Gslkmi
per Minute
CbUdtu
P«M^«
Callonj
24 Hour.
.30
.0707
1.7675
2546,20
1.09685
1578.0240
.31
.0755
1.8875
2718,00
1.17025
1685.1600
ft-16
.3125
.0767
1.9175
2761.20
1.18885
1711,9440
.32
.0804
2.0100
2894.40
1.24620
1794.5280
21-64
.3281
.0846
2.1150
3045.60
1.31130
1888.2720
.33
.0855
2.1375
3078.00
1.32525
1908.3600
.34
.0908
2.2700
3268,80
1,40740
2026.6560
ll-«2
.3437
.0928
2.3200
3340,80
1,4.1840
2071,2960
.35
.0962
2.4050
3463.20
1,49110
2147.1840
23-64
.3593
.1014
2.5350
30.50,40
1.57170
2263.2480
.36
.1018
2.5450
3664.80
1.57790
2272.1760
.37
.1075
2,6875
:J870,00
1,66625
2399.4000
3-8
.3750
.1104
2,7600
3974,40
1.71120
2464.1280
.38
.1134
2,8350
4032,40
1.75770
2631.0880
.39
.1195
2,9875
4302,00
1,85225
2667.2400
2fi-64
.3906
.1198
2,9960
4312,S0
1.85690
2673.9360
.40
.1257
3,1425
4525,20
1.94835
2805.6240
13-32
,4062
.1296
3,2400
466.5,60
2.00880
2892.6720
.41
.1320
3,3000
4752,00
2.04600
2946.2400
.42
.1385
3,4626
4986,00
2-14676
3091.3200
27-64
.4218
.1398
3,49,50
50.')2,aO
2.16690
3120.3360
.43
.1452
3.6300
5227.20
2.25060
3240.8G1O
7-16
.4375
.1.W3
3,7576
.5410.80
2.32966
3354.6960
.44
.1521
3,8026
5475.60
2.35755
3394.8720
.45
.1590
3,9750
5724.00
2.464.50
3648.8800
29-64
.4331
.1613
4,0325
.5806.80
2..50016
3600.2160
.46
.1662
4.1550
6983.20
2.57610
3709.5840
15-32
.4687
.1726
4.3160
6213.60
2,67530
3852.4320
.47
.1733
4,3375
6246,00
2.68926
3872.5200
.48
.1810
4,.'>260
6516,1X1
2.8a5.50
4039.9200
31-64
.4843
.1843
4.6075
6634,80
2,8566.5
4113.5760
.49
.1886
4.7150
6789,60
2.92330
4209.5520
.-2
.5000
.1963
4.9075
7066,80
3,04265
4381.4160
.51
.2043
6.1075
73.54.80
3,16665
4539.9760
33-64
.51. W
.2088
6,2200
7516.80
3.23640
4660.4160
.52
.2124
5.3100
7646.40
3.29220
4740.7680
.53
.2200
5.5150
7941,60
3.419.30
4923.7920
17-32
.5;il2
.2217
5,5425
7981,20
3.43635
4948.3440
.54
.2290
5,7260
8244,0(1
3.54960
3111.2800
35-64
.5468
.2349
5,8725
8456,40
3.64093
5242.9680
.55
.2376
6,9400
85.53,60
3.68280
.5303.2320
.56
.3463
0,1575
8866,60
3.81765
5497.4160
9-1(1
.6625
.2485
6,2125
8946,00
3.85175
5546.5200
,2552
6,3800
9187,20
3.95560
5696.0640
37-64
!5781
.2625
6,5625
94.50,00
4.06875
5859.0000
.58
,2642
6.8050
9511,20
4.09510
5896,9440
.59
.2734
6,8350
9842,40
4.23770
6102.2880
19-32
.S937
.2769
6,9225
9968,40
4,20195
6180.4080
Water Pnrtlicadon
27
Discharge in U. S. Gallons Throni^li Circular Orifices
Constant Head One Foot — Continued
DIMENSIONS IN INCHES
COEPFICIENT=-1.00
COEFFICIENT=0.62
D laTTiAt #»rc
Are^
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
m^ AOhAA^
• ^ir W^l'* ««
• •! %K«A
per Minute
24 Hours
per Minute
24 Hours
60
2827
7 0675
10177.20
4 38185
6309.8640
3d-64
.6093
2916
7 2900
10497.60
4 51980
6508 5120
61
2922
7 3050
10519.20
4 52910
6521 9040
62
.3019
7 5475
10868 40
4 67945
6738 4080
6-8
6250
3068
7 6700
11044 80
4 75540
6847 7760
63
3117
7 7925
11221 20
4.83135
6957 1440
64
.3217
8.0425
11581 20
4 98635
7180 3440
41-64
6406
.3223
8.0575
11602.80
4.99565
7193.7360
.65
.3318
8.2950
11944 80
5 14290
7405.7760
21-32
6562
3382
8 4550
12175 20
5 24210
7648 6240
66
.3421
8 5526
12315 60
5 30255
7636 6720
67
3626
8 8150
12693.60
5.46530
7870 0320
43-64
.6718
.3645
8.8625
12762.00
5.49475
7912.4400
.6.8
.3632
9.0800
13075.20
5.62960
8106.6240
11-16
.6875
.3712
9.2800
13363.20
5.75360
8286 . 1840
.69
.3739
9.3475
13460.40
5.79545
8345.4480
.70
.3848
9.6200
13852.80
5.96440
8588.7360
45-64
.7031
.3883
9.7075
13978.80
6.01865
8666.8660
.71
.3959
9.8975
14252.40
6 . 13645
8836.4880
23-32
.7187
.4057
10 . 1425
14605.20
6.28835
9055.2240
.72
.4072
10.1800
14659.20
6.31160
9088.7040
.73
.4185
10.4625
15066.00
6.48675
9340.9200
47-64
.7343
.4236
10.5900
15249.60
6.56580
9454.7520
.74
.4301
10.7525
154B3.60
6.66655
9599.8320
3-4
.7500
.4418
11.0450
15904.80
6.84790
9860.9760
.76
.4536
11.3400
16329.60
7.03080
10124.3520
49-64
.7656
.4596
11.4900
16545.60
7.12380
10258.2720
.77
.4657
11.6425
16765.20
7.21835
10394.4240
.78
.4778
11.9450
17200.80
7.40590
10664.4960
25-32
.7812
.4793
11.9825
17254.80
7.42915
10697.9760
.79
.4902
12.2550
17647.20
7.59810
10941.2640
51-64
.7968
.4988
12.4700
17956.80
7.73140
11133.2160
.80
.5027
12.5675
18097.20
7.79185
11220.2640
.81
.5153
12.8825
18550.80
7.98715
11501.4960
13-16
.8125
.5185
12.9625
18666.00
8.03675
11572.9200
.82
.5281
13.2025
19011.60
8.18555
11787.1920
53-64
.8281
.5384
13.4600
19382.40
8 34520
12017.0880
.83
.5411
13.5275
19479.60
8 . 38705
12077.3520
.84
.5542
13.8550
19951.20
8.59010
12369.7440
27-32
. 8437
.5591
13.9775
20127.60
8.66605
12479.1120
.85
.5675
14.1875
20430.00
8.79625
12666.6000
55-64
.8593
.5795
14.4875
20862.00
8.98225
12934.4400
.86
.5809
14.5225
20912.40
9.00395
12965.6880
.87
.5945
14.8625
21402.00
9.21475
13269.2400
7-8
.8750
.6013
15.0325
21646.80
9.32015
13421 .0160
.88
.6082
15.2050
21895.20
9.42710
13575.0240
.89
.6221
15.5525
22395.60
9.64255
13885.2720
57-64
.8906
.6229
15.5725
22424.40
9 . 65495
13903 . 1280
:«
DMchar^e in U. S. Cxallons Tliroii^ Circular Orifi^
(^nsiBni Head One Voat-
DIMENSIONS I.V
- — ■ *"
INCHES
COEFFICIENT=lJ»
COEFFICIENT^lLfil
, ,
Hf ^J ■
Arc&
Ganoos
GalVxis
Gallons
GaDods
^J^iBL
Tver*
/aA W
per Minute
15.9050
24 Hours
per Mtsate
9.86110
24 Hoars
.5^)
.6362
22903.20
14199.9840
29-ri2
.9CI62
.6450
16.1250
23220.00
9.99750
14396.4000
.91
.6504
16.2600
23414.40
10.08120
14516.9280
.92
.6648
16.6200 •
2:5932.80
10.30140
14838.3360
T/.y-*A
.921S
.6676 1
16.6900
1M033.60 '
10.^4780
14900.8320
.93
.6793 i
16.98^5
24454.80 .
10.52915
15161.9760
15-10
.9375
.6903 !
17.2575
24850.80
10.69965
15107.4960
1
1
.94
.6940
17.3500
24984.00
10.75700 :
15490.0600
1
1
.95
.7088
17.7200
25516.80
10.98640
15820.4160
OM^i
.95:il
.7l3:i
17.8325
25678.80
11.05615
15920.8560
1
.96
.72:^8
18.0950
26a50.SO
11.21890
16155.2160
3i-:i2 ,
.9<5S7 :
.7271
18.4275
26535.60
11.4*2505
16452.0720
1
.97
.7390
18.4750
26604.00
11.45450
16494.480i)
.98
.7543
18.8575 1
27154.80
11.69165
16835.9760
63-4>4
.9843
.7605
19.0125 .
