Pack Animals In Support of SPECOPs FM 31 27

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FM 31-27 



PACK ANIMALS IN SUPPORT OF 
SPECIAL OPERATIONS 



INITIAL DRAFT 



MARCH 1998 



This draft is for review purposes only and does not represent 
approved Department of the Army doctrine. 



DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. 



1 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

2 PAGE 

3 PREFACE iv 

4 CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW 

5 PURPOSE 1-1 

6 MISSION 1-1 

7 CAPABILITIES 1-1 

8 CHAPTER 2. ANIMAL MANAGEMENT 

9 SELECTION 2-1 

1 0 HEALTH AND WELFARE 2-3 

1 1 FEED AND WATER 2-4 

1 2 FEEDING IN GARRISON 2-8 

1 3 FEEDING IN THE FIELD 2-9 

1 4 CARE OF FORAGE 2-10 

15 CHAPTERS. ANIMAL CARE AND TRAINING 

16 GROOMING 3-1 

17 FARRIER SCIENCE 3-2 

18 TRAINING 3-6 

19 CHAPTER 4. ANIMAL HEALTH MANAGEMENT 

20 ANIMAL BEHAVIOR 4-1 

2 1 PHYSICAL EXAMINATION 4-2 

22 FIRST AID SUPPLIES 4-4 

23 FIRST AID TREATMENT 4-5 

24 PARASITIC INFESTATION 4-9 

25 DISEASES 4-9 

26 IMMUNIZATION SCHEDULE 4-11 

27 MEDICAL SUPPLY LIST 4-11 

28 EUTHANASIA 4-12 

29 PHARMACOLOGICAL LISTING 4-13 

30 CHAPTERS. PACKING EQUIPMENT 

3 1 PACK SADDLES 5-1 

32 HALTER AND PACKING EQUIPMENT 5-2 

3 3 CARE OF EQUIPMENT 5-3 

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FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 PAGE 

2 FITTING AND ADJUSTING THE SADDLE 5-4 

3 UNSADDLING THE ANIMAL 5-6 

4 SADDLING WITH A EITTED SADDLE 5-7 

5 CHAPTER 6. HORSEMANSHIP 

6 EQUIPMENT 6-1 

7 RIDING TECHNIQUES 6-4 

8 LEADING A PACK STRING 6-6 

9 COMBAT CONSIDERATIONS 6-7 

10 CHAPTER?. TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES 

1 1 TYING AND USING KNOTS 7-1 

1 2 WRAPPING CARGO WITH A MANTA 7-1 

1 3 BUILDING LOADS 7-2 

14 SADDLING 7-3 

1 5 SLINGS AND HITCHES 7-5 

1 6 THE PACK STRING 7-6 

17 CAMPSITES 7-8 

1 8 TRANSPORTING SICK AND WOUNDED PERSONNEL 7-10 

19 CHAPTERS. ORGANIZATION AND MOVEMENT 

20 ORGANIZATION 8-1 

2 1 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 8-1 

22 MOVEMENT PROCEDURES 8-2 

23 BIVOUAC 8-3 

24 CHAPTER 9. TACTICAE CONSIDERATIONS 

25 SECURITY 9-1 

26 COVER AND CONCEALMENT 9-1 

27 ACTIONS ON CONTACT 9-2 

28 GEOSSARY Glossary- 1 

29 REEERENCES References- 1 



iii 




1 



PREFACE 



FM 31-27 (ID) 



2 This manual provides guidance for training selected personnel in the techniques of animal pack transport and for 

3 organizing and operating pack animal units. It tries to capture some of the expertise and techniques that have been 

4 lost in the Army over the years. The sections on care, feeding, and veterinary medicine compose a considerable 

5 portion of the manual; however, this material is not intended as a substitute for veterinary expertise nor will it 

6 make a veterinarian out of the reader. Personnel still must have a rudimentary knowledge of anatomy and 

7 physiology, common injuries and diseases (particularly of the feet), and feeding and watering to properly care for 

8 the animals and avoid abusing them from overloading or overworking. 

9 Though many different types of animals can be used for pack transportation, this manual focuses on horses and 

10 mules. You cannot learn how to pack by reading about it; there is no substitute for having a horse or mule standing 

11 in front of you while you practice putting a pack saddle and load on him. However, the manual is useful for anyone 

12 going into an environment where he will have to learn these skills. 

13 FM 31-27 is a guide for personnel being employed in a training or combat situation using pack animals. It is not a 

14 substitute for training conducted by personnel having hands-on experience with pack animals in the field. As with 

15 all manuals, simply reading this material will not make you an expert in the subject matter. 

16 The proponent of this publication is the United States Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School 

17 (USAJFKSWCS), Fort Bragg, NC. Reviewers and users of this manual should submit comments and recommended 

18 changes on DA Form 2028 to Commander, USAJFKSWCS, ATTN; AOJK-DT-SFD, Fort Bragg, NC 28307-5000. 

19 Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men. 



IV 




FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 CHAPTER 1 

2 OVERVIEW 

3 The last pack transport unit in the United States Army was deactivated after the Korean War. Before then, pack 

4 animals were employed in every war fought by the United States (U.S.) Army. The Army used approximately 

5 350,000 horses and mules during World War I. Unconventional forces in Italy and in Burma used mules during 

6 World War II. Mules were also used in Korea. 

7 Since the deactivation of the pack transport units, the Army has relied on air and ground mobility for transporting 

8 equipment. Today and throughout the spectrum of conflict, the Army Special Operations Forces (ARSOF) may 

9 find themselves involved in operations in unsophisticated environments. In many of these environments, the 

10 indigenous population uses pack animal transportation. Therefore, it may not be possible or practical to use air or 

1 1 ground mobility to move supplies and equipment to the desired locations. 

12 The information in this manual is a collection of ideas and techniques from many different sources and individual 

13 experiences. Almost every animal packer has a technique that works for him. The techniques discussed in this 

14 manual about packing and operating with animals are general. As the reader gains experience, he may develop 

15 other techniques. Remember, however, to use the basic packing principles. Beyond that, the ingenuity of the packer 

16 is paramount. 

17 PURPOSE 

18 This manual is a guide for select personnel assigned to train personnel and select animals used during the conduct 

19 of transport operations using pack animals. It is not meant to be a substitute for trained personnel that have hands- 

20 on experience. 

21 The success of pack operations, under extreme weather and terrain conditions, will depend on the selection and 

22 training of personnel and animals. The proper and efficient use of available equipment, the sensible care of 

23 animals in the field, and the employment of acceptable movement techniques are essential to accomplish the 

24 mission. The limited time allowed for this type of training requires consistently high standards of planning, 

25 instruction, and supervision. 

26 MISSION 

27 The mission of animal pack transport systems is to extend or replace other transport means in the support of 

28 special operations (SO) missions (tactical or strategic). Animal transport systems can greatly increase mission 

29 success when hostile elements and conditions require the movement of combat troops and equipment by foot. The 

30 animal’s capabilities allow the unit to move quicker and with less personnel fatigue. 

31 CAPABILITIES 

32 Pack animals can transport limited quantities of cargo and weapons over any terrain and under virtually any 

33 condition passable by an individual on foot. The pack detachment can traverse steep grades and heavily wooded 

34 areas without trail preparation and can maintain acceptable speeds under the most extreme conditions. 

35 Over terrain that is not mountainous, carrying approximately 25 percent of their body weight, well-conditioned 

36 pack mules or horses may cover 20 or more miles per day. This capability continues indefinitely as long as the 

37 animals receive proper care and feed. In mountainous terrain, with no reduction in payload, the mule or horse can 

38 travel from 15 to 20 miles per day. 

39 

40 

41 

42 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 The legs should be short, straight, and powerful. Avoid animals with cowhocks (knock-knees) and animals that are 

2 toed-in (pigeon-toed) or toed-out. The knees should be straight, broad, and deep. The cannon bones should be 

3 short, strong, and broad. The fetlocks also should be broad and deep and rounded in appearance. The pasterns 

4 should be 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 short and strong and have a moderate slope. A long pastern has too great a slope and is weak, which causes the 

2 animal to cripple quickly. 

3 The feet are a critical factor in the animal’s ability to perform, stay physically sound, and endure the hardships of 

4 packing. Ideally, the horse should stand with its feet at a forty-five to fifty-degree angle to the ground. The size of 

5 the foot should be in proportion to the size of the animal. Small feet are often brittle and do not have the base to 

6 support a heavy load or absorb concussion. Large feet could cause the animal to be clumsy and awkward. Mules 

7 have a tendency to have smaller feet, but this fact does not present a problem. The sole should be slightly concave 

8 and the frog prominent, elastic, and tough. Again, when viewed from the front, an animal that is toed-out should 

9 be avoided. 

10 The girth should be deep from the withers to the floor of the body, and the body should be wide and flat. This size 

1 1 indicates ample space for vital organs, such as the heart and lungs. The barrel should be large. A large barrel 

12 shows a good spread of the ribs that, in turn, give a good load-bearing surface on top. 

13 The back should be short, strong, and well-muscled. A short back is better equipped to carry a load without 

14 sagging. Horses with one less vertebrae than others would be good selections. The back bone should be prominent. 

15 A pack animal with a rounded back and ill-defined backbone is difficult to pack so that the load rides properly. 

16 Chances are good the load will slip or roll and the unit will waste valuable time repacking the load during 

17 movement. 

18 The loin should be of moderate length, well-muscled, and broad. A long loin will cause weakness at that point. 

19 The croup should be low and of moderate width and slope. The hindquarters should be strong and well-developed 

20 to provide power to the animal. 

21 
22 

23 Figure 2-1. Animal conformation. 

24 Conformation Defects 

25 In the selection of a pack animal the above criteria are ideal, but many serviceable pack animals have defects in 

26 their conformation and still perform well. However, it is better in the long run to avoid animals with many defects. 

27 Try to ensure that the larger animals carry the heaviest loads, and the gentle, experienced animals carry the fragile, 

28 easily breakable items. The smaller animals or animals with certain conformation defects should be tasked with 

29 carrying the light and not so fragile loads. 

30 HEALTH AND WELFARE 

3 1 The health and welfare of the pack animal is the major concern of the pack animal handlers in garrison and in the 

32 field. Each individual is responsible for the welfare of the pack animals. Whole pack trains have been lost due to 

33 poor animal care. 

34 Stable Management 

35 In an unconventional warfare (UW) scenario the pack animal unit will probably not have the luxury of a 

36 permanent or semi-permanent stable facility. However, most of the routines at the stables are applied in the field. 

37 The unit commander has command responsibility for stable management and the training of his soldiers. However, 

38 subordinate leaders are directly responsible for stable management and the stable routine. 

39 Stable management includes the supervision and maintenance of the stables and the other facilities. The 

40 subordinate leaders will ensure the grounds and buildings in the stable area are kept as clean and sanitary as 

41 available time and labor will allow and that the grounds are reasonably level and well drained. They will also 

42 ensure the animals are well-groomed, properly shod, and free of injuries and diseases. Since a large number of 

43 animals may be involved in a pack animal unit, subordinate leaders should keep records at the stables on all the 

44 assigned animals. 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 Stable Building 

2 The design and construction of a stable facility may be limited to the materials at hand. Regardless of the materials 

3 used, the stable should provide adequate shelter, good ventilation, and few maintenance requirements. The stable 

4 building should provide ready access to the corrals and storage for feed and packing equipment. 

5 Stalls 

6 Stalls vary in size depending on the average size of the animals, amount of time the animals are expected to spend 

7 in the stall, and available space. A 12-foot by 12-foot stall allows freedom for a large horse or mule to maintain fair 

8 physical condition during long periods of idleness while confined to stables. Stalls of this size are normally used 

9 for recuperation, foaling of mares, and protection in extreme climates. A 10-foot by 10-foot stall is normally 

10 satisfactory when animals are in stables only for feeding and rest. To reduce waste in feeding hay and grain, the 

1 1 stalls should be equipped with hayracks and feedboxes. Stall walls must be free of sharp or rough projections and 

12 unfinished woodwork. A major concern when dealing with animal care is the construction and maintenance of stall 

13 floors. The floors should be level and have good drainage. It should also be resilient to help maintain a healthy 

14 condition of the animals’ feet and legs. The floor should also be nonabsorptive for cleanliness and sanitation. 

15 Earthen floors composed of clay are satisfactory but require continual work to clean, level, and smooth. Rough- 

16 finished concrete provides the best type of floor because it is sanitary, is easy to clean, and requires little 

17 maintenance. However, a concrete floor having little resilience must be covered with a bedding of straw or hay for 

18 cushion. Wooden floors, unless impregnated, are not desirable since they are slippery and unsanitary. Regardless of 

19 the floor chosen, a good bed contributes to the comfort and efficiency of the animals. A clean, comfortable bed will 

20 induce the animal to lie down and get better rest. It provides a soft surface that will prevent bruising or abrasion of 

21 elbows, hocks, and other body parts. It also provides insulation for the body and a comfortable surface for the 

22 animal to stand. 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 Storage 

2 Storage facilities are needed for the protection and security of feed and tack. The facilities should also be 

3 convenient to the stables and corral. Feed storage should provide protection from spoilage, rodents, and loose 

4 animals and should have feeding equipment. In addition, it should be arranged to minimize time and personnel 

5 necessary for feeding. A tack room should be planned for each stable and partitioned from the stall area. It should 

6 have facilities for inspection, cleaning, preserving, repair, and storage of all pack and riding saddles, bridles, 

7 halters, panniers, and accessories for the unit. 

8 Corrals 

9 The pack animal unit should provide corrals for the animals’ free movement and exercise when they are not in use 

10 or in the stalls. Make sure the corrals are close and easily accessible to the stables, well drained, and provide good 

1 1 footing. Fill and level, as much as possible, any depressions and heavily traveled areas where water can collect. Set 

12 fences at a sufficient height and strength to ensure the safekeeping of the animals. Make sure the fence is free of 

13 sharp or rough projections. Provide water troughs or tanks to give animals free access to water and make sure they 

14 are large enough to allow the watering of several animals without congestion. Position hayracks and feedboxes at 

15 distances where one dominant animal will not receive more feed than another. Establish hitching posts or a picket 

16 line to groom and/or pack the animals. Again, make sure the footing at the picket line or hitching posts receives 

17 the same special attention as the heavily traveled areas. A foundation of stone with a covering of finely crushed 

18 stone or gravel could be laid. In wet climates, this area is located above the level ground. If there is no natural 

19 shelter from the sun and adverse weather, provide one for the animals’ protection. 

20 Sanitation 

21 Sanitation at the stables and in the field is a continuous process for maintaining the health of both animals and 

22 personnel. Stables and corrals must be kept clean to reduce the breeding of flies, which is one of the most serious 

23 sanitation problems that lead to disease and infection. The most effective countermeasure for fly control is to 

24 remove manure and soiled bedding daily. You should always locate a compost pile away from the immediate 

25 vicinity of the stable area or operational base camp. You should brush out all feed boxes daily and scrub them 

26 monthly. Always drain and clean the water tanks each week. Only allow the animals belonging to the unit to drink 

27 from these tanks. 

28 Also be sure to water any animals suffering from communicable disease from buckets; then thoroughly clean and 

29 disinfect the buckets. 

30 FEED AND WATER 

3 1 The health, condition, and effectiveness of a pack animal directly relate to the type and amount of food being 

32 consumed. The pack animal handler determines the amount and types of food by the amount and type of work to be 

33 performed. The working animal needs a diet containing more concentrates than the idle animal to supply the fuel 

34 for energy and the proteins and minerals for the replacement of tissue and maintenance of condition. Personnel in 

35 the pack animal unit need to have a basic knowledge of feed grains and roughage, their characteristics, and 

36 geographical availability. This information is also critical for operational planning. 

37 Eeed Requirements 

38 The body requires food for growth, repair of body tissue, and energy for movement. It also needs food to maintain 

39 body temperature and energy for such vital body functions as circulation, respiration, and digestion. Protein from 

40 feeds such as linseed meal, oats, and bran provide for body growth and repair of tissue. Minerals from feeds such 

41 as grass, hay, bran, bone meal, and milk are needed for bones. Carbohydrates and fats from feed such as corn, 

42 wheat, rye, and oats produce heat and energy or are stored as fat and sugar as an energy food reserve. Bulk feeds 

43 such as hay, grass, bran, and oats are necessary for digestion. There is no single food that contains all the required 

44 nutrients; therefore, they are combined to obtain the desired nutritional value. Oats are the best grain feed for 

45 stabled animals. For animals on pasture, natural grasses come closest to providing all required nutrients. The food 

46 value of feed is measured in terms of the amount and proportions of digestible nutrients it supplies. 



2-5 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 A ration is the feed allowed one animal for twenty-four hours, usually fed in two portions, morning and evening. 

2 The components of a ration depend upon the class and condition of the animals, the work being done, the variety of 

3 available foods, the kind of shelter provided, the climate, and the season. Feed must be selected and combined, 

4 proportionately, to form a balanced ration that consists of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, and vitamins. 

5 Pack animals cannot thrive on concentrated foods alone. Bulk is absolutely essential if the digestive tract is to 

6 expand and digestion is to be unimpaired. Excessive amounts of proteins or fats and carbohydrates decrease 

7 digestibility of the whole ration. Quantities of feed in one ration vary depending on the amount of idle time the 

8 animals have, work being performed, and availability of the feed. Insufficient feed, particularly bulky feed, causes 

9 loss of conditioning and general weakness and predisposes an animal to disease. More food than the body needs is 

10 wasteful and harmful. It overtaxes the digestive system and may cause either diarrhea, due to irritation, or colic, 

1 1 due to constipation. 

12 Types of Rations 

13 There are three basic types of rations that can be used: the garrison ration, the field ration, and the emergency 

14 ration. All three can be altered in quantities and substance depending on conditioning and training taking place, 

15 type and health of the animals, season, and combat situation. Table 2-1 shows a recommended allowance for 

16 garrison and field rations. 

17 Garrison Ration. It is used at permanent or semipermanent operational bases where the pack animals are fairly 

18 idle. It contains a standard feed allowance of approximately 10 pounds of grain (8 for mules), 14 pounds of hay, 

19 and 5 pounds of bedding. Again, this ration can be increased slightly depending on the animal’s condition or the 

20 training taking place. 

21 Field Ration. The unit uses this ration while it is deployed so the pack animals can maintain condition and 

22 strength during heavy work. The field ration contains an allowance of about 12 pounds of grain (10 for mules), 14 

23 pounds of hay, and no bedding. Such quantities and combinations of feed could cause a logistic problem in a 

24 combat situation and may be altered. If the situation permits, consider pre-position or caching the feed. Another 

25 way to prevent having to carry all the feed is to consider aerial delivery. 









Garrison Rations 








Grain 


Hay 


Straw 


Horses 


Small 


71b 


141b 


5 lb 




Light 


101b 


141b 


5 lb 




Heavy 


12.5 lb 


15 lb 


5 lb 


Mules 




81b 


141b 


5 lb 








Field Rations 








Grain 


Hay 


Straw 


Horses 


Small 


91b 


141b 


None 




Light 


121b 


141b 


None 




Heavy 


141b 


161b 


None 


Mules 




101b 


141b 


None 



26 Table 2-1. Recommended ration allowances. 

27 Notes: 1. Bran may be substituted in amounts not to exceed three pounds for a like amount of grain. One-half 

28 pound of linseed meal may be substituted for one pound of grain. 

29 2. The substitution of barley, rice, copra meal or any other local product can be made for the grain ration. 

30 3. The substitution of native grasses, bamboo shoots, or banana stalks can be made for the hay ration. 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 4. Fifteen pounds of corn fodder or grain sorghum is considered the equivalent often pounds of hay. 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 Emergency Ration. The unit uses this temporary ration for a short time when the combat situation or environment 

2 prohibits the use of a field ration. An emergency ration is a modification of a field ration for reasons such as 

3 logistic problems or the lack of forage in the operational area. Remember that this ration can vary greatly 

4 depending on the situation. Small horses are classed as those usually found in overseas areas. Light horses are 

5 those weighing less than 1,150 pounds. Heavy horses are those weighing more than 1,150 pounds. 

6 Feed Components 

7 Types of grains and hay or combinations of available grains and hay will depend on the geographic location of the 

8 unit. It is important, however, to come as close as possible to meeting all the nutritional requirements of the pack 

9 animals. Some of the grains, hay, and other items that may constitute a ration are described below. 

10 Oats are the safest and most commonly used of all grains for the pack animal. Usually all other grains are 

1 1 combined with oats or regarded as substitutes. Oats may be safely fed in quantities up to 10 pounds per day but no 

12 more than 6 pounds when the animals are idle. Oats may be fed whole or crushed; however, crushing ensures more 

13 thorough chewing and digestion. Oats can be steamed or boiled for ill animals but new oats should not be fed until 

14 a month after thrashing. 

15 Corn is best combined with oats and hay for feeding during the colder months since it has a tendency to produce 

16 heat and fat. Corn is best fed on the cob, but the animals can be fed shelled corn if it is mixed with oats or bran. 

17 When feeding ear corn, 6 to 12 ears are recommended depending on the amount of work being performed and the 

18 individual animal. If substituting corn for oats, make the change gradually. Take care because corn is considered a 

19 “hot” feed. That means it contains greater than 16 percent protein. If the change is made too quickly or the animal 

20 is fed too much, it could lead to colic or founder (lameness). Substitute about two pounds of corn for an equal 

21 quantity of oats weekly. 

22 Barley is used extensively in Asia, Southeast Asia, and parts of Europe. It is considered a good grain and may be 

23 safely substituted for oats and fed in the same quantities. The change from oats to barley should be made gradually 

24 over an extended period, substituting two pounds of barley for an equal amount of oats weekly. Barley is very hard 

25 and should be crushed or soaked in water for two to three hours before feeding, but it may be fed whole. Barley is a 

26 “hot” feed and the same care taken with corn must be taken with barley. 

27 Rye is not regarded as a very good feed for horses and mules. If other feeds are scarce, it may be mixed with other 

28 feed such as oats or bran when necessary. Rye is very hard and should be rolled or crushed before feeding. 

29 Wheat alone is not a safe feed for horses. It should be rolled and combined with a bulky grain or mixed with chaff 

30 or hay before feeding. One or two pounds should be given at first and the amount gradually increased to a 

3 1 maximum of six pounds per day. 

32 Bran is the seed husk of grains such as wheat, rye, and oats, separated from the flour by sifting. It is an excellent 

33 food for the pack animal. Bran, having a mild laxative effect, is most useful as a supplement to a ration consisting 

34 largely of grains. It helps in building bone and muscle, has no tendency to fatten, and adds to the general tone and 

35 condition of animals. To supply the desired laxative and tonic effect, add necessary bulk, and stimulate more 

36 thorough chewing, feed about two pounds of dry bran mixed with oats or other grain every day. 

37 Rice, that is, rough rice, when rolled, crushed, or coarsely ground, may be fed in quantities up to one-half the grain 

38 ration. In an emergency it may be fed in quantities up to eight pounds daily. 

39 Grain sorghum has a general food value of slightly less than that of corn. Feed the pack animal the same amount 

40 of grain sorghum as you would feed corn and under the same circumstances. Grain sorghum is less fattening than 

41 corn and has a higher protein content. 

42 Salt is essential to the health and well-being of all animals. The pack animal’s need for salt is greatly influenced by 

43 the amount and type of work he is performing since a considerable amount is excreted in his sweat. A supply of 

44 salt, adequate to replace that lost through sweating, is an important factor in preventing heat exhaustion during hot 

45 weather. Salt should be supplied at 8/10 of an ounce per day either by salt block or by mixing it with the grain. If 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 salt blocks can be used, they should be placed where the animals have free access to them. The availability of a salt 

2 block eliminates the requirement to add salt to the feed. 

3 Hay is the basic element of the ration that provides the bulk necessary for the proper performance of the digestive 

4 system. The pack animal should not be deprived of hay or something with similar bulk, such as straw, for any 

5 considerable length of time. Animals will suffer more on a ration of grain than on one of hay alone. Should the 

6 supply of hay normally required for the daily rations be diminished, the animals should be grazed or fed such 

7 roughage as can be gathered or produced locally. Oat straw is one of the best substitutes for hay if the oat heads are 

8 still on it. Otherwise, it is not a good substitute. Any straw, not spoiled, may be used, but barley and rye straw is 

9 not recommended. Do NOT feed wet hay to the animals because it can cause compaction in the intestines and may 

10 lead to colic. Do NOT feed moldy hay to horses and mules; cows can eat it without suffering ill effects, but horses 

1 1 and mules cannot. Not having bulky feed, give the animals green or dried weeds or leaves as substitute roughage. 

12 All hays, except for the legumes, have nearly equal feeding values. Some of the more common hays are alfalfa, 

13 timothy, prairie, and grain. 

14 Alfalfa is a protein-rich roughage of high nutritive value that more closely approximates that of grains than the 

15 common roughage. Alfalfa is an excellent source of calcium and vitamins. Being high in protein, alfalfa combines 

16 well with corn to create a laxative effect. When changing to a ration containing alfalfa, do it gradually; give about 

17 two or three pounds daily. It should compose not more than one-half of the hay allowance. Because of its high 

1 8 protein content, alfalfa is not desirable for hot weather use. 

19 Timothy is usually considered the standard hay, although it is not particularly rich in digestible nutrients. Timothy 

20 mixed with clover gives a higher nutritive value and a better supply and balance of minerals and vitamins. 

21 However, the clover content should not exceed 50 percent. This mixture is common in areas where timothy is 

22 available, as timothy and clover are frequently seeded together. 

23 Prairie hay, or wild hay, is produced from the natural grass growing on prairie land. Upland prairie hay, its 

24 feeding value being slightly higher than timothy, makes an excellent hay when properly cured. Midland prairie 

25 hay, which is produced from coarser wild grasses growing on low land, is of lower feeding value and is not 

26 considered desirable. 

27 Grain hay is made from oats, wheat, and barley, cut before maturity, and cured in the same manner as other hay. It 

28 has a nutrient value about equal to that of timothy but is richer in protein. Care must be taken when feeding grain 

29 hay because it may have high amounts of oats still in it. 

30 Grazing 

3 1 Grazing alone can maintain idle animals satisfactorily. It provides good feed and moreover provides exercise for 

32 the animals. As with any change in feed components, grazing periods should increase gradually over the first few 

33 days to condition the animal’s digestive system. For pack animals in the field, grazing is an important source of 

34 roughage and should be used at every opportunity to reduce the consumption of hay, which may be difficult to 

35 obtain or be of questionable quality. It also reduces the load that must be carried by the unit. Grazing on wet or 

36 frosted alfalfa or clover should be avoided to prevent gas colic. Except in an emergency, Johnson grass and grain 

37 sorghum should not be grazed. 

38 Pellet Feed 

39 This type of feed has several advantages over conventional hay or grain rations. Storage requirements are 

40 decreased, it is easily deliverable by air, and nutritious by-products can be included. Total feed intake is usually 

41 increased when pellets are fed. One disadvantage is that the cost is higher than conventional feeding. Another 

42 disadvantage is the tendency of the animals to begin wood chewing or tail biting, but this problem is avoided if the 

43 animals are fed roughage in conjunction with the pellets. The contents of a pelleted feed should be selected 

44 according to the type of roughage being fed. Alfalfa, for example, provides more protein and calcium than grasses 

45 such as timothy and orchard. Consequently, the protein and calcium content of the pellet should be lower. 



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1 



Water 



FM 31-27 (ID) 



2 Drinking water as a feed component is of utmost importance. The nutrients of the feed must be in a solution before 

3 they can be absorbed. During work, sweating and other physiological functions greatly deplete the water content of 

4 the body’s tissues. To compensate for this loss, the body draws from the digestive tract. A deficiency of water in the 

5 digestive tract not only affects digestion but may affect the general health of the animal by causing such problems 

6 as colic and debility. An animal can survive for a considerable time on water alone but succumbs in a few days if 

7 deprived of water. 

8 FEEDING IN GARRISON 

9 The times of feeding and watering while in the operational base or rear area should be fixed and regular. Feeding 

10 and watering, both as to time and amount, are based on the training, conditioning, and work being performed. 

1 1 Watering the Animals 

12 It is important to offer the animals water and give them plenty of time to drink before feeding time. Normally, a 

13 pack animal requires about eight gallons of water per day. However, the temperature and amount of work being 

14 performed will determine water requirements. The animals should be watered three times per day under normal 

15 conditions and four times per day when operating in an extremely warm climate. Under ideal conditions, water 

16 should be available to the animals at all times when they are not being used. Feed should not be distributed while 

17 the animals are being watered because they will not water properly when they have feed available. If the animal 

18 drinks immediately after feeding, the food in the stomach only partially mixes with the gastric juices, causing 

19 digestion to be incomplete. The flow of water through the stomach then washes a considerable portion of the 

20 stomach contents into the bowels. A loss of nourishment and indigestion or colic may result. Water may be given 

21 approximately one hour after feeding. 

22 Quantity and Frequency of Feeding 

23 The stomach of the horse and mule is small and is unable to function properly while holding large quantities of 

24 food. Once the stomach is two-thirds full, the feed will pass through the stomach at the rate it is taken into the 

25 mouth. Therefore, the stomach functions properly when it is two-thirds full. If the animal is fed too much at one 

26 time, the stomach may become excessively distended and feed will be wasted by not being properly digested. A feed 

27 of three to four pounds of grain represents the approximate amount an average animal should be fed at a single 

28 meal. This feeding may be followed by a long and slow consumption of hay. Under these conditions the gradual 

29 passage of food into the intestines then takes place under favorable conditions. If the total amount of grain is 

30 increased, it is better to increase the number of feeds rather than to increase the size of the ration at each meal. 

31 Working After Feeding 

32 Working an animal hard after a full feed interferes with its ability to work and with its ability to digest the feed 

33 properly. The animal’s ability to work is hampered by difficulty in breathing, which is caused by the swelling of 

34 the stomach and bowels against the diaphragm and lungs. Digestion is also accompanied by an increased flow of 

35 blood and secretions and increased muscular activity in the bowels. Hard work diverts blood to other parts of the 

36 body, tires the intestinal muscles, and reduces secretions needed to aid digestion. As a result, the animal suffers a 

37 loss of nourishment from the feed, may develop serious disorders of the digestive tract, and may die. The animals 

38 may be worked safely one hour after feeding. 

39 Feeding After Working 

40 The digestive organs of a tired animal are just as fatigued as the rest of the body. Therefore, a tired animal should 

41 not be fed a full ration. Most of the blood supply is still in the muscles, the muscles of the digestive tract are tired, 

42 and the glands used to secrete digestive fluids are not ready to function properly. The animal must be cooled and 

43 rested before feeding. Give the animal small amounts of water at frequent intervals and permit him to eat long hay. 

44 After about 30 minutes of rest, give him a small portion of grain followed by the balance, a little at a time, after an 

45 hour or more. Failure to take these precautions frequently results in colic, laminitis (lameness caused by swelling of 



2-10 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 the feet), or both. The method of feeding just mentioned is time consuming. If it is not possible to use that method, 

2 feed the animals once after waiting one to two hours after work. 

3 Feeding Procedures 

4 Feeding a small amount of hay before feeding grain stimulates an increased flow of saliva and gastric juices, takes 

5 the edge off the appetite, and quiets the nervous animal. In the morning, it is not necessary to feed hay first because 

6 the animal has probably been eating hay all night. An ideal way to feed hay is to keep it before the animal 

7 continuously by replenishing the supply frequently with small quantities. Feeding chaff with the grain adds bulk 

8 and forces the animal to eat more slowly, ensuring more thorough mastication. 

9 FEEDING IN THE EIELD 

10 Feeding pack animals away from garrison in a field or combat environment presents problems that are not present 

11 in garrison. The greatest problem is setting a regular schedule of feeding times. The hours animals are worked in 

12 the field or under combat conditions are seldom the same every day. Therefore, to adhere to the principles outlined 

13 above, the animals must be fed smaller rations at more frequent intervals. It is very important to ensure every 

14 animal is fed a full ration every day to maintain the strength required to work in the field. 

15 Due to logistic constraints, there may not be enough hay available to ensure the animal receives the required 

16 roughage. In this case, the animal must be allowed to graze at every opportunity to obtain sufficient roughage. 

17 Grazing should be allowed while at a bivouac location and at halts while on the march. A halt of an hour or more 

18 to feed grain should be planned if the duration of the movement will exceed five hours. Important points to 

19 consider when feeding in the field are covered below. 

20 Watering on the March 

21 Watering on the march should be done whenever possible, especially on hot days. When watering a string of 

22 animals on the move, such as at a stream crossing, allow the entire string to get in the water before letting any of 

23 the animals drink. Otherwise, the lead animals will drink and then try to move down the trail before the rest of the 

24 animals in the string have had a chance to drink. Watch to ensure all animals have had the opportunity to drink 

25 before moving the string. Angle the string upstream so the animals ahead do not foul the water. Give the animals 

26 ample opportunity to drink their fill and not be led away the first time they raise their heads. After watering, keep 

27 the animals at a walk for 10 to 15 minutes before increasing the gait or coming to a long halt. This action will 

28 prevent digestive disturbances. 

29 Feeding Halts 

30 Try to plan the place for a feeding halt two or three miles past a watering point. Give the animals a little hay after 

3 1 arriving at the feeding point and tying them to the night line. This procedure will help relax the animals and start 

32 the secretion of the gastric fluids. 

33 Feeding at Bivouac 

34 When it is necessary to feed and water at a bivouac location, wait at least 45 minutes after arrival to water the 

35 animals. Remove the bits if a full watering will be allowed. When watering at the bivouac location, an individual 

36 should lead the animals to the water on foot. A person should not lead more than two animals at a time. When they 

37 are drinking, he should stand between the animals so they do not crowd each other. As stated before, the animals 

38 should be given ample time to drink and should not be led away from the water the first time they raise their heads. 

39 The animals should go to the water and leave the water together. Watch that the animals do not start pawing the 

40 water or lie down in it after being watered, as they often do. These actions will stir sediment on the bottom and 

41 make the water unfit to drink by other animals. 



2-11 




FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 Water Shortages 

2 When water is scarce, its consumption will have to be regulated. If the bits are removed, animals can drink from a 

3 very shallow container. A small quantity will let an animal keep moving if you give the water by the swallow 

4 instead of allowing him to take one long draft. 

5 Feeding Hay 

6 When the animals are on a night line, break the hay from the bales and distribute it along the night line. Feed the 

7 hay in small quantities and replenish it frequently. This procedure is especially important in damp climates or 

8 while it is raining. If the rain is expected to be continuous over a long period of time, it is best not to feed hay at 

9 all. Feeding damp hay will cause serious colic in the animal, and moldy hay should never be given. As mentioned 

10 before, cattle can eat moldy hay without problems, but horses and mules cannot. Wait until the rain is finished. 

1 1 Break the bales of hay apart and distribute only as needed. Personnel should ensure the animals do not work the 

12 hay beneath them where they cannot get to it. 

13 Feeding Grain 

14 When feeding grain in the field, feed the animals from a feedbag and ensure the feedbags fit properly. If they are 

15 too loose, the animals will toss their heads trying to get to the feed and grain will be spilled and wasted. Watch the 

16 animals while they are feeding from a feedbag, and never allow them access to water until they have finished 

17 eating and the feedbags are removed. They could get the feedbag filled with water while attempting to drink and 

18 drown. To conserve feed, spread any feed left in the feedbags on a cloth to dry. The feed can then be used for the 

19 next feed. Grain should not be spread on the ground for the animals to eat. When the animals eat it, they also 

20 ingest dirt, which can lead to colic. Any grain spilled on the ground in front of the animals should be swept. 

21 CARE OF FORAGE 

22 The care of forage is extremely important to the health of the herd. Feeding damp or moldy hay can cause colic and 

23 could disable a large portion of the herd at once. Inspect the forage at the time of delivery to ensure the quality of 

24 it. In garrison, shelters are available to keep the forage dry. In the field, make every attempt to keep it dry. When 

25 the feed is packed on animals for transportation, cover it with a manta. This precaution will protect the feed from 

26 the elements and keep the animals from getting into it during the movement. During temporary storage, raise the 

27 forage off the ground by timbers (or whatever else is available) and cover it to keep it from getting wet and keep 

28 loose or stray animals from getting into it. 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 



2-12 




FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 CHAPTER 3 

2 ANIMAL CARE AND TRAINING 

3 The proper care and training of pack animals is essential to the health of the animals and their performance in the 

4 field. Without proper care, the animal’s health and the unit’s ability to complete its mission will suffer. Without 

5 proper training, the unit cannot rely upon the animal to behave in a manner that ensures mission accomplishment. 

6 GROOMING 

7 Grooming is essential to the general health, condition, and appearance of animals. It also provides an excellent 

8 time to inspect them for injuries. When grooming before movement, check the animals for injuries. Also, check the 

9 condition of past injuries, if any, at this time. When grooming after movement, check the animals for injuries 

10 sustained on the trail and for any evidence the saddle or harness may have chafed the animal. These precautions 

1 1 permit treatment of any problems before they get to the point of incapacitating the animal. The value of grooming 

12 depends on how thorough the handler does it. The animal handler obtains efficient grooming when he takes pride 

13 in the appearance of his animals. 

14 When to Groom 

15 The animal handler should groom every animal thoroughly at least once each day. Always groom an animal before 

16 leaving the stable area for work or exercise. Before saddling the animal, be sure the area where the saddle pad and 

17 cinch ride are free of dirt and foreign objects. Failure to clean these areas will result in sores and could cause the 

18 animal to be unusable. On return from work or exercise, remove, clean, and put away any equipment. Cool a 

19 heated, wet, or sweating animal before grooming it. Give it a brisk rubbing with a cloth to partially dry the coat, 

20 then blanket the animal (if a blanket is not available, leave the saddle pad on) and walk it until it is cool. Check for 

21 injuries that may have occurred during movement. 

22 Equipment 

23 Each individual, responsible for the care of animals, should have a grooming kit. The basic kit consists of a 

24 currycomb, horse or body brush, hoof pick, and a grooming cloth (Figure 3-1). 



Currycomb 


A circular metal device with sawtooth-like edges used to remove caked mud, to loosen matted or 
dried skin and dirt in the hair, and to clean the body brush while grooming. Never use it on the 
legs below the knees or hocks and never use it about the head. 


Horse or Body 
Brush 


The main tool used in grooming. When used properly, the bristles of the body brush penetrate 
through the hair of the coat and remove dirt and flaked skin from the hide as well as from the 
hair. Various body brushes are available. Generally, it is better to use a stiffer bristle to 
penetrate the hair on the coat better. 


Hoof Pick 


A small metal pick used to clean rocks and packed dirt from the hooves. 


Grooming 

Cloth 


A cloth used to clean the body orifices and to give a final polish to the coat. The handler can 
make a grooming cloth, about two feet square, from old toweling or any other type of soft cloth. 



25 Figure 3-1. Grooming kit. 

26 Grooming Sequence 

27 A prescribed sequence of grooming will enable the animal handler to groom effectively and thoroughly. The 

28 following paragraphs explain the recommended sequence. 



3-1 





FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 Check the animal for any signs of lameness as you walk it to the grooming area. If any exist, thoroughly clean the 

2 hoof of the affected leg with the hoof pick and look for rocks or other debris causing the problem. Each hoof does 

3 not need cleaning every day in working animals. One school of thought is that the soft dirt and debris packed in the 

4 hoof gives the animal extra cushion to walk on in rough terrain. Whether cleaned daily or not, the handler should 

5 check the animals’ feet for thrush, torn frog, loose or missing shoes, and cracks. Report defects at once to the 

6 medic or veterinarian. 

7 Take the currycomb in the right hand and the brush in the left. Go over the left side of the animal with the 

8 currycomb beginning at the neck. Continue down to the breast, withers, shoulders, foreleg and knee; then smoothly 

9 transition to the back, side, belly, croup, and hind leg to the hock. Strike the currycomb frequently against the heel 

10 or side of the brush to free the accumulated dirt and dried skin. Ensure the currycomb follows the natural lay of the 

1 1 hair. 

12 Brush the entire left side of the animal in the same order as above except brush the legs down to the hoofs. After a 

13 few strokes, clean the brush with the currycomb. In using the brush, stand well away from the animal, keeping 

14 your arm stiff, and throw the weight of your body behind the brush. A twist of the wrist at the end of each stroke 

15 will flick the dirt away from the hair. Ensure the brush follows the natural lay of the hair. This use of the brush is 

16 not necessarily a separate activity from currying; you can do both at the same time with a brush stroke following 

17 each currycomb stroke. 

18 Pass to the right side of the animal, change hands with the brush and currycomb, and groom the right side in the 

19 same order as above. 

20 Brush head, mane, and tail. In cleaning the mane and tail, begin brushing at the ends of the hair and gradually to 

21 the roots, separating the locks with your fingers to remove dried skin and dirt. Wipe eyes, nostrils, and lips and rub 

22 the head, ears, and muzzle with the grooming cloth. Clean the dock (fleshy part of the tail) and give a final polish 

23 to the coat. 

24 NOTE: As a precaution against the spread of skin diseases, wash grooming equipment and drying cloths with 

25 soap and water once a week. 

26 Animal Inspection 

27 Inspect the animals, as indicated above, while grooming them. Good grooming offers the opportunity for close 

28 examination of the animal and the discovery of injuries or defects that otherwise might pass unnoticed. Correcting 

29 or treating these defects or injuries greatly reduces the number of non-effective animals in a unit. Along with 

30 wounds or other injuries present, there are others that are not immediately visible to the naked eye. Eor example, 

31 you can check for sore kidneys by placing your hand on the animal’s back at the withers. Apply pressure with the 

32 thumb and fingers on either side of the spine as you slide your hand along his back, toward the tail. If the animal 

33 flinches, as you get to the area just to the rear of where the saddle rides, it is a sign that his kidneys are sore. This 

34 might result from poor saddle placement or improper riding position. 