27378.00
11.78775
16974.3600
.99
.7698
19.2450
27712.80
11.93190
17181.9360
1
1.000
.7854
19.6350
28274.40
12.17370
17530.1280
1.01
.8012
20.0300
28843.20
12.41860
17882.7840
1-64
1.0156
.8101
20.2525
29163.60
12.55650
18081.4320
1.02
.8171
20.4275
29415.60
12.66500
18237.6720
1.03
.8332
20.8300
29995.20
12.91460
18597.0240
1-32
1.0312
.8352
20.8800
30067.20
12.94560
18641.6640
1.04
.8495
. 21.2375
30582.00
13.16720
18960.8400
3-64
1.0468
.8606
21.5150
:i0981.60
13.33930
19208.5920
1.05
.8659
21.6475
31172.40
13.42140
19326.8880
1.06
.8825
22.0625 1
31770.00
13.67870
19697.4000
1-lt)
1.0625
.8866
22.1650
31917.60
13.74230
19788.9120
1.07
.8992
22.4800 '
32371.20
13.93760
20070.1440
5-04
1.0781
.9128
22.8200
32860.80
14.14840
20373.6960
1.08
.9161
22.9025
32979.60
14.19955
20447.3520
1.09
.9331
23.3275
33591.60
14.46405
20826.7920
3-32
1.0937
.9394
23.4850
3;J818.40
14.56070
20967.4080
1.10
.9503
23.7575
34210.80
14.72965
21210.6960
7-64
1.1093
.9664
24.1600
34790.40
14.97920
21570.0480
1.11
.9677
24.1925
34837.20
14.99935
21599.0640
1.12
.9852
24.6300
35467.20
15.27060
21989.6640
1-8
1.1250
.9940
24.8500
35784.00
15.40700
22186.0800
1.13
1.0029
25.0725
36104.40
15.54495
22384.7280
1.14
1.0207
25.5175
36745.20
15.82085
22782.0240
<MU
1.1400
1.0217
25.5425
36781.20
15.83635
22804.3440
1.15
1.0387
25.9675
37393.20
16.09985
23183.7840
r>-;i2
1.1562
1.0499
26.2475
37796.40
16.27345
23433.7680
1.16
1.0568
1 26.4200
38044.80
16.38040
23587.7760
1.17
1.0751
26.8775
:i8703.()0
16.66405
23996.2320
1.1718
1.0784
26.9600
38822.40
16.71520
24069.8880
1.18
1.0936
27.3400
39369.60
16.95080
24409.1520
3-16
1.1875
1.1075
27.6875
39870.00
17.16625
24719.4000
1.19
1.1122
27.8050
40039.20
17.23910
24824.3040
i
Water ForUioMtloii
Discharge in U. S. Gallons Throniih Circular Orifices —
Coustant Head One I'^'ool — Cuminucd
DIMENSIONS 1>
INCHES
COEPFlCIENT-LOfI
COEFFICIENT -0.02
DknHttn
a™>
Gsllans
Gallons
Can™,
Gallons
pnMinulo
21HOU1S
P« M,„u„
2i Houn
1.20
1.1310
28.2750
40716.00
17. .5305
25243.9200
13-64
1.2031
1.1368
28.4200
40924.80
17.6204
25373.3760
1.21
1.1499
28.7475
41396.40
17.82345
25665.9780
7-32
1.2187
1.1651
29.1275
41943.00
18,06905
■ 26005.0320
1.22
1. 1690
29.2250
42084.00
18.1195
26092.080
1.23 -
1.18S2
29.7050
42775.20
18.4171
26520.624
15-e4
1.2343
1,1967
29.9175
43081.20
18.54885
26710.344
1.24
1.2076
30.1900
43473.60
18.7178
26953.632
1-4
1.2500
1.2272
30.6800
44179.20
19.0216
27391.104
1.26
1.2469
31.1725
44888.40
19.3269
27830.808
17-«4
1.2ft.'i6
1,2580
31.450
45288.00
19.4990
28078.560
1.27
1,2668
31.670
45604.80
19.6354
28274.976
1.38
1,287
32.175
46332.00
19.9485
28725-840
&-32
1.2812
1-289
32.225
46404.00
19.9795
28770-048
1.2S
1.307
32.675
47052.00
20.2585
29172.240
1&-64
1.2968
1.321
33.025
47556.00
20.4755
29484.72
1.30
1.327
33.175
47772.00
20.5685
29618.64
1.31
1.348
33.700
48528.00
20.8940
30087.36
5-16
1.3125
1.353
33.825
48708.00
20.9715
30198.96
1.32
1.368
34.200
49248.00
21.2040
30533,76
21-64
1.3281
1.384
34.600
49824.00
21.4520
30890.88
1.33
1.389
34.725
50004.00
21.5295
31002.48
1.34
1.410
35.250
50760.00
21.8550
31471.20
11-32
1.3475
1.426
35.650
51336.00
22.1030
31828.32
1.35
1-431
35.775
51616.00
22.1805
31939.92
23-64
1.3693
1-451
36.275
.52236.00
22.4905
32386.32
1.36
1.453
36.325
.52308.00
22.5215
32430.96
1-37
1.474
36.850
53064.00
22.8470
32899.68
»-8
1.375
1.48.5
37.126
53460.00
23.0175
33145.20
1.38
1.496
37.400
.53856.00
23.1880
33390.72
1-3B
1.517
37.925
54612.00
23.5135
33859.44
25-64
1.3906
1..519
37.975
54684.00
23.5445
33904.08
1.40
1.539
38.476
55*04.00
23.8545
34350.48
13-32
1.4062
1.554
38.850
55944.00
24.0870
34685.28
1.41
1.561
39.025
56196.00
24.1955
34S41.52
1.42
1.584
39.800
67024.00
24.5520
35354.88
27-^
1,4218
1-587
39.675
.-57132.00
24.5983
35421.34
1.43
1-606
40.150
."■"S 16.00
24.8930
35845.92
7-16
l.437.'>
1.623
40.575
58428.00
25.1565
36225.36
1.44
1.629
40.725
68644.00
25.2495
363.59.28
1.45
1.651
41,275
594.'i6.00
25..5903
36850.32
29-64
1.4531
1.658
41.450
69688.00
25.6990
37006.56
1.46
1.674
41.850
60264.00
25.9470
37363.68
15-32
1.4687
1.694
42.350
60984.00
26.2570
37810.08
1.47
1.697
42.425
61092.00
26.303.5
37877.04
1.48
1-720
43.000
61920.00
26.6000
38390.40
31-«4
1.4843
1,730
43.250
62280.00
26.8150
38613.60
1.49
1.744
43.800
62784.00
27.0320
38926.08
AatcHcan Steel ami Wire Co^tpony
DUcharfte in C. S. Gallons Thronkh Circalar Orifie
Coiuifaiit Head One Foot— ContinneJ
DIMENSIONS l^
INCHES
CoBPPICiENT-iw
Coefficient -Hfli
Km-.™
ClOoDl
Gulten.
Gallon >
Callon
prrMm-t,
UHam
1-2
1.5000
1.767
44.175
63612.00
27.3885
39439.44
1.51
1.791
44.775
64476.00
27-7605
39975.12
33-64
1..1156
1.804
45.100
64944.00
27.9620
40265-28
4.52
1.815
45.375
65340.00
28,1325
40510.80
1.t3
1.839
4.5.976
66201.00
2S.5045
41046.48
17-32
]..i3I2
1.841
46.025
66276.00
28.-535.5
41091.12
1.34
1.86:1
46.575
67068.00
28.8765
41582.16
35-64
l..M(i8
1,879
46.975
67644.00
29.1245
41939.28
1.55
1,887
47.175
67932,00
29,2485
42117.84
1,56
1,911
47.775
68796.00
29.62a5
42653.33
9-18
1..W25
1.917
47.925
69012.00
29,713.5
42787.44
1.57
1.936
48.400
69696.00
30.0080
43211.52
37-«4
1.5781
1,957
48.925
70452.00
30.3335
43680.24
1.58
1.961
49.025
70596.00
30.3955
43760.52
1.59
1.988
49.650
71496,00
30,7830
44327.52
lfr-32
1.5937
1.995
49.875
71820.00
30.9225
44528.40
1.60
2.011
50,275
72396.00
31.1705
44885.52
39-fl4
i.0093
2.034
.50,850
73224,00
31.5270
46398.88
1.61
2,036
50,900
73296.00
31,5580
45443.52
1.B2
2.061
31,526
74196.00
31.9455
46001.52
S-8
1 -62.10
2.074
51.950
74808.00
32.2090
463S0.96
1-63
2.087
52.175
75132,00
32.3485
46581,84
1.64
2.112
52,800
76032.00
32.7360
47139.S4
41-ftl
1.6406
2.114
52.850
76104.00
32.7670
47184.48
1.6.5
2.138
53.450
76968,00
33.1390
47720.16
21-32
1.6562
2,154
.53.850
77544.00
33.3870
48077,28
1.66
2.164
54.100
77904.00
33.5420
48300.48
1,67
2.190
M.750
78840.00
33.94.50
48880.80
43-«i4
1.6718
2.195
.54.875
79020,00
34.0225
48992.40
1.68
2.217
.53.425
79812.00
34-3635
49483.44
II-JB
1.6875
2,23«
55.900
80496.00
34.6.580
49907.52
1.69
2.243
56.075
80748,00
34,7665
50063.76
1.70
2,270
.56.760
81720.00
3.5.1850
50666.40
4.'i-fi4
1,7031
2,278
.56.950
82008.00
35.3090
60844.96
1.71
2.297
57.425
fi3nii2.on
3,5,6035
51269.04
23-32
1.7187
2,320
.58.000
51782.40
1.72
2.324
.58.100
51871.68
1.73
2,:i5i
r.8.775
52474,32
47-fi4
1,7343
2.:J62
59.a50
■52719,84
1,74
2.378
60.450
S,^Mi. IHl
.53076,96
3-4
1.75
2,40.5
60.125
86.580,00
37.2775
.53679.60
1.76
2.133
60.825
87588.00
37.7115
54304,56
4SMi4
1,7856
2.448
61.180
8809<l.00
37.9316
.54621,50
1.77
2.461
61.625
88690,00
38.1455
,54929.52
1.78
2.488
62.200
89368.00
38,.5tH0
55532.16
25-32
1.7SI2
2.4n2
62,300
89712.00
38.6260
,55621.44
i.-n
2.516
62,900
90.578.00
.38.9080
56157.12
fil-(V4
1,7968
2.536
63,400
91296.00
.39.3080
56603.52
Water Parilication
31
Discharge in U. S. Gallons Through Circular Orifices
Constant Head One Foot — Concluded
DIMENSIONS IN
INCHES
COEFFICIENT = 1.00
COEFFICIENT =0.62
Dlflmof ore
Arr*A
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
L^icuir
tX< k^r* <»
^^1 VrC»
per Minute
24 Hours
per Minute
24 Hours
1.80
2.545
63.625
91620.00
39.4475
56804.40
1.81
2.573
64.325
92628.00
39.8815
57429.36
13-16
1.8125
2.580
64.500
92880.00
39.9900
57585.60
1.82
2.602
65.050
93672.00
40.3310
58076.64
53-64
1.8281
2.625
65.625
94500.00
40.6875
58590.00
1.83
2.630
65.750
94680.00
40.7650
58701.60
1.84
2.659
66.475
95724.00
41.2145
59348.88
27-32
1.8437
2.670
66.750
96120.00
41.3850
59594.40
1.85
2.688
67.200
96768.00
41.6640
59996.16
55-64
1.8593
2.716
67.900
97776.00
42.0980
60621.12
1.86
2.717
67.925
97812.00
42.1135
60643.44
1.87
2.746
68.650
98856.00
42.5630
61290.72
7-8
1.8750
2.761
69.025
99396.00
42.7955
61625.52
1.88
2.776
69.400
99936.00
43.0280
61960.32
1.89
2.806
70.150
101016.00
43.4930
62629.92
57-64
1.8906
2.807
70.175
101052.00
43.5085
62652.24
1.90
2.835
70.875
102060.00
43.9425
63277.20
29-32
1.9062
2.854
71.350
102744.00
44.2370
63701.28
1.91
2.865
71.625
103140.00
44.4075
63946.80
1.92
2.895
72.375
104220.00
44.8725
64616.40
59-64
1.9218
2.901
72.525
104436.00
44.9655
64750.32
1.93
2.926
73.150
105336.00
45.3530
65308.32
15-16
1.9375
2.948
73.700
106128.00
45.6940
65799.36
1.94
2.956
73.900
106416.00
45.8180
65977.92
1.95
2.986
74.650
107496.00
46.2830
66647.52
61-64
1.9531
2.996
74.900
107856.00
46.4380
66870.72
1.96
3.017
75.425
108612.00
46.7635
67339.44
31-32
1.9687
3.043
76.075
109548.00
47.1665
67919.76
1.97
3.048
76.200
109728.00
47.2440
68031.36
1.98
3.079
76.975
110844.00
47.7245
68723.28
63-64
1.9843
3.092
77.300
111312.00
47.9260
69013.44
1.99
3.110
77.750
111960.00
48.2050
69415.20
2
2.0000
3.142
78.550
113112.00
48.7010
70129.44
Mr. Wm. G. Clark, Consulting
Engineer, Toledo, O., has devised
a formula for determining the ve-
locity of flow in feet per second
through pipes when the diameter
of the pipe in inches and the volume
of discharge in million gallons per
diem are known. By transposing
this formula we have arranged two
other formulas to determine the
diameter of the pipe in inches when
the discharge in million gallons per
diem and the velocity of flow in
feet per second are known, and to
find the discharge in million gallons
per diem when the diameter of the
pipe in inches and the velocity in
feet per second are known. By
altering the factor in the formulas
thus found, we have been able to
use them for determining the size
of orifice required to <lvy^^2cts^ -^
American Steel and Wire Company
given volume of water in twenty-
fotir hours, to find the volume of
water discharged in twenty-four
hours, or to determine the velocity
of discharge in feet per second if
the other two factors are known.
Mr. Clark's formtila is as follows :
Let F = 283.678.
M = Million gallons dis-
chacrged per 24 hours.
D = Diameter of pipe in
inches.
V = Velocity of flow in
feet per second.
FxM
ThenV =
D^
Example: A pipe, 16" in diame-
ter, discharges 4,000,000 gallons of
water per diem, what is the ve-
locity of flow in feet per second ?
Solution : In this case the diam-
eter of the pipe is 16" and D*=
256. M=4, and inserting, the
, ^ * ,, 283.678X4
formula becomes V= - — ^—
Job.
Reducing, we have V=4.43 feet
per second.
The factor F=283.678 is derived
in the following manner:
F= v7- With a 10" pipe and a
M.
velocity of 10 feet per second flow
through it, the number of gallons
discharged in 24 hours is seen to be
3,525,120 and therefore
1^ ^^ .. ^-
3.525120
=F =
10>(10-10)
3.52512
^ = 3.S2 = ^ = 283«78.
From the preceding we have
arranged the second formula as
follows :
D'x V
Example: The velocity of flow
through a pipe line, 16" in diam-
eter, is 4 feet per second, how
many million gallons will be dis-
charged in twenty-four hoiirs ?
Solution: D*=256. V=4. In-
serting, the formtda reads M=
i^6~b=r"^ Reduced, we have M=
Joo.o7o.
3.609 million gallons per diem or
3,609,000 gallons per diem.
The third formula, derived from
the original, is as follows:
D-V
F XM
V.
Example: What is the size of
pipe required to carry foiu* million
gallons per twenty-four hours with
a velocity of two feet per second ?
Solution: Substituting, the form-
ula reads D=^
283.678X4
2.
Re-
M
F.
ducing, it becomes D = 1^567.35 or
reduced still further, D=23.82.