35 Grooming Sick Animals 

36 Do not groom animals that are sick, weak, or depressed. They should be hand-rubbed at least once a day. Wipe 

37 their eyes and nostrils out with a damp sponge or soft cloth and clean their feet. Groom animals with minor 

38 ailments in the usual manner. Do not clean animals with tetanus at all. 

39 FARRIER SCIENCE 

40 While not farriers, individuals must be able to replace, at least, a loose or missing shoe when they are not available. 

41 The usefulness of a pack animal depends on the health and condition of its feet. The feet of a normal animal, due to 

42 their structure, require very little care or protection while on free pasture or even under light working conditions. At 

43 moderate work levels on good footing, an animal may require no more than cleaning and periodic rasping to trim and 

44 level its feet. The hind feet need only moderate care since they receive less shock. The front feet carry 60 to 65 

45 percent of the load. As the workload increases or the terrain becomes more difficult, the animal’s feet require 



3-2 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 additional care and protection. Shoeing protects the feet from excessive wear and enhances balance, support, and 

2 traction. 



3-3 




FM 31-27 (ID), 



1 Basic Shoeing 

2 Hoof growth, shoe wear, and the work required of the animal governs the frequency of shoeing. On the average, 

3 shoes may remain on the animal without change or adjustment for one to two months, though three to four months 

4 wear is occasionally possible. A farrier does the routine refitting. However, all handlers should have a basic 

5 understanding of the shoeing process, and several in each unit can replace or refit a lost or outgrown shoe. 

6 Farrier Tools 

7 A farrier’s kit should contain pincers, a pritchel, clench cutter, hoof knife, hoof nipper, hoof rasp, blacksmith and 

8 driving hammers, clincher, and fencing pliers (Figure 3-2). 



Pincers 


Used to remove the shoe from the hoof, cut off excess length of clinches, or remove improperly 
driven nails. 


Pritchel 


Used to enlarge the nail holes on shoes or to assist in extracting re-usable nails from shoes. 


Clench Cutter 


Used to cut or straighten the nail clench before removing the shoe. The handler uses the blade 
end for that purpose. He can use the other end as a pritchel. 


Hoof Knife 


Used for cutting excess horn from the sole of the hoof and for trimming the frog, if necessary. It 
is available in right- and left-handed models. 


Hoof Nipper 


Used to remove the excess growth of wall from the hoof when preparing to replace or refit a 
shoe. 


Hoof Rasp 


Used to remove excess hoof wall and to level the bottom surface of the hoof. The rough rasp is a 
hoof rasp that has become dulled. The handler can use it to remove the burr under the clinches 
and to smooth the clinch after the shoe has been replaced. He can also use the rough rasp to file 
away the clinches when removing a shoe. 


Blacksmith 

Hammer 


Used to shape the shoes to the animal’s feet. 


Driving 

Hammer 


Used for driving the nails that secure the shoe to the hoof and for forming the clinches. 


Clincher 


Useful in finishing the clinches, especially when working on young or lame horses that object to 
having their feet struck with the hammer. 


Fencing Pliers 


Have several uses in the farrier kit. The handler can use them as a hammer or for cutting nails 
and many other functions in caring for animals’ feet. He can also use them to repair saddles and 
harnesses. 



9 Figure 3-2. Farrier tools. 

10 Raising and Holding the Foot 

11 It is important to know the proper way to raise and hold an animal’s foot before doing any farrier work so that you 

12 can control the animal and have both hands free to work. Working with the front and hind legs is slightly different. 

13 Front Foot. To raise a front foot, face the rear and place the hand nearest the animal on its withers and talk to it. 

14 Run your hand down the animal’s shoulder and leg to the tendon in the back of the leg just above the hoof. Grasp 

15 the tendon between your thumb and forefinger and squeeze slightly. 



3-4 


























FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 Allow time for the animal to lift his foot, then slip your hand around and lower on the leg until you are cradling 

2 the hoof in the palm of your hand. Move closer to the animal and pass his foot behind your knee nearest the animal 

3 and into your other hand, which has been passed between your legs to receive it. To free both your hands for work, 

4 press your legs together just above the knees. 

5 Do not raise the animal’s foot too high or too far away from his body. Stand with a pigeon-toed stance, bend your 

6 legs, and keep your back straight. This posture will free you to work with both hands. While you are working on 

7 the animal’s leg, you should be very aware of things around you so that you can predict the intentions of the 

8 animal. Unless suddenly frightened, an animal is quite predictable about wanting his feet on the ground. When an 

9 animal is getting a little tired and wants the front leg down, he will test your grasp of his leg with a few jerks. If he 

10 is going to hop on his other foot to get away, he will invariably move forward slightly with both hind feet in 

1 1 preparation for this move. 

12 The farrier should not let an animal take his leg away every time he wants it. Be considerate of the animal, but do 

13 not let the animal be the boss. The animal will soon get the idea that he can set his foot down as he sees fit, which 

14 can be dangerous. 

15 Hind Foot. To raise a hind foot, face the rear, place your closer hand on the animal’s withers and stroke it across 

16 the back to the hip, then down the hip and leg to the fetlock. Grasp the fetlock with your fingers. Draw the leg 

17 toward you. The animal will shift his weight and pick up his foot. 

18 With one fluid motion, slide into position by moving toward the raised leg and put the leg in your lap. Your leg 

19 (the one nearest the animal) presses against the inside surface of the fetlock joint, your outer leg holds the other 

20 side of the fetlock. The animal’s cannon bone presses against your ribs, with your upper arm, while the tibia rests 

21 upon your hip. 

22 An animal will indicate when he wants his hind leg down. He will “cock” his leg by drawing it forward and 

23 upward toward his stomach, as if to “cowkick.” If he does not cock his leg, he cannot kick with any force. 

24 Shoe Removal 

25 To replace a shoe that has not come off the animal, you must follow a specific sequence to correctly remove the old 

26 or damaged shoe. 

27 Look at the hoof approximately 1/2 to 5/8 of an inch from the shoe. You should see where the nails holding the 

28 shoe have come out of the hoof and are bent over or clinched. Using the clinch cutter and driving hammer, cut or 

29 straighten the clinches of the nails holding the shoe in place. Place the blade end of the clinch cutter under the nail 

30 point and tap the other end with the driving hammer. You can also use the rough rasp to accomplish the same 

3 1 thing by filing down the clinches. 

32 Pull the shoe by wedging the cutting edges of the pincers between the shoe and hoof at the heel and then exert a 

33 quick thrust toward the toe. Repeat the procedure, alternating from one side of the shoe to the other, progressing 

34 toward the toe until the shoe is removed. Once you remove the shoe, check to see if all the nails came out with the 

35 shoe. If they did not, check the hoof to see if any nails remain. Remove any remaining nails with the pincers. 

36 Hoof Preparation 

37 Using the hoof pick (found in the grooming kit), thoroughly clean dirt and debris from the hoof. Then pare away 

38 the dead horn over the white line with the hoof knife. Do not touch the frog unless you cannot insert a hoof pick 

39 between the bars of the frog. In such a case, narrow the frog slightly, but try not to involve the surface touching the 

40 ground. Be careful not to remove too much of the frog. Cutting the frog too deeply could result in excessive 

41 bleeding and disability of the animal for a long time. Level the foot with the rasp. Use long, smooth strokes from 

42 heel to toe. Be careful not to use too much rasp pressure when passing over the heel. You can always take off a 

43 little more heel later, but you cannot replace what has been removed. Do not expose live horn except over the white 

44 line and the outer border of the sole; the animal needs a covering of dead horn to protect the sensitive sole against 

45 bruising. Be sure to leave the bars intact as cutting away these structures can cause contraction of the heels and 

46 quarters. Sight across the hoof to see that the surface is flat. 



3-5 




1 



FM 31-27 (ID), 



Shoe Replacement 

2 Fit the shoe to the hoof by holding it so that you can see the white line through the nail holes. See that the shoe lays 

3 flat on the hoof surface without rocking. Eliminate any wobble between the shoe and hoof by rasping the high spot 

4 on the hoof. You may have to bend or shape the shoe as needed since it may have become deformed if it was worn 

5 loose for a time. Do not worry about the excess hoof wall in front of the toe of the shoe. You will rasp the excess 

6 away later in the shoeing process. 

7 Secure the shoe to the hoof with nails and the driving hammer. You should bevel the horseshoe nails near the point 

8 so that they will turn out of the hoof when pounded into it. The other side of the nail is flat. Always place the flat 

9 side of the nail so that it faces the outer edge of the hoof. You can be sure the nail is facing the right way by 

10 looking at its head; there is checkering on one side of the nail head. The checkering should always face the inside 

11 of the hoof. Grasp the nail between your thumb and forefinger and make sure the flat side of the nail faces the outer 

12 surface of the hoof. Place the point of the first nail through the third nail hole on one side of the shoe, pointing 

13 parallel to the horn fibers of the hoof. Tap the nail lightly several times to start it into the hoof wall. 

14 To force the point of the nail through the outer surface of the wall at the desired spot, continue to apply light blows 

15 until the nail is driven approximately two-thirds of the required distance. You should then apply one sharp heavy 

16 blow on the head of the nail to force the point through the wall. The bevel on the point of the nail is effective only 

17 when driven rapidly through the horn. If the animal twitches or jerks away at any time during the nailing, pull the 

18 nail and check for moisture or blood on it. The nail should exit approximately 3/4 of an inch above the ground 

19 surface of the foot to sufficiently hold the shoe. If there are old nail holes in the wall, the new nails should emerge 

20 at least 3/8 of an inch from the old holes. This length puts the new nails in hoof fibers strong enough to properly 

21 hold the nail. After the point emerges and you drive the nail head solidly into the crease of the shoe, immediately 

22 remove the point of the nail. Do this quickly to avoid serious injury to you should the animal decide to pull his leg 

23 away suddenly. To remove the point of the nail, point the claws of the hammer toward the toe of the hoof. Place the 

24 claws onto the nail point as deep as possible and close to the hoof wall, bend the nail straight out from the wall, 

25 and rotate the hammer. This procedure will “wring” off the point and excess length of the nail. Repeat the process 

26 with the same hole on the opposite side of the shoe. 

27 After you drive in two nails, check the shoe to ensure it still fits properly. You can adjust the fit by tapping lightly 

28 with the hammer to move it into place. Then put the remaining nails in the shoe. You may find it easier to “start” 

29 the first nail on each side of the shoe before driving either of them all of the way. “Set” the nails by striking the 

30 heads sharply with the driving hammer. Make sure you hold a solid metal object (such as the flat side of the 

3 1 pincers) firmly against the end of the nail that protrudes through the hoof when you strike. Some farriers think that 

32 the order in which you set the clinches is very important. The recommended sequence is to set the two nails nearest 

33 the toe on the opposite side, then the quarter and heel nail on the first side, followed by the remaining heel nail. 

34 Cut off the nail points with the pincers. Leave enough length for a proper clinch. The clinch should be 

35 approximately 1/8 of an inch long. A clinch that is too long can cause the wall to break should the shoe become 

36 caught on something and pulled off. The wall fibers of the hoof will break when the nail emerges. Remove the 

37 resulting burr under the seated clinch with the file side of the rough rasp. Be careful to file away only the burr. Do 

38 not file a deep groove around the hoof; make it just large enough to contain the clinch. Use the clincher to bend the 

39 clinches down into the groove. 

40 Once again, take the pincers and the hammer to finish forming the clinch. Hold the pincer jaws against the head of 

41 the nail and strike the end of the nail to seat it even with the wall surface. You should bend the nail abruptly at the 

42 hoof wall. Ensure the hammer travels parallel and as close to the hoof wall as possible. You can use the clincher 

43 for this step if one is available. The clinches are now finished. Using the file side of the rough rasp, smooth the 

44 nails leaving no sharp edges on the wall of the hoof. Rasp and shape the hoof to the shape of the shoe. Most of this 

45 rasping will take place in the area of the toe and anterior quarter. Be careful not to rasp too much and rasp away 

46 the clinches. 



3-6 




1 



FM 31-27 (ID) 



Farrier’s Objective 

2 The shoeing process will become more clear when you have seen it done once. Remember, the intent of this section 

3 is only to enable you to replace a loose or missing shoe. If possible, you should fit each animal with an extra front 



3-7 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 and hind shoe. These shoes, their nails, extra nails, and farrier tools should be part of the standard equipment 

2 packed whenever you take the animals out. If a shoe becomes loose on the trail, remove it if possible, to avoid its 

3 loss or injury to the animal. It would be ideal to replace lost or loosened shoes immediately, in garrison or on the 

4 trail. However, there will be times in the field when it is impossible to replace a shoe before two or more days have 

5 elapsed. This delay is typical and may have little or no adverse results. If this situation occurs, reduce the load of 

6 the pack animal or have a rider spend more time walking than riding his mount if it is a riding animal. 

7 TRAINING 

8 A pack animal detachment will not always be able to work with animals that are trained and conditioned to pack. 

9 Even if the animals are trained to pack, they may need retraining or conditioning. In such cases, you need to know 

10 some of the basics of training and conditioning animals. The purpose of this section is to give you enough 

1 1 information to evaluate the level of their training and to train and condition them as necessary for pack operations. 

12 Trainers 

13 The attitude of personnel training pack animals is extremely important. A person assigned to train animals must 

14 have a better than average knowledge of animals. He must also have patience, tact, firmness, and a liking and 

15 aptitude for animal management. A person who is afraid of animals or who will become frustrated easily with them 

16 will not do well. Above all, the trainer must not take out his frustrations on the animal by beating, kicking, or 

17 using excessive restraint on the animal. A good animal trainer combines an intelligent respect for animals with a 

18 lack of fear. 

19 An ideal animal trainer will be — 

20 • Systematic. 

21 • Patient. 

22 • Tactful and resourceful. 

23 • Moderate. 

24 • Observant. 

25 • Exacting. 

26 • Logical. 

27 • Tenacious. 

28 • Consistent. 

29 Requirements 

30 Previous experience and current abilities will determine the training needs of animals. Along with their physical 

3 1 conditioning, trainers must evaluate the animals on their level of proficiency in leading; packing; riding; picketing; 

32 standing; gaiting; swimming; balance; and conditioning to the sights, sounds, and smells of battle. Untrained 

33 animals never used for pack purposes will require a complete training and conditioning program. 

34 Exercise and Conditioning 

35 An animal requires good conditioning to perform the work demanded of it without injury to its body and muscular 

36 organs. You can acquire and maintain good conditioning through a progressive program of proper exercise and 

37 feeding. Objectives of the program are endurance, stamina, a good state of flesh, and resistance to disease. You can 

38 attain these objectives only by proper feeding and long periods of conditioning work at the slower gaits, mostly the 

39 walk. You must condition both pack and riding animals to carry the weights required in field operations. 

40 Exercise must be regular, graduated, and always within the capabilities of the animal. Working tired or unfit 

41 animals can cause accidents. If an animal is idle for a considerable time, you must repeat its process of 

42 conditioning. The minimum period of exercise necessary to maintain an animal in working condition is two hours 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 daily. Animals need not be maintained in peak condition for field duty at all times. However, they should remain in 

2 such condition that a 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 relatively short period of carefully scheduled work will put them in fit condition for anticipated duty. The kind and 

2 amount of exercise given to animals depend on the type of work they are to perform, their current condition, and 

3 the number of individuals available to exercise them. Although the most satisfactory exercise is gained by 

4 assigning one or two animals to an individual, pack units (with limited manpower) will normally have to adopt 

5 other methods. Begin any period of exercise with 10 to 15 minutes of walking to ensure good circulation, 

6 particularly in the feet. Instead of hard surface roads, try to select dirt roads for exercise because they are easier on 

7 the animals’ feet and legs. Also, work the animals on trails or cross-country to maintain their fit condition. If you 

8 are exercising two animals, try to always ride one out and the other in and lead each alternately on his right and 

9 left. This habit will get the animals used to both being led and ridden. End each exercise period with a 10-minute 

10 walk to return the animals to the stables dry and breathing normally. The walk is the prime conditioning gait. 

1 1 Walking develops muscle, while trotting improves balance, and galloping develops wind. If you use either of the 

12 faster gaits in excess, the animal will lose rather than gain condition. Determine the length of trot periods by the 

13 condition of the animals but in no case should you exceed seven minutes. Vary the routes for exercise from day to 

14 day so that the animals will not recognize the route and try to hurry back to the stables. Also use different routes to 

15 relieve monotony. Try to set up the training and conditioning program according to the amount of time available 

16 and the level of proficiency of the animals and handlers. 

17 Program Development 

18 At the beginning of training, animals may be in poor physical condition and unaccustomed to hard work. To 

19 properly condition animals, yet avoid injury, ensure operations are long in duration but mild in character. 

20 According to the training principles mentioned above, each animal should receive advanced training that includes 

21 gentling, leading, riding, standing, packing, gaiting, swimming, and seasoning to battle conditions. Use actual 

22 field movements, progressive in length, throughout the training period to build up endurance. Conduct a part of 

23 such field movements and other phases of training at night to prepare the animals for night operations. Pay close 

24 attention to the animals during night training to determine if any are night blind. Personnel responsible for 

25 training animals should know the use of restraining devices for controlling animals. Such devices include the 

26 twitch, cross tie, and blinds. Exercise great care, however, in the use of such devices. It is advisable to select the 

27 mildest and least dangerous method of restraint necessary to achieve the desired results. Remember, kindness, 

28 perseverance, and tact will often accomplish the desired purpose without the need for restraint. 

29 Restraint of Animals. Many ingenious devices have been developed over the years for restraining animals. Some 

30 have proven useful and humane and have helped to quiet and train animals. Others, while they temporarily quiet 

3 1 and subdue the animal, make its attitude worse than it was originally. Once you use these methods on an animal, it 

32 will get to the point where it is neither gentle nor likely to carry a load. It will start showing many bad habits, such 

33 as bucking off the pack load. Remember, use restraints only when needed and use the least amount of restraint 

34 needed. 

35 Blinding. This method is the easiest way to restrain an animal. Make sure you tie the animal securely to a tree or 

36 post. Then take a piece of cloth (a gunny sack, a jacket) or anything else that you can place over its eyes and tie it 

37 around the back of the animal’s head. When blinded, an animal will seldom try to move because he will not be able 

38 to see. 

39 NOTE: Under no circumstances should you move an animal, no matter how slightly, while it is blinded. 

40 Twitches. Animal handlers use twitches because they are the handiest and most common method of restraint. As it 

41 shuts off circulation in the lip, never use it continuously for an extended time and never with greater force than is 

42 necessary. Make a twitch by running a small piece of rope or rawhide through a hole in the end of a rounded piece 

43 of wood two- to five-feet long, such as a pick handle, and tying it in a short loop. Pass the loop of the twitch over 

44 the upper lip, which you seize by your hand and draw it forward, taking care to turn the edges of the lip in to 

45 prevent injury to the mucous membranes. Then tighten the loop by twisting the stick until you obtain sufficient 

46 pressure. Light changes in pressure with increases against resistance and decreases as the reward for obedience will 

47 help keep the animal’s mind off the reason for the restraint and reduce the need for severity. These changes also 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 help in training him to be more controllable. You should seldom use the twitch as a restraint while saddling or 

2 packing animals. Use the twitch mostly when restraining for medical treatment or shoeing. 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 Cross Tie. Trainers often use the cross tie as a mild form of restraint. It consists of securing the animal’s head in a 

2 normal raised position by two tie ropes extending from the ring in the halter to opposite sides of the stall or 

3 between two trees. When properly adjusted, you may use the cross tie to your advantage while grooming, saddling, 

4 or doing any work around the animal. It also prevents an animal from chewing a wound and from lying down 

5 when you need him standing. 

6 Other Restraints. You can use additional types of restraints when treating an animal whose condition is such that 

7 complete immobilization of the part to be treated is required. These are used only under normal conditions. Giving 

8 tranquilizers makes the more severe restraints unnecessary and reduces the danger to the animal from abuse at the 

9 hands of the ignorant or inexperienced. Other restraints include the — 

10 • Side stick. 

11 • Muzzle. 

12 • Knee strap. 

13 • Casting rope. 

14 • Side line. 

15 • Running “W.” 

16 Calming an Animal. Fear is one of the animal’s strongest instincts. If allowed to remain a dominant instinct, you 

17 cannot train the animal satisfactorily to do the work demanded of him. The goal of the trainer throughout the 

18 training period should be to gain and maintain the confidence of the animal. Horses and mules have a remarkable 

19 memory and tend to remember the unpleasant experiences longer than the pleasant ones. Retraining thus becomes 

20 more difficult than initial training, especially with a young, impressionable animal. Rewards for accomplishment 

21 are extremely valuable in the gentling process. Patting the neck, rubbing the head, and hand-feeding are good aids 

22 in gaining the confidence of the animal. The unwarranted use of whips, switches, or other devices to inflict pain or 

23 restraint should not be allowed in training. A willing, confident animal will work to the extent of his physical 

24 ability while the scared, reluctant animal will expend less productive energy than his trainer. 