The nearest size of standard pipe
is 24", and therefore we wotdd use
a 24" pipe.
In adapting these formtdas to
determine either the diameter of
an orifice to discharge a given
flow, to find the velocity of flow
through an orifice, or to ascertain
the volume of discharge through
an orifice, it is necessary to intro-
duce another factor, and for this
purpose we have the following:
Let F =283.678.
M = Million gallons dis-
charged in 24 hours.
D = Diameter of orifice in
inches.
V= Velocity of flow in feet
per second.
Waler Pariflcalion
c»»Coefficient of dis-
charge.
The three forms of the formula
then become:
(F X c) X M
V=^
lyxy
"(Fxc).
D=V^^
Where a standard orifice, with
a coefficient of 0.62 is employed,
Fxc becomes 283.678x0.62 =175.98
and therefore the value of 175.98
may be substituted for (Fxc) if
desired. In the-use of the formulas
for orifices it is necessary to re-
member that M —Million gallons
daily, and for small orifices, such
as are generally dealt with by the
operator, this is more than will be
discharged. Therefore, for small
orifices the volume of water to be
f oimd must be reduced to a fraction
of M. Thus, if the volume re-
quired is only 3,456 gallons per
day, this must be reduced to a
fraction of a million gallons, and
therefore M =0.003456.
The following table, prepared by
Mr. C. Arthur Brown, gives heads,
pressures, velocities, and discharges
through an orifice having an area of
one square inch under coefficient of
1.00 or unity.
Farfto. N. D.
Chemical Controllers
Earl Type
w -
Ameriean Steel and W(r« Compai
Table No. 2
ol Water Head*. Eqnivnlenl Preaanree, Theoretical Velocitiea,
Theoretical Diachargea thrauiih 1 Square Inch Orifice
Held
S^'
v'SSS.
Theoretical
Velocity Pi.
Theotttiml
Theorttkal
Discha.gr
TheontlcMl
Diitdurte
""sTiS^
per Second
p=r Min«t.
S™nd
Minuw'
DiaS"
.005
.00216
.57
34.20
.029
1.77
2,.%8
.010
.00*33
£a
48.00
.041
2.49
sisoo
.015
.00650
.98
58.80
.050
3.05
4,398
.020
.00867
1.13
67.80
.058
3.52
5,071
.025
.01083
1.27
76.20
.065
3.95
5,700
.030
.01300
1,30
83.40
,072
4.33
6,238
.035
.01517
1.50
90.00
.077
4.87
6,732
.040
.01734
1,60
96.00
.083
4.9S
7,181
.045
.01950
1.70
102.00
.088
5,29
7,629
.050
.02187
1.79
107.40
.092
5,57
8,034
.055
.02384
1.88
112.80
.097
5,85
8.437
.060
.02001
1.97
118,20
.102
6.14
8,811
.065
.02817
2.04
122,40
.105
6.35
9,156
.070
.03034
2.12
127.20
.110
6.60
9,515
.075
.03251
2.20
132,00
.114
6.85
9,874
.060
.03468
2.27
136.20
.118
7.07
10,188
.0833
.03612
2.32
139.20
.120
7.23
10,412
.085
.03685
2.34
140,40
.121
7.29
10.502
.090
.03901
2.41
144.60
.125
7.51
10^16
.095
.04118
2,47
148.20
.128
7.69
11.086
.100
.04335
2.54
152.40
.132
7.91
11,400
.105
.04552
2.60
156.00
.135
8.10
11,669
.110
.04768
2.66
159.60
.138
8.29
11,938
.115
.04985
2.72
163.20
.141
8,47
12,206
.120
.05202
2.78
166.80
.144
8.66
12,477
.125
.05419
2,84
170.40
.147
8,85
12,746
.130
.05635
2.89
173.40
.150
9.00
12,970
.135
.05852
2.9.5
177.00
.153
9.19
13,240
.140
.06069
3,00
180.00
.15.5
9.35
13,464
.145
.06286
3,05
183,00
.158
9.60
13.689
.160
.06502
3.11
186.60
.161
9,69
13.958
.155
.06719
3,16
189.60
.164
9,84
14.182
.160
.06936
3,21
192,60
.166
1Q.0O
14,407
.165
.07153
3,26
195.60
.169
10.16
14,631
.166
.07196
3,27
196.20
.170
10.19
14,676
.170
.07370
3.31
198,60
.171
10.31
14,856
.175
.07586
3,36
201.60
.174
10.47
15,080
.180
.07803
3.40
204.00
.178
10..59
15.260
.185
.08020
3,45
207.00
.179
10.75
15,485
.190
.08237
3,50
210.00
.181
10.9(t
15,708
.195
.08453
3.55
213.00
.184
11.06
15,933
.200
.08670
3,59
215,40
.186
11.18
16,112
.210
.09104
3.68
220.80
.191
11.47
16.516
.220
.09537
3.76
225,60
.195
11.71
16,875
.230
.09971
3.85
231,00
.199
11.99
17.279
.2.W
.1(W04
3.93
235,80
.204
12.24
17,638
.240
.10838
4.01
240.60
.208
12.49
17,9ff7
.260
.11271
4.09
245,40
.212
12.74
18,357
.270
.11705
4.17
250,20
.216
12.99
18.716
.280
.1213S
4.25
255,00
.220
13,24
19.075
.290
.12573
4.32
259,20
.224
13.4fi
19.389
,300
.vjtm
I.M
263,40
,2JS
Ki.lW
19.703
Water PnriUoation
Table No. 2— Continaed
Table ol Water Head*. BqnlTaleni PreaaDrea. Theoretloal Velocitlea.
Theoratlcal Uiachargea throntfh 1 Sqaar* lach Orifice
Head
TheoMlical
VelodJy I^,
ptr Second
4.47
Tlmweliciil
Velocity Fl.
pw MinuW
Thi-orftical
DitcharBC
tiflli, per
Sramd
■Sir
.310
.13439
268.20
.232
13.93
20,062
.320
.13872
4.54
273.40
.236
14.20
20,461
.330
.14306
4.61
276.60
.239
14.36
20,691
.340
.14740
4.68
280.80
.243
14.58
21,005
.350
.15173
4.75
285.00
.246
14.80
21,319
.360
.15007
4.81
288.00
.249
14.92
21.588
.370
.16040
4-87
292.20
.252
15.17
21,858
.380
.16474
4.94
296.40
.250
15.38
22,157
.300
.18907
5.01
300.60
.260
15.61
22,486
.400
.17341
5.07
304.20
.263
15.80
22,755
.410
.17774
5.14
308.40
.267
16.02
23,069
.420
.18208
5.20
312.00
.270
16.20
23,339
.430
.18641
5.26
316.60
.273
16.39
23.608
.440
.19075
5.32
310.20
.276
16.58
23,877
.450
.19508
5.38
322.80
.279
16.76
24,147
.460
.19942
5.44
326.40
.282
16.95
24,416
.470
.20375
5.50
330.00
.285
17.14
24.685
,480
.20809
5.66
333.60
.288
17.32
24,954
.490
.21242
5.62
337.20
.291
17.51
25,224
.500
.21676
5.67
340.20
.294
17.67
25,437
.510
.22110
5.73
343.80
.297
17.85
25,718
.520
.22543
6.79
347.40
.300
18.(M
25,987
.530
.22977
5.85
351.00
.303
18.23
26,256
.540
.23410
5.90
354.00
.306
18.38
26,481
.550
.23844
5,95
357.00
.309
18.54
26,705
.560
.24277
6.00
360.00
.311
18,70
26,929
.570
.24711
6,06
363.00
.314
18.88
27,199
.580
.25144
6.11
366.00
.317
19.{M
27,423
.500
.25578
6,17
370.20
.320
19.23
27,692
.600
.26011
0.23
373.20
.323
19.38
■27,917
.610
.26445
376.80
.326
19.57
28,186
.620
.26878
a32
379.20
-328
19.69
28,366
.630
.27312
6.37
382.20
.330
19.85
28,590
.640
.27746
6,42
385.20
.33;)
20.01
28,814
.650
.28179
6.47
388.20
.336
20,10
29,039
.660
.28612
6.52
391,20
.338
20,32
29,263
.670
.29046
6.57
394,20
.341
20.47
20.488
.6S0
.29480
6.61
396,60
,343
20.60
29,667
.690
,29913
6.06
399.80
-345
20.75
29,892
.700
.30347
6.71
402.60
.348
20.91
30,116
.710
,30780
6.76
405.60
.351
21.07
30,340
.720
.31214
6.81
408.60
.;i53
21.22
30,565
.730
,31647
6.86
411.60
.3.W
21.38
30,709
.740
.32081
6.91
414.60
.358
21,53
31,014
.750
.32514
6.95
417.00
.361
21,66
31.193
.760
.32*48
6.99
419.40
.363
21.7S
31,373
-770
.33381
7.04
422.40
.365
21.94
31,597
.780
7.09
425,40
.368
22,09
31,822
.700
.34248
7.13
427,80
.370
22.22
32,001
.800
.34682
7.18
430,80
.372
22.37
32.226
.810
.35115
7.22
433,20
.375
22.50
32,405
.820
.35549
7.26
435,80
.377
22.62
32.585
36
Amertoan Steel and Wire Company
Table No. 2— Continued
Table of Water Heads, Equivalent Presaorea. Theoretical Velodti
Theoretical IHacharitea throul^h 1 Square Inch Orifice
Equivalent
Theoretical
Theoretical
Theoretical
Head
•
Pressure
Theoretical
Theoretical
Discharge
Discharge
Discharge
in
Pounds per
Velocity Ft.
Velocity Ft.
Gals, per
Gals, per
Gals, per
Feet
Sq. Inch
per Second
pa* Minute
Second
Minute
Diem
.830
.35982
7.31
438.60
.379
22.78
32,809
.840
.36416
7.36
441.00
.381
22.90
32,989
.850
.36850
7.40
444.00
.384
23.06
33,213
.860
.37283
7.44
446.40
.386
23.18
33,393
.870
.37717
7.48
448.80
.388
23.31
33,572
.880
.38150
7.53
451.80
.391
23.47
33.796
.890
.38584
7.57
454.20
.393
23.59
33,976
.900
.39017
7.61
456.60
.395
23.71
34,156
.910
.39451
7.65
459.00
.397
23.84
34,335
.920
.39884
7.70
462.00
.399
23.99
34,559
.930
.40318
7.74
464.40
.402
24.12
34,739
.940
.40751
7.78
466.80
.404
24.24
34,919
.950
.41185
7.82
469.20
.406
24.37
35.098
.960
.41618
7.86
471.60
.408
24.49
35,278
.970
.42052
7.90
474.00
.410
24.62
35,457
.980
.42485
7.94
476.40
.412
24.74
35,637
.990
.42919
7.98
478.80
.414
24.87
35,816
1.00
.43353
8.02
481.20
.417
25.02
36,041
1.02
.44220
8.10
486.00
.420
25.24
36,357
1.04
.45087
8.18
490.80
.424
25.49
36,714
1.06
.45954
8.26
495.60
.429
25.74
37,073
1.08
.46821
8.34
500.40
.433
25.99
37,431
1.10
.47688
8.41
504.60
.436
26.21
37,746
1.12
.48555
8.49
509.40
.441
26.46
38,105
1.14
.49422
8.57
514.20
.445
26.71
38.465
1.16
.50289
8.64
518.40
.448
26.93
38,779
1.18
.51156
8.72
523.20
.452
27.17
39,138
1.20
.52023
8.79
527.40
.456
27.39
39,452
1.22
.52890
8.87
532.20
.460
27.64
39,811
1.24
.53757
8.94
536.40
.464
27.86
40,125
1.26
.54624
9.01
540.60
.468
28.08
40,439
1.28
.55491
9.08
544.80
.471
28.30
40,753
1.30
.56358
9.15
549.00
.475
28.51
41,068
1.32
.57225
9.21
552.60
.478
28.70
41,337
1.34
.58092
9.29
557.40
.483
28.95
41,696
1.36
.58959
9.36
561.60
.486
29.17
42,010
1.38
.59826
9.43
565.80
.489
29.39
42,324
1.40
.60693
9.49
569.40
.492
29.57
42.594
1.42
.61560
9,57
574.20
.497
29.82
42,953
1.44
.62427
9.63
577.80
.500
30.01
43,222
1.46
.63294
9.70
582.00
.503
30.23
43,536
1.48
.64161
9.77
586.20
..507
30.45
43,850
1.50
.65028
9.83
589.80
.510
30.63
44,120
1.52
.65895
9.90
594.00
.514
30.85
44,434
1.54
.66762
9.96
597.60
.517
31.04
44,703
1.56
.67629
10.00
600.00
.519
31.16
44.883
1.58
.68496
10.10
606.00
.524
31.48
45,331
1.60
.69363
10.20
612.00
.529
31.79
45,780
1.65
.71530
10.30
618.00
.535
32.10
46,229
1.70
.73698
10.50
630.00
.545
32.72
47,127
1.75
.75865
10.60
636.00
.550
33.03
47.576
1.80
.78033
10.80
648.00
.561
33.66
48.473
fxm
avvB*
Water Purifioation
37
Table No. 2 — Continued
Table of Water Heads, Equivalent Preaaurea* Theoretical Velocities*
Theoretical Diachar^ea through 1 Square Inch Orifice.
Head
in
mm A
Equivalent
Pressure
Pounds per
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals. i>er
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Theoretical .
Discharge
Gals, per
Feet
Sq. Inch
per Second
per Mmute
Second
Minute
Diem
1.85
.80201
10.90
654.00
.566
33.97
48,922
1.90
.82368
11.10
666.00
.576
34.59
49,820
1.95
.84536
11.20
672.00
.581
34.90
50,269
2.00
.86706
11.40
684.00
.592
35.53
51,166
2.10
.91041
11.70
702.00
.607
36.46
52,513
2.20
.95376
11.90
714.00
.618
37.09
53,410
2.30
.99711
12.20
732.00
.633
38.02
54,757
2.40
1.04047
12.40
744.00
.644
38.64
55,655
2.50
1.08382
12.60
756.00
.654
39.27
56,552
2.60
1.12717
12.90
774.00
.670
40.20
57,899
2.70
1.17053
13.20
792.00
.685
41.14
59,245
2.80
1.21388
13.40
804.00
.696
41.76
60,143
2.90
1.25723
13.70
822.00
.711
42.70
61,489
3.00
1.30059
13.90
834.00
.722
43.32
62,387
3.10
1.34394
14.10
846.00
.732
43.94
63,285
3.20
1.38729
14.30
858.00
.742
44.57
64,182
3.30
1.43064
14.50
870.00
.753
45.19
65,080
3.40
1.47400
14.80
888.00
.768
46.12
66,426
3.50
1.51735
15.00
900.00
.779
46.75
67,324
3.60
1.56070
15.20
912.00
.789
47.37
68.222
3.70
1.60406
15.40
924.00
.799
47.99
69,119
3.80
1.64741
15.60
936.00
.810
48.62
70,017
3.90
1.69076
15.80
948.00
.820
49.24
70,915
4.00
1.73412
16.00
960.00
.831
49.87
71,812
4.20
1.82082
16.40
984.00
.851
51.11
73,608
4.40
1.90753
16.80
1,008.00
.872
52.36
75,403
4.60
1.99423
17.20
1,032.00
.893
53.61
77,198
4.80
2.08094
17.60
1,056.00
.914
54.85
78,994
5.00
2.16765
17.90
1,074.00
.929
55.79
80,340
5.20
2.25435
18.30
1,098.00
.950
57.03
82,136
5.40
2.34106
18.70
1,122.00
.971
58.28
83,931
5.60
2.42776
19.00
1,140.00
.987
59.22
85,277
5.80
2.51447
19.30
1,158.00
1.022
60.15
86,624
6.00
2.60118
19.70
1,182.00
1.023
61. '40
88,419
6.20
2.68788
20.00
1,200.00
1.038
62.33
89,766
6.40
2.77459
20.30
1,218.00
1.054
63.27
91,112
6.60
2.86129
20.60
1,236.00
1.070
64.20
92,459
6.80
2.94800
20.90
1,254.00
1.085
05.14
93,805
7.00
3.03471
21.20
1,272.00
1.101
66.07
95,152
7.20
3.12141
21.50
1,290.00
1.116
67.01
96,498
7.40
3.20812
21.80
1,308.00
1.132
67.94
97,845
7.60
3.29482
22.10
1,326.00
1.148
68.88
99,191
7.80
3.38153
22.40
1,344.00
1.163
69.81
100,538
8.00
3.46824
22.70
1,362.00
1.179
70.75
101,884
8.20
3.55494
23.00
1,380.00
1.194
71.68
103,231
8.40
3.64165
23.30
1,398.00
1.210
72.62
104,577
8.60
3.72835
23.50
1,410.00
1.220
73.24
105,475
8.80
3.81506
23.80
1,428.00
1.236
74.18
106,821
9.00
3.90177
24.10
1,446.00
1.251
75.11
108,168
9.20
3.98847
24.30
1,458.00
1.262
75.74
109,065
9.40
4.07518
24.60
1,476.00
1.277
76.67
110,412
9.60
4.16188
24.80
1,488.00
1.288
77.29
\
111,310
38
American Steel and Wire Company
Table No. 2 — Continued
Table of Water Heads* Equivalent Pressures, Theoretical Velo<»ti
Theoretical IHschar^es throng 1 Square Inch Orifice
Head
in
Feet
Equivalent
Pressure
Pounds per
Sq. Inch
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
per Second
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
per Minute
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Second
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Minute
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Diem
9.80
4.24859
2.5.10
1,506.00
1.303
78.23
112,656
10.00
4.33530
25.40
1,524.00
1.319
79.16
114,003
10.50
4.55206
26.00
1,560.00
1.350
81.03
116,695
11.00
4.76883
26.60
1,596.00
1.381
82.90
119.388
11.50
4.98559
27.20
1,632.00
1.412
84.77
122,081
12.00
5.20236
27.80
1,668.00
1.444
86.64
124,774
12.50
5.41912
28.40
1,704.00
1.475
88.51
127,467
13.00
5.63589
28.90
1,734.00
1.501
90.07
129,712
13.50
5.85265
29.50
1,770.00
1.532
91.94
132,405
14.00
6.06942
30.00
1,800.00
1.558
93.50
134,649
14.50
6.28618
30.50
1,830.00
1.584
95.06
136,893
15.00
6.50295
31.10
1,866.00
1.615
96.93
139,586
15.50
6.71971
31.60
1,896.00
1.641
98.49
141.830
16.00
6.9364
32.10
1,926.00
1.667
100.05
144,074
16.50
7.1532
32.60
1,956.00
1.693
101.61
146,318
17.00
7.3700
33.10
1,986.00
1.719
103.16
148,562
17.50
7.5867
33.60
2,016.00
1.745
104.72
150,807
18.00
7.8035
34.00
2,040.00
1.766
105.97
152,602
18.50
8.0203
34.50
2,070.00
1.792
107.53
154,846
19.00
8.2370
35.00
2,100.00
1.818
109.09
157,090
19.50
8.4538
35.40
2,124.00
1.838
110.33
158,886
20.00
8.6706
35.90
2,154.00
1.864
111.89
161.130
20.50
8.8873
36.30
2,178.00
1.885
113.14
162.925
21.00
9.1041
36.80
2,208.00
1.911
114.70
165.169
21.50
9.3208
37.20
2,232.00
1.932
115.94
166.965
22.00
9.5376
37.60
2,256.00
1.953
117.19
168.760
22.50
9.7544
38.10
2,286.00
1.979
118.75
171.004
23.00
9.9711
38.50
2,310.00
1.999
119.99
172.799
23.50
10.1879
38.90
2,334.00
2.020
121.24
174.595
24.00
10.4047
39.30
2,358.00
2.041
122.49
176.390
24.50
10.6214
39.70
2,382.00
2.062
123.74
178.185
25.00
10.8382
40.10
2,406.00
2.083
124.98
179.981
26.00
11.2717
40.90
2,454.00
2.124
127.48
183.571
27.00
11.7053
41.70
2,502.00
2.166
129.97
187,162
28.00
12.1388
42.50
2,550.00
2.207
132.46
190,753
29.00
12.5723
43.20
2,592.00
2.244
134.64
193,894
30.00
13.0059
43.90
2,634.00
2.280
136.83
197,036
31.00
13.4394
44.70
2,682.00
2.322
139.32
200,627
32.00
13.8729
45.40
2,724.00
2.358
141.50
203,769
33.00
14.3064
46.10
2,766.00
2.394
143.68
206,910
34.00
14.7400
46.70
2,802.00
2.425
145.55
209,603
35.00
15.1735
47.40
2,844.00
2.462
147.74
212,745
36.00
15.6070
48.10
2,886.00
2.498
149.92
215,887
37.00
16.0406
48.80
2,928.00
2.535
152.10
219,029
38.00
16.4741
49.50
2,970.00
2.571
154.28
222,171
39.00
16.9076
50.10
3,006.00
2.602
156.15
224,864
40.00
17.3412
50.70
3,042.00
2.633
158.02
227,557
41.00
17.7747
51.30
3,078.00
2.664
159.89
230,250
42.00
18.2082
52.00
3,120.00
2.701
' 162.07
233,391
43.00
18.6417
52.60
3,156.00
2.732
163.94
236,084
44.00
19.0753
53.20
3,192.00
2.763
165.81
238,777
45.00
19.5088
53.80
3,228.00
2.794
167.68
241,470
^
Water Purification
39
Table No.
ontinued
Table of Water Headst Equivalent Preaaurest Theoretical Velocities»
Theoretical Diachar^ea through 1 Square Inch Orifice.
Head
in
Equivalent
Pressure
Pounds per
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
Theoretical
Velocity Pt.
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Pfeet
Sq. Inch
per Second
per Minute
Second
Minute
Diem
46.00
19.9423
54.40
3,264.00
2.825
169.55
244,163
47.00
20.3759
55.00
3.300.00
2.857
171.42
246,856
48.00
20.8094
55.60
3,336.00
2.889
173.29
249,549
49.00
21.2429
56.20
3,372.00
2.919
175.16
252,242
50.00
21.6765
56.70
3,402.00
2.945
176.72
254,487
51.00 .
22.1100
57.30
3,438.00
2.976
178.59
257,180
52.00
22.5435
57.80
3,468.00
3.002
180.15
259,424
53.00
22.9770
58.40
3,504.00
3.033
182.02
262,117
54.00
23.4106
59.00
3,540.00
3.064
183.89
264,810
55.00
23.8441
59.50
3,570.00
3.090
185.45
267,054
56.00
24.2776
60.00
3;600.00
3.116
187.01
269,298
57.00
24.7112
60.60
3,636.00
3.148
188.88
271,991
58.00
25.1447
61.10
3,666.00
3.174
190.44
274,235
59.00
25.5782
61.60
3,696.00
3.199
191.99
276,479
60.00
26.0118
62.10
3,726.00 .
3.225
193.55
278,72a
61.00
26.4453
62.70
3,762.00
3.257
195.42
281,416
62.00
26.8788
63.20
3,792.00
3.283
196.98
283,661
63.00
27.3123
63.70
3,822.00
3.309
198.54
285,905
64.00
27.7459
64.20
3,852.00
3.335
200.10
288,149
65.00
28.1794
64.70
3,882.00
3.361
201.66
290,393
66.00
28.6129
65.20
3,912.00
3.387
203.22
292,637
67.00
29.0465
65.70
3,942.00
3.412
204.77
294,881
68.00
29.4800
66.20
3,972.00
3.438
206.33
297,125
69.00
29.9135
66.70
4.002.00
3.464
207.89
299,370
70.00
30.3471
67.10
4,026.00
3.485
209.14
301,165
71.00
30.7806
67.60
4.056.00
3.511
210.70
303,409
72.00
31.2141
68.10
4,086.00
3.537
212.25
305,653
73.00
31.6476
68.50
4,110.00
3.558
213.50
307,449
74.00
32.0812
69.00
4,140.00
3.584
215.06
309,693
. 75.00
32.5147
69.50
4,170.00
3.610
216.62
311,937
76.00
32.9482
69.90
4,194.00
3.631
217.86
313,732
77.00
33.3818
70.40
4,224.00
3.657
219.42
315,976
78.00
33.8153
70.90 .