25 Catching an Animal. The most convenient method of catching loose stock is by just walking up to the animal 

26 either in a corral or in the field. However, first, you must have gained his trust. Only through love and kindness to 

27 the animal will you gain his trust and respect for your presence at his neck. Once you start to catch a loose animal, 

28 do not give up just because he walks off or spooks. Do not leave him to go to another animal. If you are not firm, 

29 you will soon have an animal that is impossible to catch without either roping or cornering him in a corral. You 

30 will have taught him to avoid you by letting him go at the first sign of resistance. Maintain eye-to-eye contact while 

3 1 you are trying to catch a loose animal. The animal often communicates his intentions through his eyes. Also, watch 

32 the animal’s ears. If they point backwards or cock to one side, you do not have the animal’s complete attention and 

33 you must have it to catch him. He must respect you above all animals in the immediate area. The head of an animal 

34 being caught is not always the first thing a person should touch. Often the middle of the neck or the back area is 

35 the best area. Rubbing the animal about the withers and back will enable you to step in close to him and then hook 

36 your arm over his neck. Some animals will try to pull away from you at this point. If he pulls away from you more 

37 than once, slip the halter rope over his neck when you start to scratch or fondle him. You will then have a loop to 

38 hold him. When he starts to move away, stop him firmly. Immediately reward the animal for his obedience with a 

39 few reassuring pats and caresses. Do not knock him around for responding to the halter rope around his neck. If 

40 you do, the next time you want to catch this animal, you may not be able to get near him. Last, but not least, a little 

41 grain in a bucket or feed bag will usually let you catch most animals that are used to being grained. If they get used 

42 to being grained immediately after being caught, their anticipation of the grain will make them very easy to catch. 

43 Having an apple or carrot to give them after catching them is another way to ensure their cooperation, but be sure 

44 to always give it to them. Never tease them with a treat just to coax them into getting close enough to catch, then 

45 not give it to them. As mentioned before, horses and mules, especially mules, have good memories and will not 

46 forget such an insult. 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 Breaking to Picket. Picket breaking is an important thing to teach animals to ensure against halter pulling. If you 

2 picket break an animal before attempting to saddle or pack him, the impression of secure fastening will never leave 

3 him. He will feel that any strain put on the halter or halter shank is useless. Trainers have used the following 

4 method for picket breaking successfully for many years. It saves time and labor, since the animal does most of the 

5 work, and seldom has to be repeated. Catch the animal and put a strong halter with a large halter ring around his 

6 neck. Get a good, strong, soft rope, one inch or more in diameter. Run one end through the halter ring and tie a 

7 fairly snug bowline around his neck. Tie the other end securely to the middle of a smoothly trimmed log 

8 approximately 12 inches in diameter and approximately 20 feet long. Place the log in the middle of a smooth, open 

9 piece of ground where the animal will not be able to become entangled with anything except the above-mentioned 

10 equipment. If no logs are available, use something like a large truck or tractor tire. The animal may pull, tug, and 

1 1 jerk on the log and try everything he can think of to get away from the log but without success and without harm to 

12 himself. Soon the animal will learn that it cannot go anywhere and that a halter and rope mean escape is 

1 3 impossible. 

14 Training to Stand. You should teach an animal to stand still when the lead rope is hanging. Trainers call this 

15 kind of restraint a “ground hitch.” Breaking to a ground hitch will prevent an animal from straying or running 

16 away if he comes loose from the pack string. One way to train an animal to stand with the lead rope hanging down 

17 is to run the lead rope through a ring attached to a spike in the ground. Place a set of hobbles on the animal and 

18 run the lead rope through the ring and then tie it to the hobbles. When the animal tries to move, he will not be 

19 able. He soon learns he should stand still when the lead rope is hanging. 

20 Leading. You must teach all animals to lead. First teach them to lead next to a dismounted packer. Then teach 

21 them to lead alongside well-broken animals. Leading should be at the walk, as daily exercise, until the new 

22 animals lead quietly and have improved sufficiently in condition to allow them to start their instruction under 

23 saddle. 

24 Riding. You should break all animals to riding and ride with regularity during training before initial work under 

25 the pack. Since the mouths of young or untrained animals are tender, you should not use bits during the initial 

26 riding periods. Attach the reins to the halter or use a hackamore. 

27 Packing. After the animal has been ridden for about 10 days, you can mount a pack saddle on him. For the first 

28 few days, do not load the pack saddle. Ensure the animal is thoroughly familiar with the method of saddling and 

29 unsaddling. Also make sure he stands quietly while packers are working before you place any load on the saddle. 

30 Training under load should be progressive. Initial loads should be light, single-side loads such as sacks of oats. Do 

3 1 not attempt to condition the animal for top loads until he is completely conditioned for full side loads. When the 

32 animal is comfortable with this weight, add top loads to the side loads. Gradually increase the load from day to day 

33 until the animal is carrying his full payload of from 200 to 250 pounds. After you train the animal to stand, train 

34 him to stand while being saddled and packed. If at first he does not stand quietly, you may need to use the blind. 

35 As mentioned before, the blind is an exceptional aid and you should only use it when the animal clearly indicates 

36 the need. Never move an animal a single step while blinded. 

37 Gaiting. Animals individually led by dismounted drivers maintain a rate of march of from 3 1/2 to 4 miles per 

38 hour and seldom move at a gait faster than a walk. Those led by mounted drivers may be required to take any gait 

39 demanded by the situation. The walk and amble are the most satisfactory gaits for mules. The animals can 

40 maintain the walk for long periods at 4 miles per hour (a natural gait for the animal) and tend to disturb the load 

41 less than any other gait. The amble is an acquired gait, easily acquired by the mule, that increases the rate of march 

42 to slightly over 5 miles per hour. This gait is also easy on the load and hitches and, due to the increased rate of 

43 march, is favored over the walk on fairly level going. Trainers teach the amble to pack mules by increasing the rate 

44 of march gradually during the training period. In hurrying to keep up to the column, mules will first break into the 

45 amble for a few steps. These periods at the amble will gradually increase until they become confirmed in this gait. 

46 Swimming. Trainers must teach pack animals to swim boldly and freely. Although they are naturally good 

47 swimmers, some animals are initially afraid of the water and will resist entering it. When they do go into the 

48 water, such animals fight their environment and swim very poorly. Introduce the animals to the water quietly, coax 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 them to wade through shallow water at first, and then lead them into increasing depths gradually until they must 

2 swim. 



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Known good swimmers should accompany the green swimmers during this phase of training to give confidence to 
the novices. 

Battle Indoctrination. Trainers should try to mentally condition their pack animals to as many of the sights, 
sounds, and smells of combat as possible. Once the animals become accustomed to these sensations, you can feel 
assured about their docility and good conduct in the field. Trainers must conduct this mental conditioning or battle 
indoctrination, so that animals will not associate the sight, sounds, or smells with harm or pain to themselves. 
Following are some tips: 

• Conduct a portion of the training in marching, packing, and unpacking close to motor parks. The animal 
will then be subjected to the — 

Sounds of motors being started and warmed up. 

Pounding of metal on metal and an occasional backfire. 

Smells of exhaust fumes and raw fuel. 

Sight of many types of vehicles, both moving and at rest. 

• Lead the animals as close to active firing ranges as safety will allow, near rail yards and crossings, and in 
areas near operating airfields. These areas get them used to loud, sharp sounds and the sight of flying 
aircraft. Another way to accustom the animal to gunfire is to crack a bullwhip near it. 

• Place cans containing pebbles, boxes of tin cans, or other noisy cargo on the loads so that creaks, rattles, 
and unusual noises generated on the load will not “spook” the animal. 

• Subject the animals to such odors as iodine, ether, smoke, gasoline, disintegrating flesh, and rotting 
vegetation. 

Training for Balance. Units normally use pack animals when crossing over terrain that is impassable by any type 
of motor vehicle. Traversing such ground requires a well-developed sense of balance. The mule naturally has a fine 
sense of balance. However, saddle and load will interfere with his natural balance unless he has some training 
under load over difficult terrain and learns to adjust to the actions of this dead weight on his back. Train the 
animal on terrain that is as similar as possible to the terrain in the operational area. Make him cross extremely 
narrow bridges, fallen trees, and ditches. Work him on steep, narrow trails, corduroy roads, over swamps and 
boggy areas, and along rocky slopes where you must select safe footing among loose stones. Trainers should use 
judgment in handling pack animals on difficult terrain, and they should avoid interfering with their natural 
balance. The mule, if left to himself, usually shows better judgment than the average handler. Therefore, let the 
mule pick his way through the very difficult terrain. 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 CHAPTER 4 

2 ANIMAL HEALTH MANAGEMENT 

3 Evaluation of the general state of any animal’s health is an ongoing process accomplished through daily 

4 observation of behavior and routine examination of specific areas of the animal’s anatomy. A rudimentary 

5 understanding of anatomy and physiology, a few simple examination techniques, and a familiarity with the 

6 behavioral patterns of the healthy animal form the foundation of veterinary science. Aided by materials contained 

7 in the basic first-aid kit, handlers can treat pack animals suffering from minor injury or disease. 

8 ANIMAL BEHAVIOR 

9 Animals exhibit behavior indicative of emotion and well-being. They express anger, fear, and boredom with 

10 characteristic mannerisms. So, too, do they express pain and disability. Regardless of the individual personality 

1 1 traits developed by each animal, general behavioral patterns are common to the species and are useful as tools to 

12 evaluate physical status. 

13 Healthy Animal Behavior 

14 The behavior a well animal exhibits is the benchmark. The handler must become familiar with its behavior 

15 patterns and be alert to changes in emotional or physical well-being. The healthy animal looks and acts well, 

16 reflecting mannerisms associated with humans. Emotions run the full spectrum from sadness to happiness. 

17 Behavior patterns become especially apparent when animals are observed in groups. 

18 An animal shows its happiness by an initial dropping of the head, followed by lifting the muzzle in a circular 

19 manner. The upper lip may curl displaying the teeth in a classic “horse smile.” Prancing and lifting the tail usually 

20 accompanies this behavior. The well animal, pleased with its activities, may also prance with its ears pointed 

21 forward, nostrils flared, tail up, and neck arched with head pointed down. 

22 Intense absorption: nose, eyes, and ears all intently focused on the item or surroundings indicates curiosity. Even 

23 the stance brings the body into line. The animal will sway its head to better see an object directly to the front. 

24 Circling, pawing or stamping, head shaking, and sideward dancing characterizes frustration. As frustration 

25 continues, the animal’s activity results in sweating and unruliness. This behavior also typifies nervousness. 

26 Sick Animal Behavior 

27 The sick animal, whether its illness is emotional or physical in nature, exhibits behavior indicative of its condition. 

28 An unhappy animal that is otherwise healthy will bring illness on itself. Conversely, a sick animal will exhibit 

29 mannerisms that aid in early awareness of injury and disease. 

30 Signs of intense interest characterize fright. The animal will shift its head from side-to-side, allowing better 

31 vision. It holds its head high and makes audible sniffing sounds. Dancing and shying, often in a circular motion, 

32 shivering and tail swishing accompany increasing nervousness. Its ears will be mobile, seeking the source of threat 

33 when it is unapparent. As anxiety increases, profuse sweating occurs. The animal will attempt to flee and, if 

34 restrained, may buck and kick. Under extreme conditions, its eyes will roll showing the whites. Ultimately, the 

35 animal becomes terror-stricken. At this point it will scream and, if loose, will attempt to run through any 

36 obstruction until it collapses in shock. 

37 A more common problem is boredom. Unchecked, it leads to behavioral problems that will remain a part of its 

38 personality. Chewing on wood such as stall doors (cribbing), drawing air into its stomach (wind sucking), and 

39 rocking side-to-side (weaving) are common traits adopted by a bored animal. 

40 A horse demonstrates irritation by laying back its ears, swishing or lashing its tail, often exaggerated on one side. 

41 The animal will tense its front or hindquarters and lift a hoof in preparation for kicking. It will glare threateningly 

42 and bite or kick with surprising swiftness and ferocity. 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 

Pain elicits reaction according to location (internal or external) and severity. With mild pain (fly bites, chaflng, or 
early arthritis) and hoof pain (such as a pebble caught in the shoe), the animal will shrug, shiver, or kick in an 
effort to dislodge or soothe the area. It may flick its tail and nip at the afflicted area as a means of removing the 
irritant. Overall activity is fairly continuous, be it biting and bumping against an object or head tossing in 
distraction. Head shaking and ear twitching may also represent a head injury or uncomfortable bit. 

An internal injury may exist when the animal shows signs of generalized listlessness, melancholia, increased 
distraction, and flagging (pointing the head) towards the affected side. The animal may lay its ears back and nip or 
rub its side. It lifts its hind legs alternately and hunches its abdomen in attempts to relieve the discomfort. 
Vocalizations such as groans are common. If pain continues, such as colic pain, the groaning deepens and the 
animal will bite itself on the side and roll on the ground, worsening the condition. 

Shifting its weight to the unaffected side and limping or refusing to move indicates leg pain. The animal will also 
“point” or extend the affected leg to try to relax it. The head will bob or swing to the side in an effort to bring the 
afflicted side forward. 

Signs of illness may include a dulling of the coat, decrease in appetite, or such obvious symptoms as discharges 
from the eyes or nose, running sores, or diarrhea. The animal will carry its head down and show a blankness in its 
eyes. The legs tend to splay outward while standing and the ears point outward in a splayed fashion also. Progres- 
sive illness leads to increased severity in symptoms. Leg splaying, head drooping, eye and coat dullness, fever, 
shivering, sweating, swaying, and staggering are all manifested to varying degrees. 

Overall Behavior Patterns 

Through examination of healthy animals and familiarity with their behavior in natural surroundings, handlers gain 
early recognition of the sick or injured animal. Neglecting small changes in behavior, coupled with ignorance of 
common maladies, may result in delay of movement or loss of an animal. Although each species demonstrates 
specific, unique patterns, all animals of this type display similar behavior patterns. 

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION 

The physical examination of an animal proceeds in the same overall manner as any physical exam. Certain 
precautions and allowances for the animal’s natural fears and curiosity must be exercised. The examiner should 
enlist help in controlling the animal and constantly remain alert for signs of bolting, biting, and kicking. He should 
never assume a position between an animal and a fixed object. By leaning or shying sideways or forward, the 
animal can pin and injure the examiner or helper. 

Examine the animal when it is quiet and rested. Excitement and heavy exertion will drastically alter the animal’s 
temperature, respiration, and pulse. When the physical examination is combined with routine grooming, the 
animal will receive it with more cooperation. Also, during every rest period and bivouac, examine every animal 
briefly for common maladies. 

Eollow an orderly sequence during each examination to preclude overlooking any area. Ask the handler to 
comment on the animal’s feeding habits, bowel and bladder habits, general demeanor, and any cough or 
discharges. The handler should be aware of these areas. Record results of physical examinations on chart form, 
including immunizations, and maintain an extract version with the animal for future reference. 

Equipment 

A general examination may be performed without the use of any medical equipment; however, when available, use 
the following items: 

• Stop watch. 

• Veterinary rectal thermometer. 

• Petroleum jelly or substitute. 

• Stethoscope. 



4-2 




FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 • Penlight or ophthalmoscope. 

2 • Equine dental float (file). 

3 • Rubber gloves. 

4 • Several pieces of cloth or gauze. 

5 • Twitch or hobbles for uncooperative animals. 

6 Routine 

7 Begin the examination with an overall look at the animal, noting general demeanor, carriage, and gait. When 

8 unfamiliar with the particular animal, ask the handler about changes in diet and elimination. Also, ask about 

9 problems encountered during previous examinations, such as biting or kicking, medical conditions, and injuries. 

10 Then examine specific areas of the animal. Many examiners refer to the head, ears, eyes, nose, and throat as 

1 1 HEENT. 

12 Head. Look for signs of chafe from the halter such as lesions and areas of hair loss. Note how the animal carries its 

13 head and if it shakes or rubs it. Encephalitis or concussion and distemper (lockjaw) are detectable by loss of 

14 coordination and confusion. 

15 Ears. Examine the ears gently because the ears are sensitive. Look for halter chafe, lesions (external and internal), 

16 and discharge. Note how the animal carries its ears and watch to see if it shakes its head or rubs its ears. Ear mites, 

17 ear flies, and ticks are the main problems encountered. 

18 Eyes. Perform the eye examination in two parts. Eirst, do an overall examination of the eye, its orbit, and the lids 

19 with available light. Check for lesions, foreign matter, and discharges. Note the color of the conjunctiva (clear 

20 membrane that goes over the white of the eye) and the “third eye lid,” a whitish membrane that closes to cleanse 

21 the eye of particles. Communicable eye infections, biting flies, and gnats pose the main problems. Occasionally, 

22 lesions (tumors) will grow on the inner eyelid, requiring surgery. When an animal exhibits “photosensitivity” by 

23 squinting or partially closing an eye, it may be suffering from conjunctivitis or other problems, such as 

24 snow-blindness. Next, using a light source such as a flashlight, ophthalmoscope, or candle and working in shade, 

25 examine the cornea. Shining the light from an angle, look for opacities and surface irregularities. Shining the light 

26 from the front, observe the quality and clarity of the reflected image in the eye. There is a fairly high incidence of 

27 cataracts, especially among older animals. 

28 Nose. The nostrils are sensitive and may be moist or dry, according to the environment. Nasal discharge presents a 

29 draining moistness, which increases in profusion when the animal’s head is down as in grazing. It is usually 

30 accompanied by noise, such as snorting or sneezing, and licking or rubbing to clean the lip and nostrils. Sores are 

3 1 minimal unless inflicted by branches or the lead rope. Animals recovering from pneumonia, strangles, or milder 

32 respiratory infections may develop sinus infections. These infections are characterized by drainage, which 

33 increases when the head is down. Tap lightly with a knuckle on the bone just below each eye. Pain will be elicited 

34 in an animal with infection. 

35 Throat. This examination includes the mouth, lips, gums, teeth, and tongue. The lips may contain splinters or 

36 pieces of burrs. Check for areas of abrasion around the mouth where the coat is rubbed away. Such abrasions may 

37 indicate an ill-fitting halter or bit. Deformities, such as cleft lip or palate, should be noted during the animal 

38 conformation check. Examine the teeth for uneven wear, which occurs naturally but is also a common sign of 

39 cribbing (gnawing). Normal wear causes uneven, sharp slopes of the molars, whereas cribbing causes uneven wear 

40 on the incisors. Check the inner edges of the lower molars (lingual) and the tongue. When the molars become 

41 sharp, the tongue is often ulcerated by contact. Examine the outer edges (buccal) of the upper teeth. Sharp edges 

42 here will ulcerate the inner cheek. In either case, use a tooth float (rasp) to smooth the sharp surfaces. Speckling or 

43 spotting of the tongue and redness are signs of infection or nephritis (an inflammation of the kidneys). Other 

44 lesions of the tongue or cheeks are generally tumorous in nature. 



4-3 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 Neck and Mane. Examine the neck and mane for lesions and signs of chafe from contact with tack items. Ticks 

2 and 



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FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 mites are frequent in this area because the animal has difficulty dislodging them. Lymph glands are located in this 

2 region and become enlarged from inflammation. Inflammation is somewhat difficult to detect in the glands except 

3 in the case of strangles. Take the pulse using the artery that runs along either side of the throat. The pulse will vary 

4 with a rate of 36 to 40 beats a minute being normal at rest and a rate of 80 to 100 beats a minute being normal after 

5 exertion, especially at higher elevations. Blood samples can be taken easily from the veins in the neck and the large 

6 muscles supporting each side of the neck are good injection sites. 

7 Chest and Shoulders. Examine the chest and shoulders primarily for lesions caused by foliage and saddle rigging. 

8 Note the carriage, which is the distribution of the weight on the forelegs. Step back and record the respirations by 

9 observing the rise and fall of the chest from the side. The animal must be rested and acclimatized. Normal rates 

10 will vary according to species and altitude. The normal rate of respiration at sea level is 8 to 16 breaths a minute. 

1 1 After exertion, a rate of 30 to 40 breaths a minute is normal. An animal that coughs or has noisy or staggered 

12 breathing requires an examination of the chest (lung fields) with a stethoscope. Listen for gurgling, grating or 

13 rustling, or an absence of sound. 

14 Flanks and Abdomen. The flanks and abdomen receive the heaviest amount of wear from the saddle and the 

15 associated rigging and loads. Thoroughly examine for signs of chafe and loss of hair. A lesion in this area will 

16 rapidly become worse and possibly become infected without early management. Cysts and boils will require 

17 lancing and antibiotic dressings. Relief from further irritation is essential. Do not put an ulcerated area back under 

18 blanket or harness until it is fully healed and showing hair regrowth. An animal exhibits internal pain, such as 

19 colic, the same way a human does with drawing-up and obvious attention to the afflicted region. Be sure you know 

20 the animal’s recent history of appetite and thirst. Loss of appetite is a sure sign of disorder or malady. When colic 

21 is suspected, use a stethoscope to examine the abdominal region (if colic is present, there will be an absence of 

22 normal stomach noises) and supplement with a rectal exam. 