4,254.00
3.683
220.98
318,220
79.00
34.2488
71.30
4,278.00
3.703
222.23
320,016
80.00
34.6824
71.80
4,308.00
3.729
223.79
322,260
81.00
35.1159
72.20
4.332.00
3.750
225.03
324,055
82.00
35.5494
72.60
4,356.00
3.771
226.28
325,851
83.00
35.9829
73.10
4,386.00
3.797
227.84
328,095
84.00
36.4165
73.50
4,410.00
3.818
229.09
329,890
85.00
36.8500
74.00
4,440.00
3.844
230.64
332,134
86.00
37.2835
74.40
4,464.00
3.864
231.89
333.930
87.00
37.7171
74.80
4,488.00
3.885
233.14
335.725
88.00
38.1506
75.30
4,518.00
3.911
234.70
337,969
89.00
38.5841
75.70
4,542.00
3.932
235.94
339,764
90.00
39.0177
76.10
4,566.00
3.953
237.19
341,560
91.00
• 39.4512
76.50
4,590.00
3.974
238.44
343.355
92.00
39.8847
76.90
4,614.00
3.994
239.68
345,150
93.00
40.3182
77.40
4,644.00
4.020
241.24
347.394
94.00
40.7518
77.80
4,668.00
4.041
242.49
349,190
95.00
41.1853
78.20
4,692.00
4.062
243.74
350,985
96.00
41.6188
78.60
4,716.00
4.083
244.98
352,780
97.00
42.a524
79.00
4,740.00
4.103
240.23
354,576
•K)
American Steel amd Wire Compmay
Table No. 2— CoacioJed
Table of Water Heada, Eqaivaleat Preaanrea, Theoretical Veloeitiea,
Theoretical Diachargea* throo^th 1 Square Inch Orifice
Head
in
Feet
Equivalen
Pressure
valent
Pounds
Sq. Inc
r
Tneorettcal
Velocity Ft.
per Second
Theoretical
Velocity Ft.
per Minute
98.00
42.4859
79.40
4,764.00
99.00
42.9194
79.80
4.788.00
100.00
43.3530
80.30
4,818.00
125.00
54.1912
89.70
5,382.00
150.00
65.0295
98.30
5,898.00
175.00
75.8677
106.00
6,360.00
200.00
86.7060
114.00
6,840.00
225.00
97.5442
120.00
7,200.00
250.00
108.382
126.00
7,560.00
275.00
119.220
133.00
7,980.00
300.00
130.059
139.00
8,340.00
350.00
151.735
150.00
9,000.00
400.00
173.412
160.00
9,600.00
450.00
195.088
170.00
10,200.00
500.00
216.765
179.00
10,740.00
550.00
238.441
188.00
11,280.00
600.00
260.118
197.00
11,820.00
700.00
303.471
212.00
12.720.00
800.00
346.824
227.00
13,620.00
900.00
390.177
241.00
14,460.00
1,000.00
433.530
254.00
15,240.00
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Second
Theoretical
Discharge
Gals, per
Minute
Dischaxge
GaU.per
4.124
247.48
356.371
4.145
248.72
358,166
4.171
250.28
360.411
4.659
279.58
402.601
5.106
306.38
441.200
5.506
330.38
475.760
5.922
355.32
511.667
6.233
374.02
538.596
6.545
392.72
565.526
6.909
414.54
596.944
7.220
433.24
623.874
7.792
467.53
673.246
8.311
498.70
718,129
8.831
529.86
763.012
9.298
557.92
803.406
9.766
585.97
843.801
10.233
614.02
884.196
11.012
660.77
951.521
11.758
707.53
1.018.845
12.519
751.16
1,081.682
13.194
791.68
1,140.030
\
Water Pnrifioation
*»>■!<■■ S te al mmd Win
Water Purification
41
The following table gives the equivalents of million gallons in cubic
feet; also the flows per minute and second in cubic feet and gallons
when the flow is distributed evenly over 24 hours.
Table No. 3
PER 24 HOURS
Million
Gallons
Cubic Feet
Equivalent
1
2
3
4
O
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
133,680.55
267,361.11
401,041.67
534,722.22
668,402.78
802,083.34
935,763.89
1,069,444.45
1,203,125.01
1,336,805.56
1,470,486.12
1,604,166.68
1,737,847.24
1.871,527.79
2,005,208.35
2,138,888.91
2,272,569.46
2,406,250.02
2,539,930.58
2,673,611.13
2,807,291.69
2,940,972.25
3,074,652.81
3,208,333.36
3,342,013.92
3,475,694.48
3,609,375.03
3,743,055.59
3,876,736.15
4,010,416.70
4,144,097.26
4,277,777.82
4.411,458.38
4,545,138.93
4,678,819.49
4,812,500.05
4,946,180.60
5,079,861.16
5,213,541.72
5,347,222.27
5,480,902.83
5,614,583.39
5,748,263.95
5,881,944.50
6,015,625.06
6,149,305.62
6,282,986.17
FLOW EQUIVALENTS
Cubic Feet
Cubic Feet
U. S. Gallons
U. S. Gallons
per Minute
per Second
per Minute
per Second
92.88
1.5481
694.44
11.57
185.77
3.09
1,388.88
23.14
278.66
4.64
2,083.33
34.72
371.55
6.19
2,777.77
46.29
464.44
7.74
3.472.22
57.87
557.33
9.28
4.166.66
69.44
650.22
10.83
4.861.11
81.01
743.11
12.38
5,555.55
92.59
836.00
13.93
6.249.99
104.16
928.89
15.48
6,944.44
115.74
1.021.78
17.02
7,638.88
127.31
1,114.67
18.57
8,333.33
138.88
1,207.56
20.12
9,027.77
150.46
1,300.44
21.67
9.722.22
162.03
1.393.33
23.22
10.416.66
173.61
1.486.22
24.77
11.111.11
185.18
1.579.11
26.31
11.805.55
196.75
1,672.00
27.86
12.499.99
208.33
1,764.89
29.41
13.194.44
219.90
1,857.78
30.96
13,888.88
231.48
1,950.67
32.51
14,583.33
243.05
2,043.56
34.05
15.277.77
254.62
2.136.45
35.60
15,972.22
266.20
2.229.34
37.15
16,666.66
277.77
2,322.23
38.70
17,361.11
289.35
2,415.12
40.25
18,055.55
300.92
2,508.01
41.80
18,749.99
312.49
2,600.89
43.34
19,444.44
324.07
2,693.78
44.89
20,138.88
335.64
2,786.66
46.44
20,833.33
347.22
2,879.56
47.99
21,527.77
358.79
2,972.45
49.54
22,222.22
370.37
3,065.34
51.08
22,916.66
381.94
3,158.23
52.63
23,611.11
393.51
3.251.12
54.18
24,305.55
405.09
3,344.01
55.73
24,999.99
416.66
3,436.90
57.28
25,694.44
428.24
3,429.79
58.82
26,388.88
439.81
3,622.68
60.37
27,083.33
451.38
3,715.57
61.92
27,777.77
462.96
3,808.46
63.47
28,472.22
474.53
3,901.49
65.02
29,166.66
486.11
3,994.23
66.57
29,861.11
497.68
4,087.12
68.11
30,555.55
509.25
4,180.01
69.66
31,249.99
520.83
4,272.90
71.21
31,944.44
532.40
4,365.79
72.76
32,638.88
543.98
■ Steel aad Wire Caaipanr
Table No. 3— Continaed
FLOW EQUIVALESTS
Maiioa
CdU; P«t
Cubic P«l
Cubic Pki
U. S. GmOtm,
n.S.GaII<«.
G^km.
Equivalent
perMinuu
perSecDod
48
6,416,666.73
4,458.68
74,31
33,333.33
555.55
46
8,550.347.29
4.551.57
75.85
34.027.77
567.12
50
6.684.027.84
4,644.46
77.40
34.722.22
S78.70
51
6.817.708.40
4.737.35
78.95
35,416.66
50a27
52
6.951,388,96
4,830.24
80.50
36,111.11
601.85
53
7,085,069.52
4.923.13
82.05
36,805.55
613.42
54
7.218.750.07
5.016.02
83.60
37,499.99
624.99
55
7,352,430,63
5,108,91
85,14
38,194.44
636.57
56
7,486,111,19
5,201,79
86,69
38.888.88
648.14
57
7,619.791.74
.1,294.68
88.24
39,583.33
659.72
58
7,753,472.30
5,387.57
89.79
40,277.77
671.29
59
7,887,1.52,86
5,480,46
91,34
40.972.22
682.87
60
8,020,833.41
5,573.35
92.88
41,666.66
694.44
61
8,l.H,513.97
5,666.24
94.43
42,361.11
706.01
62
8,288. 194..53
5,7.59,13
95,98
43,055.65
717.59
63
8,423,875.09
5,852,02
97.53
43,749.99
729.16
64
8,555,555.61
.5,944.91
99.08
44,444.44
740.74
65
8,689,230.20
6,037.80
100,63
45,138.88
752.31
66
8,822,916.76
6,130,69
102,17
45.833.33
763.88
67
8,956,597.31
6,223.58
103.72
46,627.77
775.46
68
9,090,277.87
6,316.47
105.27
47,222.22
787.03
69
9,223,958,43
6,409.36
106.82
47.916.66
798.61
70
9,367,638,98
6,502,24
108,37
48,611.11
810.18
71
9.491.319.54
6,595.13
109,91
49.305.55
821.75
72
9,625.000,10
6,688.02
111.46
49,999.99
833.33
73
9 758 680 66
6,780,91
113,01
50,694.44
844.90
74
9 892 361 21
6,873,80
114,56
51.388.88
856.48
75
1002604177
6,966.69
116.11
52.083.33
868.05
76
10 159 -22 33
7,059,68
117,65
52.777.77
879.62
77
Ullti Hi >sS
7,152.47
119,20
53,472,22
891.20
78
10 42" 08J 44
7,245.36
120.75
54,166.66
902.77
79
10 560 784 00
7,338.25
122,30
54.861.11
914.35
80
10694 444 55
7,431,14
123,85
55..5.6.5.55
925.92
81
10828 12111
7,524.03
125.40
56,249.99
937.49
82
10961 80 ("
7,610,92
126.94
56.944.44
949.07
83
11095 486 23
7,709,80
128,49
57.6:i8.88
960.64
84
11 229 166 78
7,802.69
130.04
58.333.33
972.22
sa
11362 847 34
7,895.58
131.59
59,027.77
983.79
m
a 496 527 90
7,988.47
133.14
.59,722.22
995.37
H7
in)30 208 45
8.081.36
134.68
60,416.66
1,006.94
88
1 1 HH'l ((]
8.174.26
1.36.23
61,111,11
1.018.51
89
IIS rf t
8.267.14
137.78
61,80,5.55
1.030.09
<M
10 1 K} 1
8,360.03
139.33
62,499.99
1,041.66
91
1 1 \ HOf^,
8.452,92
140.88
63,194,44
1,053.24
92
1 .SI.112t
8.645.81
142.43
63,888.88
1,064.81
12 432 29180
8,636.70
143.97
64,.583.33
1.078.38
94
12 M 1 2 ij
K. 731.59
145.52
65.277.77
1.087.96
95
1 1
8.824.48
147.07
66.972.22
1,099.53
96
8.917,37
148.62
(16,666.66
1,111.11
97
9,010.2.5
160.17
67,361,11
1.122.68
98
9,103.14
161.71
68,a55..55
1,134.25
99
13,234,37,',,14
9,196,03
153,26
68,7.50.00
1,146.83
100
13,368,055.69
9,288,92
154.81
69,444.44
1,1^.40
i
Water Porification
43
Table No. 2 is based on a co-
efficient of discharge of unity. Any
given discharge will therefore have
to be miiltiplied by .62 to obtain the
real discharge through a standard
orifice having an area of one square
inch. In order to ascertain the dis-
charge for any standard orifice of a
different area, the area in square
inches must first be found and
noted. This may be obtained from
the Table No. 1, or if not found
there it may be calculated. The
discharge for the given head, found
in Table No. 2, must first be mul-
tiplied by .62, and the result mul-
tiplied by the area of the desired
orifice in square inches. In this
way the discharge for any size
standard orifice under any head
may be readily ascertained either
for the minute or for the day, and
this information enables an oper-
ator to tell, with a fair degree of
accuracy, how long it will take to
empty a solution tank of known
capacity with any given size of
orifice working under any given
head.
Formalas
In order to arrive at a solution
of any phase of this matter we give
herewith three simple formulas
which will enable the operator to
work out any necessary solution.
Let A = the average number of gal-
lons, pumped in 24 hours,
and recorded as million
gallons or fraction there-
of.
Let G= the grains per gallon of
chemical required.
Let C = the charge of chemicals re-
required for 24 hours, in
pounds.
IvCt P = 143 (One grain per gallon,
g. p. g., equals 143
pounds per one million
gallons.)
Then,
(1) C = AGP.
(3)G = -^.
(2)A =
GP
Examples.
(1)
A plant pumps an average of
4,280,000 gallons per 24 hours and
it is desired to apply 1.54 g. p. g.
of chemical treatment to the raw
water, how large a charge of chemi-
cals will be required to run the
plant for twenty four hours?
Solution. In this case A =4.28,
G = 1.54 and P = 143, while the
formula which applies is seen to
be (1) or C = AGP. Hence we
have, by substitution, the following,
= 4.28 X 1.54 X 143 = C = 942.54
pounds. Therefore if 942.54
pounds of chemicals be applied to
4,280,000 gallons of water each
gallon will receive 1 .54 grains.
(2)
A plant uses 942.54 pounds of
chemicals per twenty-four hours
and applies 1.54 g. p. g. of chemical
treatment. It is desired to know
what the pumpage amounts to.
Solution. In this case C = 942.54,
G = 1.54 and P=143, while the
formula which applies is seen to be
(2) or A = C/GP. Hence, by sub-
stitution, we have the following,
A = 942.54^(1.54X143)=A=4.28
44
American Steel and Wire Contpany
million gallons or 4,280,000 gallons.
Therefore, if a plant uses a chemi-
cal charge of 942.54 poimds of
chemicals at the rate of 1.54 grains
per gallon, the quantity of water
pimiped is 4,280,000 gallons.
(3)
A plant purifies 4,280,000 gallons
of water per 24 hours and uses a
chemical charge of 942.54 pounds.
It is desired to know how many
grains per gallon of chemical treat-
ment has been applied.
Solution. In this case C = 942.54,
A = 4.28 and P = 143, while the
formula which applies is seen to
be G = C/AP. Hence, by substi-
tution, we have the following,
G = 942.54 -J- (4.28 X 143) = G =
1.54 g. p. g. Therefore, if a plant
purifies 4,280,000 gallons per day
and uses 942.54 pounds of chemi-
cals, the chemical treatment has
been at the rate of 1.54 grains per
gallon.
In order to determine what size
of standard orifice will be required
to empty a tank having a known
capacity in gallons, under a given
head and with a coefficient of dis-
charge of .62 in twenty-four hours,
refer to the Table No. 2, and under
the given head find the discharge in
gallons per twenty-four hours with
a one square inch orifice. Multiply
this by .62 and divide the capacity
of the tank in gallons by the result.
The quotient will be the area of the
required orifice in square inches.
Table No. 1 of areas will give the
nearest diameter of the required
orifice in inches.
Example
Example. What size of standard
circular orifice, having a coefficient
of discharge of .62, will be required
to empty a tank holding 1100 gal-
lons, under a constant head of one
foot over the orifice, in a time
period of twenty-four hours?
Solution. From Table No. 2, we
obtain 36,041 gallons as the dis-
charge for an orifice having an area
of 1 sq. in. for 24 hours, under a one-
foot head and a coefficient of dis-
charge of 1.00. With a coefficient
of .62 we have 36,041 X.62 = 22,345
gallons per diem and oooTc = -0492
or the area of the required orifice.
From the Table No. 1, we find a
J^-inch orifice has an area of .0491
square inch and delivers 1095.9
gallons per day under one foot
head. Therefore it would be the
orifice selected. The result calcu-
lated from Table No. 2 is shown as
checking the result given by Table
No. 1.
In order to calibrate an orifice of
given size, under constant head of
one foot, discharging from a reser-
voir or tank.
Let D = the drop in inches per
minute.
Let A = area of tank in inches.
Let G = gallons per twenty-four
hours.
231 =cu. in. in U. S. gallon and
1440 minutes in a day.
Then x^XDX 1440 = G.
Exantple
Example. A tank having^ area
of 6252.33 square inches has Si
j
Water Pnriticatlon
.
H
'.
rrriJIl^L
n
f -
.
] •] 1 t Tf+
1
1 -•
.
f
'
IUlIi a
•
^rr^U ^-
i"Trili
-
iJ
^
Ameriem Stcgl and Wire Cowpi
Water Purilioatioii
45
of .11 inch per minute with a dis-
charge occurring through an orifice,
having a diameter of y^ inch, with a
constant head of one foot over the
orifice, what is the coefficient of dis-
charge for the orifice?
The orifice has an area of .1963
square inch, and
6252.33
231
X.llX 1440 = 4287.3
or gallons per twenty-four hours
discharged through orifice. Up to
this point the procedure is merely
that of calculating the discharge in
gallons from a tank of known area
with a known drop of level per
minute. From Table No. 2 we find
the discharge through an orifice
having an area of one square inch
to be 36,041 gallons per diem under
a one-foot head and coefficient of
1.00, and under the sam^e conditions
an orifice having an area of .1963
would discharge 36,041 X. 1963 =
7074.84 gallons per diem. In order
to obtain the coefficient of discharge
we divide the amount actually
discharged through the orifice by
theoretical discharge under a coeffi-
cient of 1.00 or 4287.3-5-7074.84 =
.6059 or coefficient of discharge.
Hook Gaa^e
The method of obtaining the
drop in level in the tank is to use a
point gauge. This consists of two
or more points accurately placed a
known distance apart. All points
are immersed, and when the first
point touches the surface the time
is taken very accurately. When
he next point shows the time is
again taken and the drop in inches
per minute can be calculated.
In the preceding pages we have
dealt rather fully with liquid flows
and given the subject more space
than it apparently demands. The
reason for this is to be foimd in
the number of questions which are
asked by operators as to how they
may figure these problems and be
sure they are correct in the results.
The number of inquiries and the
variety of their forms in relation
to this subject justifies us in be-
lieving this information to be of
sufficient importance to warrant
the space.
Working Conditions
Now, let us consider a case where
the foregoing calculations have been
worked out and take working con-
ditions as they really occur in prac-
tice. A plant filtering 4,280,000
gallons per diem has a high rate of
pimipage during the hours from
8.00 A.M. to 10.00 A.M. and from
6.00 P.M. to 8.00 P.M., amounting
to an average peak load during
these hours of what would corre-
spond to a rate of 6,017,000 gal-
lons per twenty-four hours, and a
minimum rate during the hours
from 12.30 A.M. to 4.30 A.M. of
only 1 ,020,000 gallons. This corre-
sponds to 4,180 gallons per minute
for maximum rate, 2,970 gallons
for average rate, and 847 gallons for
a minimum rate.
Krrors
During the four hours of the two
peak load periods the head tat\k
46
Steel and Wire Company
continues to apply enough chem-
icals to treat 2,970 gallons per
minute with 1.54 grains per gallon,
but as the plant is handling 4,180
gallons during the four hours
referred to, the rate per gallon
of chemical treatment applied
really falls to 1.09 grains per
gallon.
Similarly, the same amount of
chemicals applied during the hours
of minimum pumpage means that
each gallon, instead of receiving
1.54 grains, is really being treated
at the rate of 5.40 grains per gallon
for four hours.
Waatefnlness
Thus the calculations to apply
1.54 grains per gallon fail. Unless
the operator can know at what rate
the plant is working, and unless he
be conscientious enough to change
the rate of chemical application
with each change of flow into the
plant, this must continue to occur.
It is very obvious that if 1.09
grains per gallon produces the de-
sired results, it is a very great
waste to apply 1.54 grains or
still worse, to apply 5.40 grains per
gallon.
Most of the smaller plants, like
the one referred to, have no device
to show the operator the rate at
which water is entering, and hence
he cannot change the rate of chem-
ical application with any degree of
assurance. Even if he could dp so,
it is doubtful if manv of them
would, and it is a certainty that
most of them would not.
Flo-w Recordera
However, every plant should be
provided with a rate recorder which
will record, indicate and integrate
the flow into the plant during every
minute of the day and night, and
each chemical tank should be
equipped with a similar device to
show that the rate of chemical
application has been changed to
meet the changing conditions of
raw water flow into the plant. If
the equipment is provided, the
operator can be checked and made
to pay closer attention to this very
important matter. The difficulty
may be, and should be, overcome by
devices which will not only record
the variations of raw water and
chemical flows, but in addition they
should be such as to automatically
vary the application of chemicals in
strict accord with the variations of
raw water flow.
Chemical ControUera
Two types of these devices may
be had. One is a type that main-
tains a constant head over an orifice
but varies the size of the chemical
orifice automatically and propor-
tionally as the rate of flow of raw
water into the plant increases or de-
creases. The other has a fixed ori-
fice, but varies the head over the
orifice automatically and propor-
tionally, and therefore varies the
rate of applying the chemicals func-
tionally and proportionall y to ch ang-
ing rates of flow of the raw^^
These devices are a great advance
over the older ones using a fixed
i
Water Poriiicalion
Water Purification
47
rate of chemical flow, and should be
much more generally used.
The control of the chemical treat-
ment is one of the most difficult
problems encountered and these
two very satisfactory solutions will
probably come into general use as
soon as their value is appreciated
more thoroughly by the designing
engineers.
Chemioala— Where Applied
The next step is the introduction
of the sulphate of iron into the
water. The first question arising is,
Where shall it be applied? Shall it
go into the water at the same time
as the lime, or should it precede or
follow the application of the lime?
The real answer lies in the fact
that different waters and plants re-
quire different methods of treat-
ment. In some plants it is the part
of wisdom to apply the iron before
the lime, in others after the lime.
Ill waters containing much organic
matter or color, it is advantageous
to apply the lime first. Where there
is little color or organic matter, the
iron should be introduced before the
lime. Under some conditions this
general rule may be rendered im-
practical, due to the design of the
plant. In places where the iron is
to be introduced before the lime, it
is advisable to do so at as early a
stage as possible, and to follow with
the lime some distance apart.
Incrustation
Lime should never be added to
water passing through a pump or a
closed conduit. If an open conduit
is available, it will do no harm to
add the lime to the water therein, if
it does not pass through a pump or
closed conduit later on and preced-
ing filtration. The reason for this
is that a mixture of water and
caustic lime cannot be passed
through a closed conduit without
causing incrustation. This incrusta-
tion may become so thick as to
materially reduce the open cross
section of the pipe and increase the
friction beyond practical limits.
Caustic ULme
Caustic lime reaches the market
in two conditions. Quick lime or
limip lime comes in various sized
lumps from a kiln in which it is
burnt, and when cold usually dif-
fers but little if any in appearance
from the rock from which it was
burnt. If the stone was coarse or
fine grained, the lime will be coarse
or fine grained. Fat limes, in the
parlance of the lime burner, are
limes rich in lime and poor in mag-
nesia, while a lean lime is higher in
magnesia and lower in lime. A fat
lime should contain 98 per cent, of
calcium oxide with 2 per cent, of
other impurities, and this is the
grade desired for water works.
Limes containing more than 3 or
4 per cent, of magnesium oxide
should be avoided if possible. Some
cities pay a bonus for absence of
magnesia, and penalize for more
than a given per cent, of this ob-
jectionable material. No core or
unburned lime should be present.
48
American Steel and Wire (^aipanj
SlakinU
When qxiick lime is treated with
water, heat is given off and the lime
is reduced to paste or mud of lime.
If core is present, lumps of it will
be found unslaked. Not more than
four pounds of water should be
added to one of lime to slake it.
If convenient, hot water gives bet-
ter and quicker results than very
cold water. In fact, very cold
water should be used very carefully
in slaking lime. If too much be
used at one time, the lime will not
slake properly. On the contrary,
care must also be used in slaking
lime with warm water, lest the lime
get too hot and bum. When it gets
too hot, more water should be
added and the lime stirred with a
mortarman's hoc. In case mechan-
ical stirring devices are provided,
the lime can be stirred mechanically
and this is much better than using
manual labor. Any soft, mushy
lumps must be broken up to allow
the water to get to the center of
them. When the lime has ceased
to bubble and absorb water, it has
passed the danger stage and may be
left till required. It will continue
to undergo more perfect slaking if
left to lie as a thick mud for a num-
ber of hours.
Hydrated Lime
When it has been slaked it has
then become a hydrated lime, and
is in much the same condition that
a dry hydrated lime would be if
mixed into a thick mud with warm
water. There is this exception: a
quick lime slaked as above does not
wholly lose its grantdar character.
Some of the grains still retain the
same grantdar state as the original
stone or the grain of the quick lime.
If these particles could be well
ground up in water, more satisfac-
tory use could be made of the lime
and a more efficient one as well.
These grantdar particles do not
readily go into solution and more
or less of the lime is lost when it is
put into the water. This renders an
equal weight of lime, slaked as
above, less efficient than the same
weight slaked and sold as hydrated
lime. If both the qtdck lime and
hydrated lime be chemically piu^,
56 pounds of the former will be
equal in strength to 74 pounds of
the latter. In other words, 74
pounds of hydrated lime contain 56
pounds of quick lime and 18 pounds
of water. Hydrated lime of com-
merce commands a larger price by
the pound than does the quick lime.
It is, however, much less suscep-
tible to deterioration and is easier
to handle in storage. Quick lime
rapidly undergoes air slaking in
moist weather, and is difficult to
keep for even a reasonable period of
time without being subject to large
deterioration. It is almost as ex-
pensive under all the conditions
obtaining as the hydrated lime.