23 Forelegs and Hooves. Examine the forelegs and hooves by lifting the lower leg rearward. Support the leg in one 

24 hand and examine the leg from sole upward. Pay particular attention to the entire hoof and each joint of the leg. To 

25 examine the hoof, you may need a hoof pick or similar device to clean the sole prior to examination. Become 

26 familiar with the section on specific injuries common to the legs and hooves found later in this chapter. Also, study 

27 the chapter on conformation to increase awareness of specific hoof and bone deformities. 

28 Hind Legs. The hind legs are best examined from slightly to the side, never directly to the rear. Lift the leg 

29 rearward and examine the hoof. Return the hoof to the ground and examine the leg from the bottom up. Pulling the 

30 tail down and to the side will encourage the animal to stand with both hooves firmly on the ground. Injuries and 

3 1 conformation problems are less common than on the forelegs. 

32 Temperature. While holding the tail down and to the side, take a rectal temperature ensuring the thermometer is 

33 well-inserted and remains in place for three minutes. Normal temperature for an equine is 99 to 101 degrees 

34 Eahrenheit (100 to 101.5 degrees for a mule). 

35 Overall Objectives 

36 Grooming is an essential part of animal care. The daily grooming period is the ideal time to perform a routine 

37 examination, excluding temperature, pulse and respiration. These are checked only when illness is suspected. Early 

38 detection and correction of problems, such as chafe, is essential in the prevention of more serious disorders and 

39 possible loss of the animal. Never overestimate the durability of the animal. A mule is more durable than a horse. 

40 However, all animals are vulnerable to a wide variety of problems caused by both the environment and infection 

41 passed from animal to animal. Despite great size and strength, these animals are among the most susceptible to 

42 injury and disease. Constant vigilance must be exercised to maintain health and effectiveness of animals during 

43 sustained operations. 

44 FIRST AID SUPPLIES 

45 A basic first aid set should be carried specifically for use on the animals because standard bandages are too small 

46 for most purposes. Place supplies in a weatherproof container in sufficient quantity to care for 10 percent of the 

47 animals. As with all critical items, duplication is suggested. 



4-5 




FM 31-27 (ID), 



1 Figure 4-1 lists the minimum supplies and equipment needed for treatment of a wounded animal. They include 

2 dressing changes since bandaging supplies (tape, cotton, gauze) will be expended rapidly and will require 

3 restocking or supplementing. 



4 


ITEM QUANTITY 


ITEM 


QUANTITY 


5 


Absorbine Thrush Remedy 


1 pt btl 


Elastic Bandage (4” x 4.5 yds) 


10 rolls 


6 


Absorbine Vet Liniment 


1 pt btl 


Gauze Pad 4” x 4” (nonsterile) 


1 pkg of 100 


7 


Betadine Solution 


1 pt btl 


Vetrap (4” x 5 yds) 


6 rolls 


8 


Betadine Surgical Scrub 


1 pt btl 


Gloves, Latex, surgical (med) 


4pr 


9 


Bigeloil 


1 pt btl 


Gloves, Rubber (med) 


1 pr 


10 


Blu-Kote 


2 ea, 4 oz pump btl 


Penlight, examination 


2 ea 


11 


Clear Eyes 


1 ea, 3 .5 oz btl 


Razor, safety w/blades 


1 ea 


12 


Corona Ointment 


1 ea, 14 oz btl 


Stethoscope 


1 ea 


13 


Eungisan 


1 ea, 12 oz btl 


Thermometer, Vet max registering 1 ea w/case 


14 


Isopropyl Alcohol 


2 ea, 1 pt btl 


Bandage, scissors (5.5”) 


1 pr 


15 


Lubricating Jelly (KY) 


1 ea, 8 oz tube 


Blade, scalpel (#2800) 


6 ea 


16 


Phisoderm 


1 ea, 5 oz btl 


Clamp, surgical (#97-436) 


2pr 


17 


Pine Tar 


1 qt can 


Dressing Eorceps (5”) 


1 ea 


18 


Cotton, Roll 


1 ea, 1 lb roll 


Handle, Scalpel 


1 ea 


19 


Cotton AVood Swabs 


250 ea 


Scissors, Surgical (#PA55-364) 


2pr 


20 


Conforming Gauze Bandage 




Tissue Eorceps, Aillis (#16-6) 


1 ea 


21 


(3” X 4.1 yds) 


12 rolls 


Adhesive Tape, Surgical 




22 


Conforming Gauze Bandage 




(2” X 10 yds) 


2 rolls 


23 


(4” X 4. 1 yds) 


12 rolls 







24 Figure 4-1. Supplies and equipment needed to treat a wounded animal. 



25 The examiner should include and apply heavyweight sutures with the same considerations as in humans. More 

26 sophisticated procedures require additional supplies. In most instances, the same equipment carried for treatment 

27 of humans is applicable to treatment of animals. Antibiotics and steroidal anti-inflammatory medicines are a 

28 notable exception. With these agents, it is either sensitivity to the drug or altered prescribing principles that pose 

29 the exception. A veterinarian, prior to inclusion in the kit, must approve all medications. Because replenishment of 

30 veterinary supplies may be difficult, you should include possible substitute or expedient materials, resupplies, and 

31 caches in mission planning. 

32 FIRST AID TREATMENT 

33 In the administration of first aid, most principles of care directly parallel treatment of humans; the major difference 

34 being in anatomical structure. Ethics will play a lesser role in treatment in the field. The decision to attempt radical 

35 procedures to save an animal or just destroy one that could have been saved under normal circumstances will more 

36 likely be made. Otherwise, the time involved for an animal to recover from lameness or the debilitation that occurs 

37 as a result of a serious injury could hamper the unit’s ability to accomplish its mission. 

38 Open Wounds 

39 Bleeding, infection, and tissue loss are the main concerns in wounds resulting from external trauma. Give 

40 particular attention to any open wound on the hoof or hind leg. These wounds pose the highest threat of 

41 contamination and subsequent infection from bacteria contained in feces. Horses and mules are very susceptible to 

42 tetanus. Supplement treatment of open wounds, especially punctures, with a tetanus booster. 



4-6 





FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 
22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 



Lacerations 

These wounds, caused by a tearing of the skin, usually result in slight to moderate bleeding. The vessels contract 
and limit the flow of blood to the affected area. Inspect the injury to determine the severity, depth of penetration, 
and degree of damage to underlying structures. Clean with soap and water to remove all foreign material. When 
the wound is small and the edges will remain closed, apply an antibiotic ointment and cover with a clean dressing. 
Close larger wounds, and those where the edges gape open, with suture or butterfly bandages. Apply antibiotic and 
a clean dressing. Keep the area dry and change the dressing daily. 

Incisions 

Incised wounds tend to bleed freely. The first priority is to STOP THE BLEEDING. Direct pressure, pressure 
dressings, tourniquets, and ligation are all used with the same indications and precautions as on humans. 
Circulation to the lower leg is mainly superficial. Consequently, use a tourniquet only when absolutely necessary 
and release it every 15 minutes. Ligation should be accomplished as soon as practical to restore circulation to the 
limb. When the wound is dirty, place a constricting band above it to reduce bleeding and quickly, but thoroughly, 
clean the wound before closing it with a dressing. Use sutures to close large or gaping incisions. When available, 
give a tetanus booster. 

Puncture Wounds 

Puncture wounds are either low or high velocity. The causative agent may remain in the wound or be withdrawn. 
In all cases, the first step is to STOP THE BLEEDING. Evaluate the severity of the wound and continue to control 
the bleeding. Low velocity wounds impact only on the actual tissue penetrated and tend to bleed freely. High 
velocity wounds impact on the actual tissue penetrated and impart a shock wave into surrounding tissue. This 
concussion tends to cause contraction of ruptured vessels, temporarily reducing the immediate blood loss. Packing 
the wound with gauze will aid in stopping blood loss when done in conjunction with standard pressure dressings. 
Impaled objects can also aid in stopping blood loss and may be left in place for a short period after being trimmed 
off flush and supported with a dressing. However, if the object impedes joint function, it must be removed. Do not 
put a topical antibiotic into a puncture wound; such an action causes systemic absorption of a topical medicine. 
Clean and dress the wound. Administer a tetanus booster, if available, especially in cases where punctures could 
allow direct access of pathogens into the bloodstream. 

The procedure for applying routine dressings is as follows: 

• Inspect the wound and take appropriate measures to stop the bleeding. 

• Cleanse the wound and surrounding area with clean, warm water and a nonirritating antibacterial soap. It 
is usually advisable to shave the area surrounding the wound during cleansing. 

• Apply a sulfonamide or other antibiotic topically. 

• Cover the wound with gauze. 

• Cover the gauze dressing with cotton padding. 

• Wrap the area with roll gauze and secure with tape. 

Remember that animals will tear off the dressing if it is loosely applied. There are roll tapes specifically intended 
for use with animals. This tape (vet wrap) sticks only to itself, diminishing the trauma of dressing changes. Also, 
beware of overtightening the dressing, creating a tourniquet. 

Closed Wounds 

Closed wounds result from external mechanisms such as overuse, hyperextension (straightening past the normal 
locking point of the joint), or hyperflexion (bending beyond the normal range of motion). Injuries include bruising, 
stretching, or tearing of connective tissue; joint dislocation; bursal inflammation or rupture; cartilage damage; and 
various degrees of bone fracture. Symptoms of these injuries are swelling, stiffness, and a partial or complete loss 
of function. 



4-7 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 Major second- and third-degree burns and displaced and open fractures require specialized, lengthy treatment and 

2 recuperation. Destroying the animal becomes a matter of operational necessity when conducting a mission. 

3 Allergic Reactions 

4 Allergy or anaphylaxis (severe allergic reaction) stems from a variety of causes. Most common are bites, stings, 

5 and skin absorption. Less common, but more serious, are reactions caused by substances eaten by the animal and 

6 entering the bloodstream. 

7 Bites and Stings. Allergic reactions to insect bites and stings result in small blistered areas (wheals) or generalized 

8 swelling (edema). The extent of swelling is dependent on the number of bites or the toxicity of the venom injected. 

9 A single fly bite will result in a wheal; whereas multiple bee stings will result in generalized swelling. Snakebites 

10 and scorpion stings produce similar reactions. Treatment is symptomatic. Apply ice to the affected area to reduce 

1 1 swelling and slow the spread of venom. Give antihistamines to reduce the reaction, especially when respiration is 

12 impaired. Generally, large animals tolerate venom better than humans. However, antihistamines increase the effect 

13 of snake venom and must not be administered. Give tetanus antitoxin and broad -spectrum antibiotics to counteract 

14 bacterial infection associated with snakebites. Emergency tracheotomy has been successfully employed in cases of 

15 respiratory distress. Constricting bands will slow dissemination while increasing local necrosis and circulatory 

16 obstruction. Anticonvulsants are indicated during the first two hours. After that, treat for shock. 

17 Urticaria (Hives). Stinging nettle, poison ivy, and chemical irritants result in blistering or rash formation. These 

18 rashes progress rapidly from localized to generalized when an animal becomes sensitized from repeated or heavy 

19 exposure to the irritant. Cold soaks and antihistamines will reduce the reaction, especially when respiratory distress 

20 develops. Ingestion of a large amount of protein will produce a similar effect. Gorging on food concentrates, 

21 spoiled hay, and a variety of other ingested substances will result in an allergic reaction (anaphylaxis). To treat the 

22 symptoms, pass a tube to remove the stomach contents and give laxatives, antihistamines, and anticonvulsants. 

23 Restricting the diet during recuperation will suffice in most cases. 

24 Burns 

25 Except for burns over a large area or those affecting respiration, a comparable wound in humans is more 

26 debilitating. The animal’s coat offers a higher degree of protection and its skin is less sensitive. Therefore, an 

27 animal will display fewer symptoms and recover more rapidly. 

28 First-degree Burns. These burns are characterized by reddening of the skin. Vesicle (blister) formation is 

29 uncommon. Localized tenderness will necessitate refitting of tack or shifting loads until the animal tolerates 

30 pressure on the afflicted area. No other treatment is necessary. 

31 Second-degree Burns. Tissue damage from these burns is limited to superficial layers of the skin. Vesicle 

32 formation occurs resulting in the peeling away of dead skin after the fluid has drained and the blister dried. Pain 

33 lasting several hours after initial injury subsides to localized tenderness. Treatment of the burn consists of 

34 trimming the coat over the afflicted area and examining the wound. Apply an appropriate topical medication (such 

35 as silvidene ointment). Cover the area for three days with a clean, dry dressing to prevent vesicle rupture. 

36 Additional padding is required under harness straps when the animal must be harnessed. Drain all vesicles on the 

37 fourth day and allow drying for five days. Continue to protect the wound during this time to prevent infection. 

38 Trim away the dried skin on the tenth day after initial injury. Place padding under tack until healing is completed. 

39 Third-degree Burus. These burns are characterized by charring of the flesh and coat. Severe tissue damage 

40 extending into underlying layers occurs. Moderate to severe pain, dehydration, and shock are symptoms. 

41 Treatment, when small areas are involved, is generally successful. However, severe burns covering a large 

42 percentage of the animal require clinical attention or destruction. Treat as second-degree burns. Encourage fluid 

43 intake, adequate rest, and diet. Topical burn preparations will lessen pain; however, novocaine (lidocaine) nerve 

44 blocks may be required for the first days. Observe for signs of dehydration, infection, and shock. 



4-8 




1 



Lameness 



FM 31-27 (ID) 



2 This general term describes many types of injury and conformation faults. Basically, lameness is caused by pain in 

3 one or more legs. Conformation faults, arthritis, and a variety of joint and tendon malfunctions result in lameness, 

4 but no first aid treatment is possible. Consequently, lameness, resulting from injury only, will be covered in this 

5 section. 

6 Examine the animal in motion to isolate the limb(s) involved. The animal will step quickly off a painful leg and 

7 swing towards its good side. Observe for stiffened joints, reduced range of motion, nodding, limping, or swaying 

8 gait. Examine suspect limbs from the sole upwards and always look for a hoof injury first. Do the examination in 

9 three parts: inspect the sole, tap the hoof, and flex the individual joints watching for evidence of pain. Walk the 

10 animal after each examination. If the gait is affected, focus on the last area examined. This procedure is time- 

1 1 consuming but is the only practical method for field use. 

12 Hoof Lameness. The hoof is vulnerable to a variety of injuries and infection. An unshod, untrimmed hoof will 

13 develop cracks. Injuries from overtrimming and improper nailing occur during routine trimming and shoeing. An 

14 animal can develop corns if it goes too long without reshoeing. While moving, impact forces cause stress on the 

15 bones, suspensory ligaments, and tendons. Rocks and a multitude of sharp objects bruise and pierce the sole or 

16 lodge under the shoe. These are injuries for the farrier and/or the veterinarian’s care. Exceptions are thrush and 

17 cracked heels. 

18 Routine care of the hoof consists of regular trimming and shoeing. During halts, inspect the sole and remove any 

19 objects that have lodged there, especially in rocky terrain. Painting the wall (outside) of the hoof with hoof oil will 

20 reduce cracking. 

21 Thrush is a fungus or bacteria infecting the frog. It is characterized by a dark, foul-smelling discharge from 

22 between the frog and the sole. Most common among stabled animals, it is caused by standing in unsanitary 

23 conditions. Treatment consists of thorough cleansing supplemented by application of iodine to the infected area 

24 around the frog only. 

25 Cracked heel is actually a skin condition affecting the pastern above the heel of the hoof. Caused by continued 

26 incomplete drying of this area, it is seen in animals pastured in wet or muddy fields. The skin develops dry scaling, 

27 which degenerates into cracking, as in athlete’s foot. Treatment consists of cleansing and thorough drying. Apply 

28 an ointment or petroleum jelly. The problem is a result of dryness and chafing. Never treat with an agent that will 

29 cause further drying of the area. 

30 Lower Leg Lameness. Injury to the lower leg is a result of either stress, caused by a misstep or prolonged travel on 

31 a hard surface, or trauma from hoof strikes inflicted by other animals or self-inflicted. Isolated occurrences result 

32 in temporary lameness. Repeated or prolonged injury generally results in formation of calluses or calcium deposits 

33 in the area. Treatment of isolated occurrences is successful when time for adequate rest is allowed. Eormation of 

34 calluses and calcium deposits require care by a veterinarian and protracted periods of rest. 

35 Synovitis. When, as the result of an inflammation, synovial fluid collects around a joint or tendon, the condition is 

36 termed synovitis. Synovial fluid is produced as a lubricant for joint motion. Inflammation will cause an 

37 overproduc- tion of this fluid, which is then trapped in and around the joint. Reabsorption occurs naturally over 

38 time in most cases, provided inflammation is reduced. Needle aspiration and cortisone injections are stop-gap 

39 measures and may result in the eventual destruction of the joint. With early diagnosis and prompt treatment, these 

40 conditions need not result in lameness. Treatment consists of rest, ice packs, and/or cold soaks and reduction of 

41 load or variations in surface traveled. Most of these conditions will leave a permanent deformity in the form of 

42 enlarged joint capsules. 

43 Sprains. Sprains of the flexor tendons or suspensory ligament occur during running or jumping but may be seen 

44 when tripping occurs on a wedged hoof. Sprain describes a stretching, tearing, or complete rupture of the affected 

45 tendon(s) or ligament. Symptoms consist of lameness, which is often severe, and pain and swelling over the injured 

46 region. Inflammation will generate warmth, detectable to the touch. In severe cases (rupture of the tendon), loss of 

47 support occurs in the joint during weight bearing. Length of recovery depends on the extent of the stretch or tear. 



4-9 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 Treatment consists of complete rest, ice packs (twice daily), or cold soaks, supplemented by supportive wrapping or 

2 casting of the leg. Recovery from a moderate tear or complete rupture requires surgical repair. Needle aspiration 

3 and cortisone injections have promoted healing in some cases. 

4 PARASITIC INFESTATION 

5 Parasites are classified according to location of residence: external (ectoparasites) or internal (endoparasites). Of 

6 the two, internal parasites are more debilitating, though it is external parasites that carry the most infectious 

7 disease and present the greatest nuisance. 

8 There are large numbers of different parasites. Of these, some affect only a specific host. Others afflict any warm- 

9 blooded animal, including man. 

10 Ectoparasites 

1 1 These external parasites that reside on or just under the surface of the skin by burrowing include insects such as 

12 flies, fleas, lice, mosquitoes, mites, and ticks. The area around the eyes, ears, neck, and anus are the most common 

13 sites of infestation because they are areas of secretion and the skin in these regions offers the easiest penetration. 

14 Symptoms depend on the type of parasite involved, ranging from rashes and blistered areas to patches of hair loss 

15 (alopecia). Animals displaying excessive itching, hair loss, or rough, thickened skin should be suspected of hosting 

16 parasites. Closer examination will reveal blisters or burrows, dried blood, or the insect itself. 

17 Treat for parasites by applying topical insecticides. This treatment works best on those parasites that remain on the 

18 host, such as mites. It is less effective on flying insects because the brief feeding period reduces total dosage 

19 absorbed. Insect repellents provide relief from these pests and are the only practical solution in a field environment. 

20 Endoparasites 

21 Internal parasites generally live within the intestinal tract. They remain there throughout their life cycle or migrate 

22 out the anus as larva to spend their adult cycle outside the host. Less common are the endoparasites that live in 

23 other internal organs or surrounding muscle tissue. Regardless of residence, the mouth is the most frequent point of 

24 entry. 

25 Symptoms are subtle, except for the dramatic appearance of the parasite exiting the anus or contained in manure 

26 deposited on the ground. Evidence of unexplained weight loss, chronic tiredness, or dullness of coat is frequently 

27 the result of parasites. These anemia-like symptoms result from the loss of nutrients to the parasite, especially a 

28 large colony of parasites. Untreated, these colonies debilitate the host, often causing blockages and colic. 

29 Treatment of internal parasites is more successful than treatment of external parasites because a more consistent 

30 dosage of antiparasitic is absorbed by the invading parasites. Preventive administration of antiparasitics is a 

31 common practice and is the most convenient method. 

32 DISEASES 

33 Zoonoses are diseases that usually only affect animals but can be transferred from animals to humans under natural 

34 conditions. Anthrax (cattle fever) and rabies are excellent examples. People working with animals are at 

35 particularly high risk for zoonotic diseases. 

36 Currently, there are immunizations for most major infectious diseases affecting horses, mules, and similar animals. 

37 The key to disease management is to follow a schedule of routine inoculation and parasite control. Additionally, 

38 proper sanitation and hygiene must be maintained. 

39 Quarantine new and ill animals to prevent the spread of disease among the healthy animals. Frequently, animals 

40 will develop flu-like symptoms after being transported or stressed by changes in environment. Disease pathogens 

41 congregate in food, bedding, and tack. Therefore, ensure that these items remain clean and are not transferred from 

42 animal to animal without some form of disinfection. 



4-10 




FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 Distemper 

2 The common name for this disease is strangles. This infectious disease occurs in dogs, cats, horses, and several 

3 other animals. The causative agent is the bacteria Streptococcus equine, a strep bacteria similar to that causing 

4 strep throat in man. 

5 Occurrence is most frequent among young animals but will occur in any equine not previously exposed or 

6 immunized. Infectious period is four weeks. Incubation period is three to six days, with flu-like symptoms. A fever 

7 with temperatures of 106 degrees Fahrenheit and inflammation of the lymph tracts and mucosa occur. A nasal 

8 discharge follows rapidly and is quite heavy. As inflammation of the lymph nodes in the neck continues, abscesses 

9 form. The animal will also have a foul smell about it. These are classic symptoms of the disease. The lymph tracts, 

10 which run the length of the neck bilaterally, become so swollen that they appear rope-like under the skin. Central 

1 1 nervous system (CNS) damage occurs in some cases. However, pneumonia is the greatest cause of mortality. 

12 Mortality may approach 100 percent among animals previously unexposed. Hence the great need for vaccination 

13 and isolation of new horses, especially any having nasal discharge, from the herd. 

14 Treatment is largely symptomatic. It is very important to get the temperature down. Streptococcus responds very 

15 well to a variety of penicillins and sulfonamides, but their use inhibits natural immune response and prolongs the 

16 period of abscessed lymph nodes. Using hot packs to bring the abscess to maturity is more appropriate. Next, incise 

17 and drain (I&D) these mature abscesses using proper techniques to prevent the invasion of other pathogens into the 

18 lymphatics. Preventive administration of antibiotics to animals having direct contact with the infected one is 

19 recommended, especially when the immunization history of the healthy animal is unknown. 

20 Tetanus 

21 An acute infectious disease, tetanus is caused by introduction of contaminated soil into tissue and the bloodstream 

22 and affects the central nervous system (CNS). This anaerobic neurotoxin is normally inactive and lives in a spore 

23 state. Usually introduced through a wound, the disease causes tissue decay, which provides the anaerobic 

24 environment required for reproduction. After reproduction, the bacteria rupture, which results in the release of the 

25 neurotoxin, migrates along the nerves to the spinal cord. 

26 Symptoms of tetanus, either ascending (motor nerve to spinal cord) or descending (lymphatic to CNS), consist of a 

27 characteristic muscle spasm after even mild stimulation and localized stiffness increases to generalized rigidity. 

28 Especially prone to spasms are the muscles in the jaw and neck, giving rise to the common name of lockjaw. 

29 Symptomatic progression leads to rigidity of the ears, spine, and legs. The stance widens (sawhorse) and the 

30 nostrils dilate. Closing (prolapse) of the third eyelid, profuse sweating, continued excitation spasm, rapid 

3 1 respiration, cardiac irritability, and arrhythmia are present in the latter stages. 

32 Treatment is begun by preventive immunization of all animals, followed by routine booster injection (tetanus 

33 toxoid). After an animal is wounded, it should receive good wound care, consisting of thorough cleansing and 

34 disinfecting of the wound site, followed by a tetanus booster. In animals that have contracted the disease, treatment 

35 consists of drainage and disinfection of the wound, removal of all dead tissue, and injection of tetanus toxoid and 

36 tetanus antitoxin (1,500-3,000 lU). Treatment with sedatives, barbiturates, and increased dosages of antitoxin 

37 (300,000 lU @ 12 hrs) has succeeded in moderately severe cases. Supplement treatment by keeping the animal in a 

38 darkened, quiet stall. Avoid any incidence of startling the animal. Elevate food and water since the animal has 

39 difficulty lowering its head. Recovery periods average two to six weeks. 

40 Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) 

41 Commonly known as swamp fever, EIA is a viral disease very common among horses worldwide. Transmission 

42 occurs from blood-to-blood interaction such as in the use of contaminated syringes or scalpels. It can reach 

43 epidemic proportions when transmitted by blood-sucking flies. 

44 The disease is characterized by flu-like, low-grade fevers, yellowing of the gums, depression of appetite and 

45 demeanor, weight loss, and obvious signs of anemia during microscopic blood examination. Continued weight loss, 

46 enlarged spleen, swelling of the infected area, debilitation, and death follow if the disease is untreated. Diagnosis 



4-11 




1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 
22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 



FM 31-27 (ID) 

through the use of a serological test (Coggins test) is done in the clinical environment. This test shows the presence 
of antibodies in the blood of an infected animal. Vaccines exist although their effectiveness is questionable. 
Quarantine of any suspect or new animal and symptomatic treatment is the only therapy. Control of vectors, by use 
of insect repellents and insecticides, plus proper sterilization of medical instruments will minimize the impact of 
this disease on the herd. 



Colic 

Although not a disease, colic causes debilitation and occurs in sufficient incidence to require more definitive 
explanation. Colic is a distention of the bowel resulting from excessive gas production (flatulent colic), impaction 
of feces or bowel obstruction from colonies of intestinal parasites (obstructive colic), twisted intestine (torsional 
colic), or gorging or overfeeding (spasmodic colic). Colic may also result from circulatory problems due to the 
inactivity of bowel segments. 

Regardless of the type of colic and its cause, the animal exhibits a sudden loss of appetite, depression, and frank 
attention to the abdominal region (refer to Internal Injury, page 4-2). Bowel sounds frequently diminish or alter. 
Rectal examination may locate the obstructed region. Marked distention of the flanks may be present, especially in 
young animals or in severe stages. 

Treatment is largely symptomatic. Keep the animal on its feet to reduce the chance of complications. Pass a bloat 
tube (nasogastric) to relieve gastric distention. Administer mineral oil (two to four liters) by stomach tube to 
disperse impactions. You may supplement the mineral oil by administering an osmotic laxative (magnesium 
sulfate) or an irritant (neostigmine). Analgesics, to prevent self-injury, may be indicated (meperidine 0.5-1 mg/lb 
[1-2 mg/kg] IM, phenylbutazone 1-2 mg/lb [2-4 mg/kg] IV or similar drugs). Decompression through the use of a 
large-bore needle (trocharization) inserted into the upper flank is effective in relief of severe distention. Prevention, 
through proper diet, dental care, and parasite control, is the most effective method of dealing with colic. 

IMMUNIZATION SCHEDULE 

The following paragraphs list several diseases that plague animals and a suggested immunization schedule. 

• Encephalomyelitis, Eastern and Western strains: Eor all horses of all ages, two injections each spring or 
summer, seven to fourteen days apart. 

• Distemper (Strangles): Three weekly injections initially, followed by an annual booster, until the horse is 
five years old. Incidents of anaphylaxis (injection reaction) have occurred, to include hoof sloughing. 

• Equine Influenza: Two injections initially (one year old), four to eight weeks apart, followed by a booster 
each successive year. 

• Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis (VEE): One injection (yearly) during spring or summer. 

• Tetanus (Lockjaw): Two injections the first year, four to eight weeks apart, followed by a booster each 
successive year. 

MEDICAL SUPPLY LIST 

In addition to the supplies contained in the veterinary first aid kit, Eigure 4-2, page 4-12, lists the items that are 
consolidated into a single kit for use in more definitive care. 



4-12 




1 



FM 31-27 (ID) 



Kit, minor surgical 


NSN 6545-00-957-7650 


Float, dental, vet 


NSN 6515-00-938-4301 


Needle, hypodermic, 14 gal, 1/2 in 


NSN 6515-00-938-4411 


Needle, hypodermic, 15 gal, 3 in 


NSN 6516-00-938-4378 


Needle, hypodermic, 15 gal, 3 3/4 in 


NSN 6515-00-938-4377 


Set, IV injection, vet 


NSN 6515-00-938-4678 


Pump, injection and suction, vet 


NSN 6515-00-938-4718 


Suture, nonabsorbable, surgical size 


NSN 6515-00-938-4722 


Suture, nonabsorbable, surgical size 


NSN 6515-01-035-5601 


Twitch, chain 


NSN 3770-00-191-8055 


Clipper, hair 


NSN 3770-00-804-4700 


Stethoscope, bell/diaphragm 


NSN 6515-01-304-1027 


Thermometer, maximum registering, vet 


NSN 6515-00-812-7000 


Tube, nasogastric, vet 


NSN 6515-01-153-5387 


Gloves, examination, vet 


NSN 8415-01-359-7935 


The Merck Veterinary Manual 


ISBN 0911910557 



2 Figure 4-2. Consolidated list of items used for definitive care. 

3 EUTHANASIA 

4 The term “euthanasia” refers to the ending of a life, in a humane manner, to relieve suffering from illness or 

5 injury. While caring for animals during combat conditions, you may find that serious illness or injury will 

6 necessitate the destruction of an animal that is beyond the scope of available medical treatment. Euthanasia under 

7 field conditions is frequently a rather brutal affair, without the poisonous gases and injectable venoms used in the 

8 clinic. Despite this lack of “civilized” methods of destruction, every effort should be taken to effect euthanasia as 

9 rapid and painlessly as possible. In addition, any personnel near the animal must exercise caution to avoid injury to 

10 themselves should the animal be grievously wounded but not immediately killed. The thrashing of these powerful 

1 1 animals will result in injury to bystanders and could create panic among other animals stationed nearby. Keep 

12 other animals as far away from the site as possible. 

13 A variety of methods are available for field euthanasia. Of these, most are impractical because they require a very 

14 advanced degree of anatomical expertise or require dosages of common drugs in amounts larger than would 

15 logically be available. Consequently, simple mechanical methods of destruction are all that will be available to the 

16 average soldier. 

17 Small Arms Fire 

18 The most preferable method of expedient destruction is to shoot the animal in the base of the skull. A bullet fired at 

19 a point centered on and slightly above the eyes or from the side slightly above and behind the root of the ear is also 

20 acceptable. Because of the penetration needed to enter the skull, a rifle is more effective than a pistol for this 

21 purpose. Another area that will result in death but will produce only grievous injury if improperly aimed is the 

22 heart. This area is located low in the chest, just under the rear portion of the foreleg. 

23 Hemorrhage 

24 Bleeding the animal out by severing the large blood vessels located in the neck has been suggested as a silent 

25 method for use when detection is likely. Although effective, this method is less humane than shooting. Expect the 



4-13 





FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 animal to react violently during the initial one to two minutes of hemorrhage and take the necessary precautions to 

2 avoid injury to others. Along this line, it is entirely feasible to place a large bore needle, such as an IV catheter, in 

3 the veins located in the animal’s neck (jugular) and bleed the animal out in this manner. Although this method 

4 will be considerably slower than a large incision of these veins, it will be virtually painless. 

5 Equines, despite their immense size and strength, are fairly fragile animals. Nearly any injury resulting in a 

6 fracture of the legs will necessitate destruction of the animal. If the animal was otherwise healthy, the meat of the 

7 animal may be used as food. Avoid eating animals who were ill or infested with internal parasites. Examination of 

8 the liver and the external surfaces of the intestines will offer evidence of parasitic colonies. 

9 When a veterinarian is available to the unit, obtain supply and instruction in the use of commercially available 

10 drugs that produce euthanasia in a rapid, humane, and silent manner. 

1 1 PHARMACOLOGICAL LISTING 

12 Eigure 4-3 lists antibiotics, antiparasitics, and antifungals along with their recommended drugs, dosages, and 

13 routes used to treat pack animals. 



Antibiotics 


Penicillin 


Sodium pen G, IV, IM 10,000-20,000 lU/kg, q6 hr 

Potassium pen G, PO 25,000 lU/kg, q6 hr 

Procaine pen G, IM, subq 10,000-30,000 lU/kg, q 12-24 hr 

Benzathine pen G, IM 10,000-40,000 lU/kg, q48-72 hr 

AmpicillinlV, IM, subq5-10 mg/kg, q8-12 hr, oral 10-25 mg/kg, q6-12 hr 

Amoxicillin, IM 4-7 mg/kg, q 12-24 hr 


Cephalosporin 


Cefazolin IV, IM 20-25 mg/kg, q6-8 hr 


Aminoglycosides 


Gentamicin, IM, subq 1-2 mg/kg, q8 hr 
Kanamycin, IM, subq 4-5 mg/kg, q8 hr 


Tetracycline 


Oxytetracycline, IV 5 mg/kg, q 12-24 hr 


Sulfonamides 


Sulfathiazole, PO (initial) 66 mg/kg (maintenance) 66 mg/kg, q8 hr 
Sulfadiazine, PO (initial) 50 mg/kg (maintenance) 50 mg/kg, ql2 hr 


Antiparasitics 


Anthelmintic 


Thiabendazole PO 44 mg/kg, q24 hr or 22 mg/kg, ql2 hr 


Antifungals 


Iodine 


Topical 


Copper Sulfate 


Topical 


Tolnaftate 


Topical 



14 Figure 4-3. Pharmacological listing. 



4-14 





FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 CHAPTER 5 

2 PACKING EQUIPMENT 

3 This chapter explains some of the most commonly used packing equipment, how it should be maintained, and how 

4 it should be fitted to the animal. There are variations in equipment. However, the principles for using it remain the 

5 same. 

6 PACK SADDLES 

7 The two types of pack saddles discussed in this chapter are the sawbuck or crosstree and the Decker saddles. They 

8 are both very adaptable to different types of loads and, therefore, are the best type to use in carrying cargo of 

9 different weights and sizes. The Decker saddles can carry side loads, top loads, or a combination of the two. Both 

10 saddles can accommodate standard packing hitches with a minimum requirement for tying and threading lash 

1 1 ropes to secure a load. They can be quickly and easily packed and unpacked. Both saddles also require a harness. 

12 Sawbuck Saddle 

13 The sawbuck saddle is one of the oldest types of pack saddles still in use throughout the world. It is the simplest 

14 and most easily constructed. The sawbuck saddle consists of two side bars connected at the front and rear by 

15 crosspieces (bucks) forming an “X” over the spine. The two side bars are called “humane bars” if they are curved 

16 to fit the shape of the animal’s body. The humane bars allow the saddle to fit the animal better and make carrying 

17 the load more comfortable to the animal. Most sawbuck saddles produced today have humane bars. Cargo is 

18 carried on the saddle in panniers, hung from the bucks, or carried by hitches and slings. 

19 Decker Saddle 

20 The Decker saddle is made basically the same way as the sawbuck. The difference is that it has metal hoops instead 

21 of crossbucks holding the humane bars together. Some packers prefer the Decker to the sawbuck saddle because the 

22 humane bars on the Decker can be adjusted by bending the metal hoops to fit the animal better. The animal carries 

23 cargo in nearly the same manner as on the sawbuck. The difference with the Decker is that the panniers are hung 

24 over the hoops instead of the crossbucks. Sometimes Decker saddles have “ears” welded to the hoops to keep the 

25 panniers from slipping off or to run the sling rope around when using one. The ears are pieces of metal stock 

26 approximately 2 inches long and 1/2 inch in diameter and are welded to the hoops near the top on either side. 

27 Panniers with adjustable straps are sometimes secured to the Decker by running the strap under the hoops and then 

28 fastening the buckle. 

29 Saddle Harness 

30 A variety of different straps form the harness. It holds and stabilizes the saddle to the animal. The main 

3 1 components of the harness are the cinches, breast collar, breeching, and crupper. The packer secures all of the 

32 straps either directly to the saddle or to the rigging. 

33 Rigging. The rigging is a leather strap that wraps around the crossbucks on the sawbuck and around the hoops on 

34 a Decker. Secure it to the humane bars with screws and allow the ends to hang below the bars. Attach the rigging 

35 rings to the ends of the straps. Then secure the latigos, which are used to secure the cinches, and the connecting 

36 straps, which help hold the breeching and breast collar in place, to the rigging rings. 

37 Cinches. Cinches are the part of the harness that hold the saddle to the animal and provide stability to the saddle 

38 once it is packed. Most pack saddles have two cinches, one in front and one in the rear. They fit around the belly, 

39 or barrel, of the animal. Secure the cinches to the rigging rings by the latigos. 

40 Breast Collar. The breast collar provides stability to the saddle while the animal is traveling uphill. It keeps the 

41 saddle from moving rearward over the animal’s kidneys and rump. The breast collar is usually made of leather or 



5-1 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 cotton duck material and is approximately 4 inches wide. Two connecting straps from the front of the humane bars 

2 secure the breast strap. 

3 Breeching. The breeching fits around the animal’s hips and keeps the saddle from moving forward over its withers 

4 while traveling downhill. The breeching is made of leather or cotton duck material and is approximately four 

5 inches wide. It is held in place by connecting straps, back straps, quarter straps and hip straps. The connecting 

6 straps run from the rigging rings to the ends of the breeching. The back straps run from the rear of the humane 

7 bars to a metal ring (called a spider) that rests on the animal’s rump. The hip straps run from the metal ring to the 

8 breeching. 

9 Crupper. The crupper is a leather strap that runs under the animal’s tail and attaches to the metal ring. It keeps 

10 the saddle from slipping forward. Cruppers serve the same purpose as the breeching but are not widely used. You 

1 1 can use them in place of, or with, the breeching. 

1 2 HALTER AND PACKING EQUIPMENT 

13 A halter is a control device that fits around an animal’s head and must be placed on the animal prior to packing it. 

14 By controlling its head, a person can control the animal. The halter is used mainly for leading rather than riding an 

15 animal. Without one it would be next to impossible to maintain control of an animal for any length of time. Halters 

16 are simple devices constructed generally of nylon webbing or rope. Another essential item for controlling an 

17 animal is the lead line or lead rope. A lead line is a piece of rope usually 3/4 inch in diameter, made of pliable 

18 material, usually cotton or nylon, and approximately 10 feet long. The line attaches to the halter under the chin of 

19 the animal. It can either be permanently spliced into the lead line ring or attached by means of a snap. 

20 To place a halter on an animal, hold the halter with the lead line ring down, the closed end to the front of the 

21 animal’s nose, and the open end to the rear of the animal’s head. Slip the closed end over the nose, bring the 

22 running end of the open end over the back of the animal’s head behind his ears, and attach it. 

23 It helps to keep one foot on the running end of the lead line to prevent the animal from pulling the halter away as 

24 you are putting it on him. 

25 Saddle Pad 

26 The saddle pad provides the only protection between the loaded saddle and the animal’s hide. Pack pads are 

27 usually thicker than riding pads because a pack animal carries “dead” weight. A riding animal carries “live” 

28 weight, which means that a rider will shift his weight as the animal traverses different types of terrain. A pack load 

29 is “dead weight,” which means it will not move with the animal. It is important that the saddle pad be made of a 

30 material that will stay soft and not compress and get hard during use. 

3 1 Some packers use what is called a cheater pad on animals that have high withers. These small pads are usually 

32 made of tail and mane hair sewn between two pieces of canvas. The cheaters can be placed between two regular 

33 pack pads in the wither area to raise the front of the pack saddle off the withers and yet have the saddle set evenly 

34 on the pack animal’s back. 

35 Saddle Cover 

36 The saddle cover, sometimes called a half breed, is used when it is necessary to protect the animal’s flanks from 

37 the load or the saddle rigging. It is commonly made of two pieces of canvas sewn together with slots cut in it so 

38 that it will fit over the crossbucks or hoops. The cover can have padding sewn into it or it can have stuffing slits so 

39 that the user can fill it with as much padding as is necessary for the load. Half breeds usually have sideboards made 

40 of wood, two to four inches wide, attached near the bottom to provide further protection to the animal’ s flanks. The 

41 half breed can be placed over the saddle once it is on the animal, or it can be placed over the humane bars and 

42 under the rigging. 

43 Manta 

44 A manta is the cover, usually made of canvas, that you place over the entire load after securing the load to the pack 

45 saddle. It protects the load from trees, bushes, rocks, or anything else the animal may brush against while it is 



5-2 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 moving. The manta also provides a degree of protection for the load from rain and snow. The size is generally 8 

2 feet by 10 feet. However, you can use any size that will protect the load. 

3 Lash Rope and Cinch 

4 The lash rope and cinch secure the load and mantee to the animal by means of different types of packing hitches. 

5 The lash rope is usually 45 to 50 feet long, 1/2 to 5/8 inch in diameter, and made of manila or nylon. The lash 

6 cinch is usually made of heavy cotton duck material with a ring at one end and a hook at the other. The lash rope is 

7 spliced to the cinch at the end with the ring. 

8 Sling Rope 

9 The sling rope fastens to the front crossbuck on a sawbuck saddle or the front hoop on a Decker. It secures loads 

10 that will not fit in panniers or secures panniers that do not have straps. They are secured by means of different 

1 1 types of packing slings. A sling rope is usually 30 feet long, 1/4 to 3/8 inch in diameter, and made of hemp, nylon, 

12 or polyester. 

13 Panniers 

14 Panniers are cargo containers that hang from the crossbucks on a sawbuck saddle or the metal hoops on a Decker 

15 saddle. Some panniers do not have straps to hold them to the saddle. If they don’t have straps, you can use the 

16 sling rope to hold the panniers in place. The dimensions of most commercially made panniers are approximately 

17 26 inches long, 19 inches high, and 12 inches deep. They are made of many different types of materials. Some of 

18 the most popular are canvas, hard plastic, plywood covered with fiberglass, or a wood frame covered with cowhide. 