SolnbiUty
In using lime we are handicapped
somewhat by the low degree of solu-
bility. Most chemicals are more
soluble in hot than in cold water,
but lime forms an exception to this
rule.
Water Pnrllioatfon
49
In water of ordinary temperattire
we can dissolve only about sixty
grains of lime in one gallon of water.
The ratio of solution thus becomes
60 to 58,411 or 1 to 9735. For
this reason we are compelled to
resort to devices capable of manu-
facturing large volumes of lime
water or else use this material in
suspension in lime water and this
latter procedure is the one most
generally followed in handling this
material.
This involves difficulties in main-
taining the lime in suspension. In
order to obtain the knowledge of
how much lime to use to a tank,
we resort to the method described
on pages 42-43, but instead of
preparing a charge to last twenty-
four hours, it is the usual practice
to arrange the charge so as to last
only about eight hours, unless the
lime tanks be larger than are
ordinarily provided.
The charge, after being weighed
out, is added to the lime tank and
water run in until the tank is full.
By this time practically all of the
mud has dropped out of suspension,
and only the clear supernatant lime
water shows above.
This, as previously stated, con-
tains only about sixty grains per
gallon of calcium oxide in the form
of calcium ^ hydrate in solution.
Sixty grains of calcium oxide are
equal to 79.28 grains of calcium
hydrate.
Siiflpension
The heavy lime mud in the bot-
tom of the tank must be made to
remain in a state of homogeneous
suspension if we are to use it as
desired, and for this reason some
form of mechanical agitation must
be employed from the time the tank
goes into use until it is exhausted.
Each lime tank must be equipped
with this form of mechanical
agitation.
Metals Affected
Lime will quickly attack lead
and dissolve it. Brass offers a
better resistance, but is rather
qtdckly destroyed, so it is not ad-
visable to use any lead or brass in
considering devices where they will
come in contact with the lime
solution. Wood offers an excellent
resistance, and cast iron a still
better one to the action of this re-
agent, and therefore these two ma-
terials afford us the best possibil-
ities for construction of the stirring
devices. Some engineers have used
wooden propeller blades covering
nearly the entire area of the tank
bottom in their sweep and placed
within two or three inches of the
bottom. These are driven by
power at a very slow speed, not
over ten revolutions per minute.
This type of design is not the best.
To date, the dc\dce shown in the
plan and elevation, page 18, has
proven the most satisfactory. It is
driven at high speed by any desir-
able type of motor at not less chan
450 nor more than 750 revolutions
per minute.
It is important that the motor
speed shall be kept within these
speeds. A speed slower than 4^<\
Amerioan St««l and Wire Compi
HEAD - lAI
Fardo iMhontory
Water PnTifieaticin
61
R. P. M . will not produce satis-
factory results.
Circnlatioii
The circulation of liquid is shown
bv the arrows. The flow up the
sides and down the center is so
swift as to maintain a perfectly
homogeneous suspension from the
time we begin to draw from the
tank until the level reaches the top
of the cylinder casing around the
propeller blade, when the tank is
put out of service and another one
put in.
The pipe line connecting the lime
tank to the head box should be
plain black iron or steel pipe. It
should be of ample size to accom-
modate the largest flow ever re-
quired and it must not be trapped.
It should have a good drop through-
out its entire length so no mud of
lime will collect at any point in its
length.
Lime Head Tank
The head box should differ from
those in general use and should
offer no chance for the heavy mate-
rials to find a resting place therein.
The sketch, page 50, shows a
fairly good arrangement for a fixed
rate flow.
The discharge lines R and S from
the two lime tanks are equipped
with valves P, Q, which are placed
as close to the lime tanks as pos-
sible. These lines unite at O and
form A, on which a throttling valve
B is placed. A float C maintains a
constant level shown as a dotted
line above K, the chemical orifice.
If level falls, B is partially opened;
if it rises, B is partially closed,
thus maintaining a practically con-
stant level. No lime mud can lie
in the bottom of F, as the flowing
liquid carries it to G and thence to
K and into the funnel L. The line
M carries it on to the point of appli-
cation. Some overflow from P
occurs into E, but this is out of the
main flow which follows the general
directions of the arrows and there-
fore this flow from F carries little
suspended matter, being almost
clear lime water. That which is
carried over, however, falls mostly
to the bottom of E or D, thus keep-
ing a clear lime water in D in which
the float C can rest without being
interfered with by lime mud col-
lecting under it. Any mud which
does collect in D, E or F can be
turned off into the manifold T and
discharged into M, which should
have a good and practically uniform
drop from the funnel to the point
where the lime enters the water.
An arrangement of this kind
allows the application of a milk of
lime with no practical difficulties
and with sufficient accuracy to
meet the practical requirements for
a fixed rate device.
Mixing Chamber
After both chemicals have been
applied to the water and particu-
larly at and after the point where
the lime has been introduced, the
water should not be allowed to rest
or assume a slow flow until all of
the available lime has gone into
solution. In other words, the water
American Steel and Wire CoiDi>an)r
Water PurificaticoDi
53
should be compelled to maintain a
velocity of flow sufficient to carry
the lime with it until the former
has gone into solution. From this
point on the velocity of flow may be
decreased slightly, but it should still
have sufficient velocity to form and
carry the coagulum. Up to very
recent times this essential of me-
chanical filtration has not been
sufficiently emphasized by design-
ing engineers. The necessity for a
mixing chamber to perform this
very important part of the work is
now generally recognized by the
foremost exponents of the art, and
most of the plants recently devised
show this advance. Some of the
older plants are installing mixing
chambers and are thus demon-
strating their value.
Type.
There are two types of mixing
chambers in use. The plant at New
Orleans is equipped with one type,
Columbus has a modification of the
other, but Fargo forms a far better
illustration of the second type of
mixing chamber.
In the New Orleans type the
water makes a long horizontal flow
at rather high velocity, then de-
scends and travels back under the
first apartment, crosses over and
goes back at the same level, then
rises and returns at the higher level.
A series of these apartments compels
the water to travel through the
maze for about one hour before it is
permitted to enter the settling
reservoir.
The objections to this type may
be summarized as follows : It costs
more to build, it costs more to
house in and keep from freezing,
it requires more land and is less
flexible and more difficult to alter
to meet changing conditions of
purification demands. The veloci-
ties of flow through the upper
passages vary rather more than is
desirable over those in the lower
passages. There is a tendency to
form larger deposits ot sludge in
the lower passages than is desirable
and on accelerated velocities these
deposits are lifted and carried
on less completely than in the up
and down type.
At Fargo the water flows down
and then up, over and under
baffles of wooden construction,
the long flow being vertical in-
stead of horizontal as at New
Orleans. The Fargo type takes
less ground, enables the chamber
to be housed, and in general is the
preferable construction, particu-
larly for cold climates. Both types
consume some head and this must
be allowed for in design. The
velocity of flow required to form
the coagulation should be not less
than .5 foot per second. The maxi-
mum velocity should not exceed
3 or 8}^ feet per second or too much
head will be absorbed.
Capacity
The size of a mixing chamber
should be such as to insure at least
one hour's travel through it at
rated capacity of the plant. The
coagulum caused by some chem-
American S4e«l and Wire Company
Wafer Pari fica lion
56
American Steel and Wire Ctranpany
icals is rather slow in forming, re-
quiring twenty minutes in very
cold water, and this should be borne
in mind. Such slow reactions are
materially hastened and helped by
the action of the mixing chamber,
but provision should be made to
give ample time for these slow-
acting chemicals to form their co-
agulation, even in the coldest
water.
Forminit Coagulation
Forming a coagulation means to
cause it to gather in large feathery
flocks. Coagulation first forms in
very fine, perhaps submicroscopic
flocks; at least, the eye cannot see
the individual flock. Later, these
flocks become large enough to be
seen as separate and distinct by a
very keen eye, but still remain quite
small and not sharply differentiated
from the water in which they float.
The action of the mixing chamber
causes them to grow in size by
gathering several or many smaller
into one larger flock, and they may
continue to accrete until they are
very large comparatively, and in
this condition the water, between
the flocks, appears clear and bril-
liant, even sparkling, and the flock
is sharply differentiated from the
water in which it is suspended.
One simple method of testing for a
proper coagulation is to take a
glass of water to a bright light and
hold the fingers well separated on
the side of the glass away from the
eye. If the coagulation is in a per-
fect state, the outline of the fingers
and even the markings thereon may
be clearly and sharply seen, and the
water appears to sparkle between
the flocks. Where the outline is
blurred or the markings indistinct,
or the water does not appear bril-
liant and clear, the coagulation is
not so good.
When the coagulation reaches
this stage of formation, it is in the
very best possible condition. In a
properly designed mixing chamber
this will occur before the water
reaches the end of the chamber. In
this state the coagulation is ready
to fall out of suspension the mo-
ment opportunity is afforded or the
flow becomes slow enough to permit
The water should leave the mix-
ing chamber through an opening
of such size as to not materially
increase the speed or velocity
above that obtaining when passing
through the chamber. On entering
the settling basins, the velocity is
quickly decreased, owing to the in-
creased cross section of flow, and
the coagulated matter rapidly set-
tles out. Because of this, the eflB-
ciency of a settling basin is largely
augmented by the action of the
mixing chamber and more efficient
results from sedimentation can be
secured. Just how much better
these results are than where no
mixing chamber is employed, it is
difficult to estimate, but it is certain
that a smaller settling basin with
mixing chamber will give better
results than a larger oiie without
the mixing chamber.
Water must not enter settling
basins at or near bottom, but at
or near the top of the same.
American Steel and Wire Companr
Vlaw AcHM* Svllliud Bk
Baltimore. Md.
Vlaw Acnaa Scttlind Ba
Water Parilication
59
In addition with a mixing cham-
ber, it is possible to use a much
smaller amount of chemical treat-
ment and get practically as good
results from sedimentation and fil-
tration as though a larger quantity
were to be employed without such
a chamber. The plant at Fargo,
North Dakota, has shown some re-
sults which have never previously
been obtained, and these are appar-
ently traceable to the splendid
action of the mixing chamber.
After leaving the mixing cham-
ber, the water passes to the set-
tling basins.
The Settling Basin*
A great deaj of the success of
any plant will depend on the set-
tling basins, their arrangement and
efficiency of operation. Many
plants have failed more or less
materially to fulfill their function
because of errors or lack of atten-
tion to this very important part
of the plant.
The function of the settling
basins is to cause the larger portion
of the suspended matter to fall
out of and be removed from the
water in which it is suspended.
The more completely this is ac-
complished the greater the effi-
ciency of the settling basins. WHiile
this holds true it is possible to re-
move too much of the suspended
matter unless the filters differ from
those in general use or unless
secondary chemical treatment can
be given the water going on the
filters.
Suspended Matter
The suspended matter consists
not only of that originally present
in the natural water but also that
artificially created by chemical
treatment as well as a major por-
tion of the bacterial content of
the natural water, which is caught
and enmeshed by the action of the
coagulant.
A mixing chamber which func-
tions properly will produce or
create a type of suspended matter
which is in the best possible con-
dition to be removed by the action
of the settling basins and if these
perform their function properly
the larger part of the suspended
matter w^ill be removed in passing
through the settling basins. Some
of these basins have shown effi-
ciencies as high as 95 per cent, in
removing suspended matter and
bacterial content and where such
efficiencies can be maintained the
filters are relieved of the larger
portion of the work which they
would otherwise have to perform
and they are only called upon to
put what some oi)crators call the
final "polish" on the water.
Wash Water
Where the filters are only called
upon to do this they can be made
to operate for longer periods of
time between washings than where
the efficiency of the settling basins
is lower. This means a consider-
able saving in wash water and ex-
pense of purification. It is much
cheaix^r to wash a ton of mud out
of a properly designed settling
60
American Steel and Wire Company
basin than it is to wash an equal
quantity out of a filter. Unfor-
tunately this is too often lost sight
of even if it be known. In most
of the medium sized plants the
cost of wash water seldom falls
below $0,375 per 1,000 cubic feet
and if one per cent, of wash water
can be saved, the saving per one
million gallons filtered on this
basis amounts to $0.50. Thus a
plant averaging ten million gal-
lons per day, saving one per cent,
of wash water, is really saving
$1 ,825.00 per annum or sufficient to
pay the interest on an investment
of $45,625.00 at four per cent,
interest.
Succeasful Settling Baaina
Nearly, if not all the basins
which have shown high efficiencies
have been of rather shallow design.