19 CARE OF EQUIPMENT 

20 The packer has the primary responsibility for the care and preservation of pack saddlery. You should perform the 

21 routine cleaning, preservation, and daily inspection for the following equipment to ensure mission readiness: 

22 Check saddles daily to ensure there are no cracked, broken, or loose parts. Also check the crossbucks (or hoops), 

23 humane bars, rigging, and latigos. Tighten any loose items and repair or replace cracked or broken parts. Clean 

24 any mud or other debris from the saddles that may have collected during the day’s movement. 

25 Check all parts of the harness for signs of wear, breaks, cleanliness, and serviceability (Figure 5-1). 



Cinches 


Check cinches for any broken strands. Check the cinch rings for any signs of cracking or metal 
fatigue. Repair or replace any damaged pieces. 


Breast 

Collar 


Check the breast collar and connecting straps for any signs of wear or debris collected during the 
day’s movement. Check the fastening devices to ensure serviceability. Repair or replace items as 
necessary. 


Breeching 


Check the breeching and all associated straps for cleanliness and serviceability. Pay close attention to 
all fastening devices. Repair or replace items as necessary. 


Crupper 


Check the crupper (if used) for cleanliness and serviceability. 



26 Figure 5-1. Parts of the harness. 

27 Brush or shake out the saddle pads after you remove them from the animal. Check them thoroughly for any foreign 

28 objects that can come in contact with the animal’s hide. Lay the saddle pads where they can air out and dry. 

29 Treat the saddle cover in the same manner as you treat the saddle pad. In addition, check the wooden bars for 

30 serviceability. Check the padding to see if some should be added or taken out. 

3 1 Check the manta for rips, holes, and general serviceability. 

32 Check the lash and sling rope for signs of wear. Replace or repair them immediately if there are signs of excessive 

33 wear. Breaking a lash or sling rope on the trail is a sure way to cause a wreck. Try to keep the ropes as dry as 



5-3 





FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 possible, especially if the rope is made of hemp. Wet weather causes hemp ropes to become hard to manage. Wet 

2 hemp ropes will dry and stretch out leaving the pack loose or uneven. Don’t throw the ropes on the wet ground 

3 while packing or unpacking an animal. Hang them on a tree limb or lay them on a tarp or any dry surface until you 

4 are ready to use them. 



5-4 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 Check the lash cinch often for signs of the material fraying. Badly frayed material can tear on the trail and cause a 

2 load to come loose. Frayed material can also rub on the animal’s belly and cause a sore. Check the cinch ring for 

3 signs of wear and metal fatigue. Replace or repair items as necessary. 

4 Clean panniers and check them for overall serviceability. Most important, check the straps and fasteners on the 

5 straps that hold them to the saddle. 

6 Keep all leather items clean and free of grit and dirt. In cleaning off mud or excessive dirt, use a grooming brush 

7 or a blunt piece of wood. Use a sponge, lukewarm water, and saddle soap. After cleaning, apply neat’s- foot oil to 

8 the leather for both protection and appearance. Clean all metal parts as well. 

9 Keep equipment made from canvas and duck material free of dirt and mildew. A frequent brushing will remove 

10 dirt. The best remedy for mildew is air and sunlight. 

1 1 FITTING AND ADJUSTING THE SADDLE 

12 You should not place too much stress on the proper positioning of the saddle and correct cinch adjustment. 

13 Improper adjustment may cause injury to the animal or may affect the time and distance the animal can carry its 

14 load. Before placing anything on the animal’s back, it is important to be sure that the animal feels comfortable 

15 about it. Many will get skittish if they are unfamiliar with the equipment. A good way to get the animal 

16 accustomed to the equipment is to hold it in front of the animal and let him see it and smell it. You should saddle 

17 the animal with the packer standing on the left (on-side) of the animal. When making adjustments to the saddle or 

18 harness, you will have to move to the right (off-side) of the animal. You should always move around the rear of the 

19 animal when moving from one side to the other while saddling. To do this, get close to the animal and maintain 

20 contact with it by keeping a hand on its rump. If the animal should kick while you are moving around it, receiving 

21 a kick from a short distance is much better than from a long distance after the full force of the kick has been 

22 generated. 

23 Grooming 

24 You must always try to groom the pack animal before saddling it. Remove any debris from the animal that may 

25 cause saddle sores while grooming it. Also check for any sores from the previous movement or sores that may have 

26 occurred during the night. Treat the sores as necessary or ask the medic or vet for assistance. If there is any 

27 question as to the ability of the animal to carry a load, ask the medic or vet to make a determination. You do not 

28 want to make any sores already present worse. 

29 Pad Placement 

30 Check the saddle pad thoroughly for any foreign objects before placing it on the animal. Place the saddle pad 

31 square on the animal’s back forward of where you want it to rest and then slide it rearward into position. Sliding 

32 the pad rearward will make the hair lay naturally and prevent sores. The forward portion of the pad should be over 

33 the withers with its forward edge about a hand’s breadth in front of the rear edge of the shoulder blade. 

34 You may need more than one pack pad or cheater pad depending on the shape of the animal’s back. The best way 

35 to determine how many pads you need is to set the packsaddle on the animal and then check the clearance between 

36 the saddle and the animal’s withers. Allow for the saddle settling down on the pads after the animal is loaded. If 

37 there is any chance of the saddle forks coming in contact with the top of the wither, put another pack pad under the 

38 saddle. Be careful not to get too much padding on the withers so that the pack saddle is pinching the withers from 

39 the pads being too thick. The purpose of putting extra padding on a high withered animal is to raise the pack 

40 saddle off the tops of the withers. If the pads you are using are the same thickness throughout you haven’t gained 

41 much. The pad must be thicker over the withers and thinner towards the rear of the animal. A cheater pad sits on 

42 the withers only and that is why it is usually the best thing to use for a high-withered animal. 

43 Saddle Placement 

44 Place the saddle square on the pack pads allowing 2 to 4 inches of padding to be exposed in the front and rear of 

45 the saddle. The forward edge of the saddle will be approximately 2 to 3 inches to the rear of the shoulder blades. It 



5-5 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 is important to ensure there is adequate saddle pad forward of the saddle to protect the animal’s back from the 

2 leading edge of the saddle. 



5-6 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 Fasten the cinches, the front one first, making sure there are no twists in the off-side latigos or the cinches 

2 themselves. The front cinch should be a hand’s breadth to the rear of the front leg. 

3 Tighten the cinches just enough to hold the saddle in place until you have the breast collar and breeching adjusted. 

4 At this time you should also attach the breeching and breast collar. The instructions for adjustment follow. 

5 Breast Collar 

6 The breast collar should ride just at the animal’s shoulder and go around the breast below the animal’s neck. It 

7 should not be tight; its only function is to keep the saddle from slipping back. Adjust the breast collar so that it is 

8 snug when a front leg is fully extended. Ensure the two connecting straps are adjusted to the same length so that 

9 the breast collar rides evenly. 

10 Breeching 

1 1 Once the saddle is in place and cinched lightly, you must adjust the breeching. You should perform the following 

12 steps to adjust the breeching: 

13 Place the spider on the animal’s rump and adjust the back straps so that it is approximately 6 to 8 inches forward 

14 of the base of the tail. Ensure that both straps are the same length so the ring will stay centered. Adjust the hip 

15 straps so the breeching rides approximately halfway between the base of the tail and the bottom of the 

16 hindquarters. Adjust the straps on both sides to the same length to ensure the breeching rides level. 

17 Attach the crupper if used. Lift the animal’s tail and slide the crupper under it. Always be very careful when 

18 working around the animal’s hind end. Some will want to try to kick. The best thing to do is stay very close to the 

19 animal with your side touching the animal’s flank. The animal will telegraph any intention to kick by tightening 

20 its muscles. Also watch the animal’s ears. If it intends to kick, it will lay its ears back. As you lift its tail to slide 

21 the crupper under it, talk to the animal reassuringly. It will help calm the animal. The crupper should be snug 

22 against the base of the tail but not tight. Ensure both connecting straps on the crupper are the same length so the 

23 crupper will ride evenly. 

24 Adjust the connecting straps. A good rule of thumb to follow for adjusting the connecting straps is to make sure 

25 that, when the animal is walking and one hind leg reaches its rearmost position in the stride, the breech strap is 

26 firmly against the animal’s rump. The breeching should not be so tight as to hinder the animal’s natural gait. 

27 However, if it is too loose it is useless. 

28 Connect the quarter straps to the front cinch ring. You should adjust them snugly to keep the front cinch from 

29 moving forward while the animal is moving. After the initial adjustment of the breeching is made you must pull 

30 the animal’s tail out from under the breeching. See the method for crupper adjustment above for the best method to 

31 do this. 

32 The breeching is now adjusted approximately to where it should be. Walk the animal around to check how the 

33 breeching is riding on the animal and make adjustments as necessary. 

34 When traveling down long steep slopes, it may be necessary to tighten the back and connecting straps some to keep 

35 the saddle from slipping over the withers and shoulders. 

36 Cinching 

37 Proper cinching is essential because the pack saddle covers so great an area of moving surface. Excessive binding 

38 of the front cinch may injure the back and sides, interfere with breathing, or cause cinch sores. You should use the 

39 front cinch to secure the saddle in place and make sure it is tighter than the rear cinch. The rear cinch keeps the 

40 saddle from rocking from front to rear as the animal is walking. Therefore, it does not need to be as tight as the 

41 front cinch. Since the hind legs are the propelling members, the hindquarters move both from side-to-side and up- 

42 and-down. You should make sure these movements are not restricted by cinch pressure. There must be no 

43 interference with the animal’s locomotion. Only experience can teach you how to determine the exact amount of 

44 cinch pressure needed. A safe rule to follow is to give the front cinch sufficient pressure to hold the saddle in place. 

45 Usually one finger should pass easily between the front cinch and the animal’s chest. 



5-7 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 You should tighten the rear cinch enough to limit the rocking motions of the saddle and to help prevent the saddle 

2 from slipping forward. Make sure the rear cinch is not so tight that the whole hand cannot be slipped under it. In 

3 testing cinch pressure, you should be able to insert a finger from the rear to the front so that, when it is withdrawn, 

4 the hair does not ruffle. Ruffled hair may cause sores. Excessive binding of the rear cinch will cause a pack animal 

5 to tire quickly. It is very important to center the cinch on the animal’s belly. The cinch rings on either side of the 

6 cinch should be the same distance from the rigging when the cinch is pulled tight. An uneven cinch could cause 

7 cinch sores or cause the saddle to slip. You should secure the latigos on both sides of the saddle with a quick 

8 release knot. This knot is important because it will allow the load to be released quickly from an animal if it falls 

9 onto its side or upside down. With other knots it is necessary to cut the load away from the animal. Having to cut 

10 the load may cause injury to the animal and will ruin the latigos or cinches on the saddle. 

11 To fasten the cinch on the animal, run the latigo through the cinch ring (the end of the latigo is run through the 

12 cinch ring so that it comes through the ring towards the packer) and back up through the rigging ring (the end of 

13 the latigo is run through the rigging ring so that it goes through the ring towards the animal). If the latigos are 

14 long, or the animal has a small barrel, you may have to wrap them more than once to take up the excess length of 

15 the latigo. The knot used is a “half-Windsor.” To form this knot, bring the running end of the latigo around the 

16 portion of the latigo running through the rigging ring, up through the rear of the rigging ring, and down through 

17 the loop just formed. Form the quick release by passing the running end of the latigo up through the knot just 

18 formed. 

19 Final Adjustments 

20 When the saddle is in the right position on the animal and the breast collar, breeching, and cinches are snug, it is 

21 time to “untrack” the animal prior to packing it. Many times an animal will force air into its lungs and belly when 

22 it realizes that it is going to be saddled. It does this to make the saddle fit more comfortably. Once the animal starts 

23 moving, it will expel the air and the saddle will fit more loosely. If the animal is packed without untracking it, the 

24 saddle could slip shortly after movement begins and the whole load will have to be repacked. To untrack an 

25 animal, take it from the place it was saddled and walk it around for approximately 30 seconds. Tie it up and 

26 tighten the cinches again if needed. The animal is now ready to be packed. 

27 Marking Saddles 

28 After the saddle is fitted to the pack animal, it should be marked with the animal’s name or number and used with 

29 the same animal throughout the movement. The same saddle pads and, if needed, cheater pads should be kept with 

30 the animal so the saddle will fit the same every time. This will save time refitting the pack saddles every time the 

3 1 unit prepares to move. 

32 UNSADDLING THE ANIMAL 

33 The animal is unsaddled in the opposite sequence that it is saddled. By following this sequence the saddle will be 

34 stored in a manner that will make saddling the animal quick and easy the next time it is needed. Since the breast 

35 strap, breeching, and cinches were adjusted properly when the animal was saddled. you can keep the proper 

36 adjustment if you only loosen the quarter straps, cinches, and breast collar (on-side strap and the strap going to the 

37 hobble ring). 

38 Follow these procedures to properly unsaddle an animal: 

39 Unfasten the breast collar strap from the front hobble ring on the front cinch. Unfasten the breast collar strap from 

40 the on-side connection. Take the breast collar strap from around the neck of the animal. Run the on-side breast 

41 collar strap under the bucks from the rear to the front leaving the buckle visible at the rear of the saddle. Lay the 

42 excess strap on the animal’s neck. Fold the excess breast collar into the center of the saddle between the bucks. 

43 Unfasten the quarter straps and hook them onto the rear rigging rings. Unfasten the rear cinch. Put the running 

44 end of the latigo through the rigging ring twice. Bring the running end around the latigo, up through the rear of 

45 the rigging ring and down through the loop just formed. Repeat the procedure for the front cinch. 



5-8 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 Slide the saddle rearward to loosen the breeching. If a crupper is used, unfasten the on-side strap and lift the 

2 animal’ s tail to remove it. Lift the breeching over the rump and place the spider and crupper, if used, between the 



5-9 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 bucks. Lay the breeching across the saddle between the bucks. Fold the excess straps into the center of the saddle 

2 between the bucks. Fold the cinches into the center of the saddle on top of the breeching. 

3 Take in the portion of the breast strap that runs under the bucks and loop it around the breeching and cinches 

4 folded into the center of the saddle. Ensure the strap runs diagonally across the saddle so the strap will tighten as 

5 much as possible. Secure the strap with the buckle. 

6 NOTE: If the animal is unruly, it may be necessary to just get the saddle off of the animal and stow the rigging 
1 later. 

8 The saddle is now ready to be put on the animal the next time it is needed. Place it wherever it is to be stored. 

9 Remove the saddle pads from the animal. Shake them out or brush them. Place the pads over the saddle with the 

10 side that was against the animal facing out so they will dry. If a sling rope is used, wrap it around the bucks in a 

1 1 figure 8 manner. 

12 If the lash rope is not going to be used for a night line, the proper way to roll it is as follows. Hold the lash cinch by 

1 3 the cinch ring and coil the rope. Grasp the lash cinch by the hook and wrap it around the coiled rope once and 

14 place the hook through the cinch ring. Hang it by the hook for storage. 

1 5 SADDLING WITH A FITTED SADDLE 

16 Saddling an animal with a saddle that has been fitted to it is much less time-consuming than saddling and having 

17 to adjust the breeching. 

18 Figure 5-2 lists the steps for saddling with a fitted saddle. 



1 . Properly groom the animal. 


2. Place the saddle pad on the animal. 


3. Place the saddle on the animal approximately 6 inches to the rear of its position. 


4. Loosen the strap holding the cinches and rigging together between the bucks. 


5. Let the cinches fall to the off-side of the animal. 


6. Pull the breeching from the stowed position and fit it around the rump of the animal. 


7. Slide the saddle forward to its proper position. 


8. Attach the front cinch loosely. 


9. Attach the rear cinch. 


10. Attach the quarter straps to the front cinch ring. 


1 1 . Attach the crupper, if used. 


12. Attach the breast collar. 


13. Tighten the front cinch. 


14. Since the saddle has already been adjusted to the animal, it should fit properly without further 
adjustment. Check the fit of the saddle and all the rigging, however, to make sure it does fit 
properly. 



19 Figure 5-2. Procedure for saddling with a fitted saddle. 



5-10 





FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 CHAPTER 6 

2 HORSEMANSHIP 

3 The following information on horsemanship is to guide unfamiliar personnel. In many cases, authorities vary on 

4 how to perform many functions of good horsemanship, even when presented with the same task. Tactical, 

5 environmental, social, and other factors influence how animals are used in a combat environment. 

6 The descriptions of equipment and techniques are based on the American-Western style of riding. This style of 

7 riding is most familiar to U.S. soldiers and the most easily adaptable to sustained combat operations. 

8 The emphasis on American-Western style is one of functionality and stability, but as in any style of riding, success 

9 is dependent on rider performance. As in most cases, any basic flaws in technique can most likely magnify during 

10 combat operations. 

11 A pack animal unit will have to improvise equipment or adapt to indigenous equipment in many cases. A basic 

12 knowledge of animals, equipment design and function, and tactics should be sufficient for a detachment to perform 

13 their mission given any set of circumstances. 

14 It should be noted that reading this chapter is in no way any substitute for experience. 

15 EQUIPMENT 

16 The following equipment descriptions and instructions for use come from the American -Western style of 

17 equipment. In the horse industry, these items are known as tack. Variations of these items are commonplace but 

18 the principles of their design and use remain constant. 

19 Bridle and Reins 

20 The rider uses the bridle to control the animal when he rides. The bridle consists of various lengths of leather or 

21 nylon that you can adjust to fit the animal. Its basic components include the following; 

22 The bit rests against the back of an animal’s mouth and controls the animal by transferring pressure from the reins 

23 to the animal’s mouth. 

24 The rider uses the reins or steering lines to command the animal. They are generally leather, approximately 72 to 

25 84 inches long, and can be either split reins (not joined at the ends) or joined at the end. They are attached to the 

26 bit at the side rings. 

27 The curb chain or strap gives the animal pressure on the bottom of the jawbone when the reins are pulled and 

28 assists in stopping the animal. 

29 Cheek straps run the length of the bridle. Their purpose is to join the bit and the headpiece. 

30 The headpiece runs behind the ears and gives long axis anchor to the bridle. 

3 1 The browband runs across the forehead and holds the headpiece in place. 

32 The throatlash runs from the junction of the headpiece and the browband on each side and under the animal’s 

33 throat. It serves to further anchor the headpiece. 

34 The noseband fits around the animal’s nose several inches behind the mouth. It serves to keep the animal from 

35 opening its mouth too wide and to provide stability for the bridle. 

36 NOTE: There are many types of bridles. The components identified are not necessarily present on all bridles. 

37 Figure 6-1, page 6-2, explains how to put the bridle on the animal. 



6-1 




FM 31-27 (ID), 



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14 Figure 6-1. Steps for putting the bridle on the animal. 

15 Saddle Pad 

16 Riding pads are generally the same as the pads used on packing animals. The average size is 30 x 30 inches. For 

17 information on the use and care of saddle pads see Chapter 5. 

18 Cheater Pads 

19 Cheater pads can be used on riding animals as on packing animals. See Chapter 5 for use of cheater pads. 

20 Saddle 

21 The modern Western saddle is a direct descendant of the deep-seat saddle brought to the Americas by the Spanish 

22 Conquistadors in the sixteenth century. Among the characteristics common to Western saddles are the deep seat, 

23 saddle horn, long stirrups, and high cantle. It also comes with a complement of tie-down straps to secure personal 

24 equipment to the saddle. 

25 Western saddles are constructed of wood or synthetics for the tree (frame) and stirrups and covered in leather. If 

26 the manufacturer has placed padding in the bars of the saddle, a saddle pad still must be used. 

27 The typical Western saddle will have one cinch to secure the saddle to the animal and may or may not have a flank 

28 cinch. Figure 6-2, page 6-3, explains the steps for saddling the animal. 

29 Rider’s Equipment 

30 The problem encountered with equipping a U.S. soldier for mounted operations is that no consideration has been 

3 1 given to the requirements for this type of operation in quite some time. 

32 Many items that are critical for dismounted use are critical to use while mounted as well, but may not perform 

33 suitably in both situations. Boots are a prime example. Boots suited for dismounted operations may be detrimental 

34 to mounted operations. The very nature of combat operations demands interoperability. This section will address 

35 such difficulties. It will be the responsibility of the commander who assigns a unit to perform mounted operations 

36 to properly equip those units. 



1 . Stand on the on-side of the animal, untie the animal and remove the halter. Place the reins behind the 
animal’s head and drape them over its neck or your arm. 

2. Unbuckle the throatlash. 

3. Flold the headpiece in the right hand. 

4. Hold the bit in the left hand with the thumb pointed up the axis of the animal’s head. 

5. Place the right hand on the animal’s head between the ears to keep it down. 

6. With the left hand, open the animal’s mouth at the corner by putting your thumb between its canine and 
back teeth (the taste of your thumb will cause the animal to open its mouth). Then slide the bit in by 

pulling with the headpiece in right hand. 

7. Slide headpiece behind the ears and place the browband on the forehead. 

8. Buckle the throatband loosely. 

9. The bit should be adjusted so that the back of the animal’s mouth is drawn up into a slight “smile.” 

10. Pull loose any restricted mane that is caught under the bridle straps. 



6-2 





FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 


1 . Ensure the animal is properly groomed. 