Deeper types have not usually
shown as satisfactory results. It
is apparently better to have the
water enter the settling basins at
or near the surface rather than at
a lower depth. Attempts have
been made to distribute the
water entering the basins over
the whole cross section of the
basin and thus to secure an equal
velocity of flow through the basins
at all depths in the cross section
of the basin, but these attempts
have not been very successful in
accomplishment, and even where
a partial success has been attained
the results do not seem to indicate
that this is desirable practice.
On the contrary, the introduc-
tion of the water into the basin over
a weir extending almost or entirely
across the end of the basin and lo-
cated at or near the surface has
apparently produced much better
results. The forward movement
of the water in a straight line
should not, apparently, persist for
too great a distance. If deflected
within three or four lengths of its
width the results seem to be -im-
proved. After the suspended mat-
ter has fallen below a certain hor-
izontal plane it is not good practice
to permit it to rise above this plane
at any further progress in its travel.
A skimming weir at the outlet of
the last settling basin should col-
lect the water into a skimming
chamber from which it should pass
to the filters.
Waterwaya
The waterways between the
settling basins and filters should
be large and free from sharp
bends in order to prevent breaking
up the remaining coagulation.. If
the waterways are small or the
water is suddenly caused to change
its direction of flow, the remaining
coagulation will be badly broken
up, and having no chance to re-
form, the filter is compelled to
handle a finer flock than is desir-
able, and lowering of efficiency in-
evitably results.
These are some of the things
which observation of a large num-
ber of settling basins of various
types and sizes seem to justify.
It must be admitted that there is
a great deal more involved in the
proper design of a settling basia
.ti
Water Purifical
_J^^.
<>2
American Steel and Wire Company
than is yet known. A more careful
study of the problem might lead to
considerable improvement of this
feature of the plant. A judicious
amount of experimental work along
this line might give remarkable re-
turns and enable a much better
and more intelligent design to be
eventfully arrived at. The prac-
tice of designing any shape or size
of settling basin as seems best
adapted to the site should be dis-
couraged and more thought given
to this feature.
Observation
Operators should carefully ob-
serve the action of the settling
basins. Much can be learned in
this way which will enable the op-
erator to secure better results
under some conditions than if he
does not know what any given set
of conditions is liable to produce in
results. Too little attention is
usually paid to the sludge zone and
its effects upon the action of the
settling basins. A careful study
of the sludge may be very useful
to the operator. If the sludge is
allowed to accumulate for too long
a period of time it may affect the
results of imrification very ma-
terially. If removed too frequently
a loss of treated water and wash
water occurs and a larger ex])ense
than necessary incurred.
Testinfi
A rod, which is long enough to
reach the bottom of the settling
basins conveniently, can be made
into a sludge zone tester. To do
this a number of wide or salt mouth
bottles of about four ounces capac-
ity should be affixed to the rod
with their mouths looking upward.
These should be spaced at equal
intervals apart, say six or eight
inches apart. A rod of this kind,
if carefully and slowly lowered into
the settling basin until the bottom
is reached and then carefully and
slowly withdrawn will show the
depth of sludge and the approxi-
mate density of the same at various
depths.
A study of the sludge zone, care-
fully conducted, and checked
against bacterial tests of the effi-
ciencies of the basins, will, in time,
give the operator a line on the
action of the basins which may be
quite useful. Every settling basin
will show certain peculiarities in
the formation of the sludge zone,
the quantity of sludge which can
be permitted to acctunulate with-
out detriment to the bacterial re-
sults or economical washing of the
filters and in various other wajrs
the information obtained by watch-
ing the settling basins may be
made useful in the operation of
the plant.
Filters
The filters form the most inter-
esting part of the plant. It is here
also that the greatest skill of the
engineer and contractor finds oppor-
tunity for display. Upon the abil-
ity of l)()th depends the success or
partial failure of the plant as a
whole. Unless the filters perform
their part, the plant must always
64
Amerioan Steel and Wire Company
be considered a partial or complete
failure. It makes little difference
how perfectly the rest of the plant
is designed or built or operated, if
the filters fail to perform their func-
tion the plant cannot be deemed
wholly successful.
Some engineers give considerable
attention, as far as their knowledge
permits, to this part of the design,
but it is here particularly that the
knowledge obtained from practical
operation should be manifest. Un-
fortunately, both design and con-
struction too often show a lack of
this. Some engineers pay abso-
lutely no attention to this phase of
the subject, seeming to think that
any size or shape of tank, however
equipped, can be made to perform
all the functions of a properly de-
signed filter. This, however, is
very far from the truth, and the
sooner it is realized the better it
will be. In no other part of the
design or construction is greater
skill or knowledge required.
While noticeable advancement in
the extent and efficiency of filter
equipment has been made in recent
years, it is equally noticeable that
little advancement has been made
in the filter itself. In fact, it is
doubtful if some of the modem
examples of the art compare in
some respects with those of earlier
construction. With all due con-
sideration for the engineering talent
employed, it is questionable if the
present-day design equals that of
the past when the design was care-
fully worked out in and from the
light of actual operating knowledge
by operating engineers. The results
obtained in the nineties with the
old standard type of Jewel filter,
equipped with mechanical agitators,
have never been duplicated in some
respects by the more modem and at
least equally costly designs.
Cleaning
More trouble is experienced to-
day with the filter beds and the
cleansing of the same than ever
occurred* with those of the older
design. While some advancement
is manifest in this direction, many
modern plants have much more
trouble in this respect than is gen-
erally known and much greater
difficulty than was ever experienced
with the older types with mechan-
ical agitators. The air wash em-
ployed in place of mechanical agita-
tion seems only to accentuate the
trouble at some plants under some
conditions, and while part of the
trouble at these plants may be
attributable to imperfect results
from chemical treatment, mixing
and sedimentation, it is inconceiv-
able that all the difficulty is caused
by these faults.
Experimental
Thus our modem filter still offers
some problems which have not yet
been completely solved, and the
real occasion for comment on this
condition is that so little attempt
is being made on the part of engi-
neers to solve them. While design
and construction have changed and
are changing, it is rather remark-
able that no practical experimental
Water Poiilication
<55
work is being carried on by anyone
at the present time to ascertain
how troubles arise or how they can
be corrected. The experimental
plant played a very important part
in the early days of the art, and
must again if we are to make
further progress in design and con-
struction. A few dollars spent
experimentally may save hundreds
or thousands in design, construc-
tion and operation, and in addition,
result in producing vastly better
and more satisfactory purification.
Breakinil Coagulation
One of the diffictdties already
referred to is that of conducting
the water from the settling basins^
to the filters without breaking up
the coagulation. Large waterways
without bends or sudden interrup-
tions in the direction of flow mate-
rially assist in this partictdar. If
the velocity of flow from the basins
to the filters remains low, there is
not so great an opportunity to
break up the remaining coagula-
tion. If the direction of flow is not
interfered with by causing the
water to violently change its direc-
tion, there will be a reduced tend-
ency to break up the coagulation.
If the coagulation or flock is broken
up, the filter will certainly have less
chance of successfully performing
its function.
Another source of trouble lies in
the difference between the relative
difference of sizes of sand beds,
rated capacities, and amount of
suspended matter in the water from
the settling basins as exemplified in
the modem plant and that of fifteen
years ago.
Other things being equal, the
conditions which produced efficient
restdts fifteen years ago should do
so now, but if one condition or one
set of conditions be changed, it
follows that further changes should
take place if the same results are
to be attained.
Chan|(in|( Conditions
In some of the old plants which
produced really wonderful results,
the amount of suspended matter in
the water from the settling basins
ran up to one thousand or even two
thousand parts per million. The
effective size of the sand was as
coarse as .37 m.m., the rate of
filtration as low as ninety million
gallons per acre of sand per day at
rated capacity, while the length of
run between washings was as short
as three or four hours. The bac-
terial results in some of these
plants averaged as high as 98 per
cent, or better and were secured
without the use of sterilizing re-
agents.
Under present conditions, the
amount of suspended matter and
the size of the flock has greatly
decreased. In some plants the
water leaving the settling basins
does not carry over six to eight
parts per million of suspended mat-
ter. This reduction in quantity
and also in size is due to the larger
size and more efficient action of the
settling basins.
The normal rate of filtration has
increased until it is now about 125
m
American Steel and Wire Company
million gallons per acre of sand per
diem. The length of run between
washings has increased until some
plants have had runs of over four
hundred hours between washings;
while the effective size of the sand
has not been changed sufficiently to
compensate for these other changes.
A decrease in the effective size of
the sand would have a tendency to
decrease the length of run, and
enable the filter to handle the
smaller size and volume of coagula-
tion and more nearly restore the
balance between present and past
conditions of work. To state the
thing differently, a finer sand bed
with the upper layer of sand of
from four to six inches having an
effective size of .20 m.m. or there-
abouts, would probably render the
results from some plants more
satisfactory.
Wash Troojllha
The water entering the filters
usually docs so by means of the
wash trough. These troughs are of
various shapes and sizes in differ-
ent i)lants. They are usually of
peculiar form, depending on the
engineer designing the i)lant. The
main function of those troughs is
to carry off the wash water. They
should be of ample size to do this
and still have some capacity to
spare. The top edges should be as
nearlv absolutely level and in the
same horizontal plane as is prac-
tical. They should be as shallow as
practical and the to]:) edges as close
to the sand as possible. They
should be spaced not more than six
feet apart on centers so that the
travel of the wash water will be
short and its removal promptly
effected. They should be provided
with sand catchers or deflectors so
the wash water, while carrying the
largest possible amount of sus-
pended matter, will not carry sand
away. When the filter is in service,
the sand should clear the bottom
of the troughs by at least one inch.
If the bottom of the trough is im-
mersed in the sand, that much of
the sand bed becomes ineffective
and of no value. When washing,
the bottom of the troughs should be
immersed in the lifted sand bed to
at least four inches. They should
be tight and free from cracks or
crevices throughout their length.
They shoiild discharge their wash
water freely and never flow quite
full under full wash load. Anv
trough meeting these requirements
will prove entirely satisfactory.
Sand Bed
The sand bed consists of from
two to three feet of sand and fitwn
twelve to six inches of gravel. The
gravel is usually graded from fine
to coarse and the sand should be.
In some of the filters employing
sand and gravel as a filter bed, con-
siderable difficiilty is experienced in
maintaining the gravel at the bot-
tom and the sand on top. The
strainer system for water is usually
placed below the coarsest gravel,
on top of which the finer gravel is
laid in graded layers, and on the
gravel the sand. In cases where air
is used in washing, the air manifold
i
M'aler Purifioalio
Aai
* « 4 • «
Tr.-; 'rir:.^j^s is to hold the gravel
biles ihfci- -arith the bottom layer
Tr.*; !i:': of this bronze ir.esh is
t'v ^r.^hor-.d. :: :^ liable to be
'::•/:-: ^r f-rn fror; its anchorage,
r.".': . it'ti'.ir.;- rathfrr co3t!v rer^airs.
V.':.-;r. :.ro:/.rlv Tylaced. this sc»!ves
or. tr.'j Vjttorr. of the* f.::tT bed.
Air Wa«h Troables
Wh'.rr; -.?.',• ;Tavd is not tied down
and :.ar*,icularlv v/here air is used
for v.'a:-:hiri;/, trouble has been ex-
j^'.-rioncod at :r.any points by a bed
t-.v';r.;ion in spots. When this
occur:-:, the ;'ravcl is partially or
v/hollv lift';d frr;m the bottom in
r-j^ots and the sand takes its place,
or the sand and gravel are mixed
and a "hard sjiOt" fonns which
do'- , ijol wash effeciivelv, and im-
j;':rf':ct filtration results. In some
plani. the op<;rators have to be
roil til jiiallv on the lookout for the
formation of these "hard spots,*'
and theirtjliiniiiationisbothtrouble-
'.oiiic and costlv.
A c-on:.i(lrral>le amount of ex-
peric:ijce ]r:(l us several years ago to
advi.e that these difficulties could
be overcome by making the gravel
lavr thicker and coarser, heavv
grave] being em];loyed for the bot-
tom layer. Experience has con-
In neil 1 hi:i. A gravel layer eighteen
ccn:p:>5ed of pieces two x
ci^me^er and traded to 1-16 xndi
at -he ::•' . 'k^ not be lifted or fhe
bel invened at any practical imte
of washing, if air is not used in
washing. The results axe qypar-
entlv as rood or better thaxi wlieie
:he rrave! is tied down with faroDze
screen and the wash is more even
and econonuca! even when air is
Ms&i. As far as results are obtain-
able, this t^.-r-e of construction ap-
r-ears :o be somewhat better than
th
…[truncated]