2 


2. Place the saddle pad on the animal. 


3 


3. Ensure the saddle is properly “rolled” for placement on the animal. Being rolled means that the cinch, off- 


4 


sides stirrup, and any tie-down straps are pulled over the seat of the saddle. 


5 


4. Grasp the saddle by the front center under the horn and the rear center. 


6 


Note: If the animal is skittish, or if it doesn’t know the handler, allow it to see and smell the saddle at this time. 


7 


Make sure the animal is never surprised. 


8 


5. Erom the on- side SET the saddle on the animal’s back. The front edge of the saddle should be 1 to 2 


9 


inches from front edge of the pad and above the rear of the withers. Grasp the front edge of the pad and 


10 


lift it up into the tree to allow a space for air to circulate under the pad. 


11 


6. Pull down the cinch and connect. Initially, snug the cinch tight enough to secure it to the animal. 


12 


7. Connect the flank (rear) cinch, if one is present. It should just rest against the animal’s flank and be 


13 


secured snugly. Connect it to the front cinch in the center with the connecting strap. 


14 


8. Lower the stirrups into place. Never drop them against the animal’s side. 


15 


9. Ensure that no saddle strings or any other objects are between the saddle and the animal. 


16 


10. Walk the animal around for a short distance and then adjust the cinches again. The main cinch should be 


17 


tight enough that three fingers can be slid underneath it without much effort. 


18 


11. After riding or waiting for a time, recheck the cinches. Exertion or excitement may cause the animal’s 


19 


girth size to change. 



20 Figure 6-2. Procedure for placing saddle on the animal. 

21 Boots. Their leather construction, pull-on design, high one-piece uppers, smooth sole, pointed toes, and high heels 

22 characterize boots normally associated with American-Western style riding (often referred to as Cowboy boots). 

23 Boots normally associated with dismounted operations have treated multipiece leather uppers, a lace-up design, lug 

24 soles, broad toes, short heels, and are generally shorter than riding boots. Soles that provide traction and footing on 

25 the ground can be dangerous when trying to dismount a horse. Lug soles tend to catch on stirrups. Boots with 

26 buckles or those with hooks used for speed lacing are not good because the buckles or hooks can become caught on 

27 the saddle. Boots designed for riding are totally unsuitable for carrying loads over any irregular terrain while 

28 walking or for walking any appreciable distance. Riding boots are more difficult to fit and break in as well. 

29 Standard military boots, in most cases, will not accept spurs. Standard riding boots will not accept mountaineering 

30 equipment (for example, crampons, snowshoes, skis). Modifying stirrups is not advisable or simple to accomplish. 

3 1 The more suitable approach would be to use military boots with the minimum amount of lug required and shaving 

32 down the edges of the soles to prevent the stirrups from becoming wedged in to the lug. Also, use the widest stirrup 

33 available. When using military boots, exercise care when removing the foot from the stirrup and pay particular 

34 attention to how a low heel will affect the rider’s ability to maintain the correct seat. 

35 Spurs. Spurs are removable metal devices that attach to the heel of a rider’s boots and assist in the use of his legs 

36 as riding aids. There are hundreds of variations of spurs but two basic designs. The classic or cavalry type is a short 

37 one-piece spur. The Western style is the star or wheel shape that rotates on a pin. Spurs are not essential for riding 

38 but can be useful in controlling an animal. Experience, tactical considerations, the animal’s training and 

39 availability of spurs will influence the choice of using them or not. Inexperienced riders may tend to use spurs 

40 improperly, which can cause more problems than are corrected. Inexperienced animals may not understand what 

41 the rider is asking of them when spurs are applied. When using spurs, never poke an animal with their point(s). 

42 Their purpose is to enable the horse to better feel the commands of the rider’s legs. When applying spurs to the 

43 animal’s flanks, use the side of the spur and roll it upward. A military user must remember that spurs may not be 

44 usable with his boots and will impair him when dismounted. 



6-3 





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39 

40 



FM 31-27 (ID) 

Chaps. Chaps are leather leggings worn to protect the legs while riding. Chaps are not required for riding but do 
provide considerable protection against the tendency to chafe the legs raw from the friction between the legs and 
the stirrup fenders. They also protect the leg against foliage, limbs and other such items the rider can be brushed 
against while riding. Chaps come in two basic designs: The first are shotgun chaps, which are narrow and zip up 
the side. The second are open or bat-wing chaps that connect by ties at the side. The shotgun type, if not too tight, 
provides the best compromise between tactical use considerations and horse-related work. Shotgun chaps are 
quieter and will not snag as easily when the rider dismounts. When doing farrier-type work, bat- wings are 
preferred if a farrier’s apron is unavailable. 

Uniform. Other than the items already addressed, the requirements for a suitable uniform are the same as for 
conventional dismounted operations. Consider some of the following points: 

• You MUST wear leather gloves when leading pack animals. 

• Wear a hat to protect the head from low limbs. It should not restrict hearing or vision (particularly 
peripheral). A chinstrap is beneficial because riding at speed, wind and obstructions will cause it to be lost 
and recovery from horseback is impossible. A good choice is the jungle hat or a watch cap. 

• Carry nothing in your rear trouser pockets. 

NOTE: Items such as load-carrying equipment (LCE) will be addressed in a later section. 

Necessary Bag. A necessary bag is a small kit carried by a rider to make field repairs to tack or other equipment. It 
is normally carried in a saddlebag. Typical contents of a necessary bag are listed below. There is no specific item 
list. 



• Leather punch or sharp awl. 

• Assorted leather or sailmaker’s needles. 

• Bees wax. 

• Waxed sailmaker ’ s thread . 

• Sewing palm. 

• Rivets (for leather). 

• Leather boot laces. 

• Small bits and pieces of leather. 

Saddlebags. Saddlebags are of particular importance to the military rider. There are many different styles of 
saddlebags. Construction is usually of nylon, canvas or leather. Eor military uses, heavy nylon is preferable because 
it is rot resistant, abrasion resistant and easily repaired. Saddlebags are attached to the rear of the saddle and tied 
down with the saddle strings located to the rear of the cantle. Locally fabricated models can be designed to work 
with issued LCE, perhaps attaching to the rider’s back. Typical dimensions of saddlebags are 1 1 inches wide x 1 1 
inches long x 5inches thick. When used, as with pack loads, saddlebags must be balanced and sharp contents 
packed away from the animal. 

RIDING TECHNIQUES 

As stated previously, this manual discusses the American-Western style of riding. Riding basics for combat 
applications are no different from those for pleasure riding. What makes a difference is the skill level required of 
the rider. Combat conditions force the mounted soldier to be a master of the basic skills of riding if he is expected 
to accomplish his mission. Riders must conduct actual training and practice on a regular basis for the skills of a 
mounted soldier to remain of high enough caliber to conduct combat operations. 



6-4 




FM 31-27 (ID) 



1 Preparing to Mount 

2 Once a rider’s animal has been prepared to ride, (for example, it is properly groomed and all tack is on and 

3 properly adjusted) the rider must ensure that he is ready to ride. All equipment he wishes to carry must already be 

4 in place on the animal and/or himself. 

5 Mounting 

6 Untie the animal from its hitch and hold both reins in the left hand before mounting. From the on-side, stand just 

7 in front of the saddle, face to the animal’s rear, and turn the stirrup around so you can place your left foot into it. 

8 With your left foot in the stirrup, place your right hand on the saddle horn, left hand on top of the animal’s neck. 

9 Swing the right leg over the animal’s back. Place the right foot in the stirrup when seated. 

10 NOTE; Only when seated properly in the saddle can the stirrup length be judged to be proper or not. If proper, the 

1 1 knee will have a slight bend in it (approximately 20 degrees) and the rider should just be able to see the tip of the toe 

12 over the knee. Another way to tell if you are seated properly is to stand in the stirrups. There should be enough room 

13 to place two fingers between the saddle and your crotch. Ensure that the stirrup adjustment hardware is secure after 

14 adjustments are made. 

15 Proper Seat and Aids 

16 The proper seat, or how the rider positions himself in the saddle, is very important to proper riding. The animal 

17 will become confused with the commands the rider gives and will not have the proper stability he needs to traverse 

1 8 difficult terrain if the rider does not sit correctly. 

19 The position of the rider in the saddle and the way he uses that position is referred to as the “aids.” Mastering the 

20 aids is the single most important function of riding in control. (This is assuming, of course, that the animal has 

21 been properly trained.) When in the saddle, the position of the rider’s body should be as follows: 

22 Legs. The legs are used to create and control the forward motion of the animal and to assist in steering. When at 

23 the normal position, the legs should lie against the animal’s side with the heel resting just behind the girth. The 

24 feet are placed in the stirrup with the rider’s weight resting on the balls of the feet. This position remains the same 

25 unless the rider must give the animal a kick. The variance comes from the pressure delivered to the side of the 

26 animal by squeezing the leg muscles. To increase forward motion, squeeze more in equal amounts to both sides. 

27 When turning, keep the inside leg at the girth, and the outside leg back. When halting, apply light pressure with 

28 both legs. When applying any aid, cease the pressure when the animal responds. 

29 Weight. The primary objective of how the rider distributes his weight is to remain in contact with the animal and 

30 feel its movements so he can move with the animal. The majority of the rider’s weight will be in the stirrups, thus 

3 1 the saying “standing tall in the saddle.” The spine should be straight but not stiff. The remaining weight should be 

32 distributed evenly in the seat. If the rider is about to change pace he should press down in the seat with his pelvis 

33 momentarily, without leaning forward, to warn the animal. When riding uphill, the rider must lean forward 

34 slightly and when riding downhill lean slightly to the rear. In either case, the rider must not exaggerate the 

35 movement and keep the weight in the seat. These adjustments are made to assist the animal when it must change 

36 its center of gravity. 

37 Hands. The primary function of the hands as an aid is to control the reins. Western-Style riding (and horses 

38 trained Western-Style) respond to the technique known as “neck-reining.” This allows the reins to be controlled 

39 with only one hand. The reins are held in the dominant hand slightly above the saddle horn. The reins should be 

40 held with slight pressure; just enough to maintain light contact with the animal’s mouth and low on the neck. To 

41 turn the animal, the rider simply moves the rein hand in the direction he wishes to turn. Do not over-rein. Just give 

42 sufficient pressure so that the animal will understand what is expected. Some experts insist that the animal 

43 responds to the pressure created by the reins on the neck while others maintain that it is merely a combination of 

44 the movements that makes the animal react. In any case, all aids (legs, weight, and hands) must be applied 

45 simultaneously and with only enough pressure to achieve the desired effect. 



6-5 




1 



Paces 



FM 31-27 (ID), 



2 As with anything, a rider must “learn to walk before he runs.” When training a new rider, it must be done in a 

3 controlled environment such as a corral. Start with the easiest pace first and progress only when a rider is 

4 comfortable with the level at which he is working. 

5 Starting. The rider should make light contact with the horse’s side by squeezing his legs. The rider must maintain 

6 the proper seat and balance. The rider must not allow his weight or rein hand to come too far forward, as is often 

7 the tendency. Keep the shoulders square to the animal always. A rider may hold the saddle horn if he needs to 

8 steady himself at first but should NEVER use the reins for any purpose other than controlling his mount. 

9 Walk. Unless the animal has been started in a violent manner, he should assume a walk when given the command 

10 to start out. Maintain all aids as described above when riding at the walk. Also, be on the lookout for anything that 

1 1 may be affecting the animal such as a piece of saddle string under the pad. The rider must remember to “stand” in 

12 the stirrups, keeping approximately 2/3 of his weight on the balls of his feet. 

13 Halt. To halt the horse, close the lower legs against the animal’s side and lightly tighten, not pull, the reins. When 

14 the animal responds release the pressure but not the control. It will take a rider a little time to determine how 

15 responsive any given animal is to this or any other command. 

16 Jog and Lope. The jog and lope paces are two different paces, but are closely related. The aids are the same as for 

17 any pace except that the rider’s weight shifts slightly forward. In the jog the horse will bounce quite a bit and the 

18 rider must learn to move with the animal. To initiate the jog from a walk, repeat the steps used to start the animal 

19 from a halt into a walk. The lope is a more relaxing riding pace for the rider. The animal will tend to bounce less 

20 and it is easier for the rider to maintain the proper balance. The lope is slightly faster than the jog and is initiated 

21 from the jog. 

22 Gallop. The gallop is the fastest pace of a ridden animal and the most dangerous. It is very easy for a rider to lose 

23 control of an animal at the gallop if the animal becomes overexcited, which is often the case when an animal is 

24 ordered to gallop. When at the gallop, maintain control with the aids as previously described. The rider must 

25 transfer his weight from the seat to the stirrups and the knees. Contact should be maintained on the reins. 

26 Rein Back. The rein back is used to make the animal move straight back. It should not be used over any distance. 

27 It is always performed from the halt. To perform the rein back use an “elastic” and staggered pull on the reins and 

28 the rider positions his weight slightly forward of center. 

29 LEADING A PACK STRING 

30 One of the principle advantages of using animals in the era of modern combat is that mounted elements can move 

3 1 large quantities of material in areas not suitable for conventional transport. When using pack animals, it is often 

32 preferable to lead them from horseback to take advantage of the animal’s superior speed. Leading pack animals 

33 from horseback is not difficult but you must observe the following rules: 

34 Never tie a pack string to the lead (ridden) animal. If an accident occurs or the pack string becomes frightened, 

35 you are in certain danger if you cannot release the string. This point also applies to leading a single animal. You 

36 should hold the lead line in one hand. You can form a bight over the saddle horn if you wish, but be sure that the 

37 lead line can be jettisoned immediately, if required. 

38 You should never move a pack string faster than the animals in it can comfortably navigate obstacles or difficult 

39 terrain. Keep in mind, the pack animals are carrying dead weight and, often, heavy loads. It is often preferable to 

40 give the string more slack when traversing an obstacle so they can pick their way. 

41 You must always wear protective gloves while leading. 

42 It is preferable to have two riders per pack string. One reason, riders can relieve the other of leading the string 

43 periodically. What is more important, one rider can observe the pack string and assist in correcting any problems 

44 that may arise such as a shifted load. One rider will lead the string and the other will follow. If a rider is alone and 



6-6 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 does not have someone to watch the string for him, he can ride in a “Figure 8” so that he can get a good look at the 

2 string. 

3 Always be wary at halts! The majority of accidents occur at halts when the animals have the freedom to mill 

4 about and can become entangled. 

5 Never allow a lead line to run under the tail of any animal, pack or ridden. 

6 If negotiating dense terrain (timber or rocks) and the pack animals choose a different route than the lead animal, it 

7 is better to drop the lead line and recatch the string than it is to become tangled in an obstacle with the string. 

8 Never allow the string to get in front of the rider because if the string should become startled the rider could get 

9 caught up in them. 

10 The normal distance between the lead pack animal and the rider’s animal varies according to terrain and the 

1 1 animals’ training and experience. A rule of thumb is the lead pack animal’s nose should be even with the back of 

12 the rider’s flank while traveling over easy terrain. 

13 COMBAT CONSIDERATIONS 

14 There are too many types of missions and units that could be assigned to mounted duty to allow this manual to 

15 encompass all aspects of military riding. Weapons, climatic conditions, and table of organization and equipment 

16 (TOE) equipment will vary too greatly for this chapter to provide specific SOPs and doctrine capable of covering 

17 all applications. This document will try to assist the user in formulating his procedures with general guidance. 

18 Weapons 

19 Individual weapons are as important to the mounted soldier, regardless of his duty, as they are to the dismounted 

20 soldier. They must be ready to be brought into action at all times. Achieving this state of readiness from horseback 

21 poses certain difficulties. A soldier normally will carry his weapon in his hands when in a high state of readiness. 

22 While mounted, a soldier’s hands are often occupied. Also, there is the problem of keeping the weapon free of the 

23 animal and the equipment surrounding the rider. For a rider there is also the ever-present danger of being 

24 separated from his animal. So a primary weapon cannot be kept attached to an animal. 

25 Side Arms. There is a very real requirement for all mounted personnel to be issued a side arm. The preferred 

26 method of carry is the shoulder holster. The holster serves two functions. One, the weapon will be out of the way of 

27 tack and lines always making it instantly accessible. Two, the weapon will always be with the soldier. Due to the 

28 large number of duties that mounted soldiers must perform with their hands (to include tactical movement) a side 

29 arm, because of its ever-present availability, becomes a necessity. 

30 Personal Weapons. While the use of animals provides a commander a valuable asset for getting individuals and 

3 1 equipment to a battle, fighting from horseback is not considered a primary function of mounted soldiers today. 

32 However, anytime a unit is in a hostile environment it must be ready to fight at anytime. For a mounted unit this 

33 includes while on the move. As stated, side arms are a requirement for mounted soldiers but they are insufficient as 

34 a primary weapon. 

35 The standard weapons of the U.S. military (M16A2, M60 MG, M249 SAW and M203) have a serious defect in 

36 their size for mounted operations. It is difficult to handle the reins of a horse and a lead line while holding a large 

37 rifle. These weapons also demand a certain degree of accuracy that is next to impossible to achieve from horseback. 

38 To compromise between effective firepower and effective size, carbines are recommended. U.S. M16 variants such 

39 as the CAR- 15 are acceptable or, if operations were conducted in a UW environment, an AK folding stock variant 

40 would be acceptable. The ability of a submachine gun to lay a heavy base of fire from an unstable position makes it 

41 a valuable choice. A selective fire weapon with a folding stock, extended for accuracy when required, is the ideal 

42 choice. A very good choice of immediate suppression weapon for the mounted unit is the US M79 Grenade 

43 Fauncher. It is much shorter and lighter than the M203 and can be maneuvered with one hand. Its compact size 

44 will allow it to be placed in a scabbard and still be quickly brought to bear. Several M79s dispersed through a 

45 moving unit would greatly improve that unit’s chance of surviving an ambush. 



6-7 




FM 31-27 (ID) 

1 Another consideration would be the adoption of shotguns as standard weapons for mounted troops conducting 

2 operations in dense terrain. Their unequaled killing ability at close range and less severe accuracy requirement 

3 would make them a good choice as a weapon for mounted troops. The M249 Squad Automatic Weapon would be a 

4 superior choice for a general fire support weapon than a M60 due to its size. The box magazine of the M249 is 

5 recommended because a belt of ammunition is too unwieldy around animals. The main problem with any of the 

6 weapons described is still how their size relates to how they can be carried effectively and still be brought into 

7 action when needed. As discussed before, the selection of carbine style or folding stock weapons goes a long way in 

8 helping this. However, further mention must be made how these weapons should be carried. As mentioned before, 

9 a scabbard can be used but only when enemy contact is highly unlikely, such as traveling in a secure area. A cross- 

10 chest carry with a top mounted sling is the best choice. Great care must be made that weapons DO NOT 

1 1 endanger the rider or his mount by becoming entangled in reins and lead lines or by hitting the animal. 

12 Additional Weapon Considerations 

13 The nature of modern battle dictates that mounted units carry more types of weaponry than the cavalry of old. 

14 Antiarmor weapons, air-defense weapons, and sniper weapons are just a few that must be considered. Again the 

15 mission, enemy, terrain, troops, time available, and civilians (METT-TC) factors determine what weapons will be 

16 carried and in what fashion. This manual discusses only a few typical weapons and generic considerations of each. 

17 Antiarmor Weapons. U.S. antiarmor weaponry of any effect is generally too cumbersome to be carried on 

18 horseback. The possible exception is the M72 Light Antitank Weapon (LAW). You can use the LAW in many 

19 different roles but is sufficient against main armor vehicles in only selected manners. You can conveniently attach 

20 one or two LAWs to the rear of a saddle, behind the seat, and rig it to be quickly released for action. Backblast 

21 must be considered if fired around animals. The larger antiarmor weapons (M47 Dragon and TOW) are, in all 

22 respects, too heavy and large to be mounted with a rider but can be mounted on a pack animal. Keep in mind, 

23 though, that they cannot be brought quickly to bear if needed. 

24 Air Defense Weapons. The only air-defense weapons suitable for mounted operations are the man-portable 

25 generation of weapons (for example, the Stinger or SA-7 GRAIL). These will be too unwieldy to be carried for any 

26 distance on a ridden animal but can be packed easily on a pack animal with consideration given to speedy access. 

27 They should be placed within the pack animal strings where the qualified users are as well. 

28 Sniper Weapons. Sniper weapons are not fired from a mounted position and generally not from a hasty position. 

29 They, usually, will not have to be brought quickly to bear. The sensitivity of their sighting mechanisms demands 

30 that they be protected when around animals. 

3 1 Personal Equipment 

32 Standard U.S. personal equipment will serve a mounted soldier well when certain considerations are given. In most 

33 cases, an assault vest is preferable to the “web gear” style because it fits closer to the body. You can carry all items 

34 higher and out of the way of lines and reins. A standard ALICE pack is too large and heavy for the mounted 

35 soldier to carry. However, it adapts easily to being packed on an animal. You can place it on packsaddles just like 

36 panniers. You should carry all esse
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