MCRP 3-02F FM 21-76 Survival

Document text

FM 21-76/MCRP 3-02F 



Survival 




U.S. Marine Corps 



PCN 144 000049 00 



PREFACE 

As a soldier, you can be sent to any area of the world It 
may be in a temperate tropical, arctic, or subarctic region. 
You expect to have alt your personal equipment and your 
unk or other members of your unit with you wherever 
you go, There is, however, no guarantee it wilt be so. You 
could find yourself alone in a remote area— possibly enemy 
territory— with little or no personal gear. This manual 
provides information and describes basic techniques to en- 
able you to survive and return alive should you find your- 
self in such a situation. 

If you are a trainer, use the information in this manual as 
a base on which to build survival training. You know the 
areas to which your unit is likely to be deployed, the means 
by which it will travel, and the territory through which or 
over which it will travel. Read what this manual says about 
survival in those particular areas, find out all you can 
about those areas. Read other books on survival. Develop 
a survival training program that will enable the people in 
your unit to meet any survival situation they may face. It 
can make the difference between life and death. 

We would like your comments or recommendations for 
improving this manual. Please make your comments on a 
DA Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications 
and Blank Forms) t keying your comments to specific pages 
and paragraphs and stating your reasons for the recom- 
mended change, Mail your comments to: 

Commander 

U$< Army John E Kennedy Special Warfare 
Center and School 
ATTN: AOJK-DT-DM 
Fort Bragg, NC 28307*5000 

Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns 
and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men. 



By Order of the Secretary of the Army: 



FM 21-76 
S JUNE 1992 



GORDON R. SULLIVAN 
General, United States Army 



OfFirial; 

PArUJCJA K HICKERSON 

Brigadier General, United Slates Array 

The Adjutant General 



DISTRIBUTION; 

ACTIVE ARMY, USAR, AND ARNG: Tfc be distributed in accordance 
with DA Form 12-1 l-E, requirements for FM 21-76. Survival (Qly rqr 
block no. 0175). 



CHAPTER 1 



INTRODUCTION 




This manual is based entirely on the keyword SURVIVAL. The letters in 
this word can help guide you in your actions in any survival situation. 
Whenever faced with a survival situation, remember the word SURVIVAL. 

SURVIVAL ACTIONS 

The following paragraphs ex pand on the meaning of each letter of the word survival. 
Study and remember what each letter signifies because you may some day have to make 
it work for you. 

S -Size Up the Situation 

If you are in a combat situation, find a place where you can conceal yourself from the 
enemy. Remember, security takes priority. Use your senses of hearing, smell, and sight to 
get a feel for the battlefield. What is the enemy doing? Advancing? Holding in place? 
Retreating? You will have to consider what is developing on the battlefield when you 
make your survival plan. 

Size Up Your Surroundings 

Determine the pattern of the area. Get a feel for what is going on around you. Every 
environment, whether forest, jungle, or desert, has a rhythm or pattern. This rhythm or 
pattern includes animal and bird noises and movements and insect sounds. It may also 
include enemy traffic and civilian movements. 

Size Up Your Physical Condition 



The pressure of the battle you were in or the trauma of being in a survival situation may 
have caused you to overlook wounds you received. Check your wounds and give yourself 
first aid. Take care to prevent further bodily harm. For instance, in any climate, drink 



plenty of water to prevent dehydration. If you are in a cold or wet climate, put on 
additional clothing to prevent hypothermia. 

Size Up Your Equipment 

Perhaps in the heat of battle, you lost or damaged some of your equipment. Check to see 
what equipment you have and what condition it is in. 

Now that you have sized up your situation, surroundings, physical condition, and 
equipment, you are ready to make your survival plan. In doing so, keep in mind your 
basic physical needs—water, food, and shelter. 

U -Use All Your Senses, Undue Haste Makes Waste 

You may make a wrong move when you react quickly without thinking or planning. That 
move may result in your capture or death. Don't move just for the sake of taking action. 
Consider all aspects of your situation (size up your situation) before you make a decision 
and a move. If you act in haste, you may forget or lose some of your equipment. In your 
haste you may also become disoriented so that you don't know which way to go. Plan 
your moves. Be ready to move out quickly without endangering yourself if the enemy is 
near you. Use all your senses to evaluate the situation. Note sounds and smells. Be 
sensitive to temperature changes. Be observant. 

R -Remember Where You Are 

Spot your location on your map and relate it to the surrounding terrain. This is a basic 
principle that you must always follow. If there are other persons with you, make sure they 
also know their location. Always know who in your group, vehicle, or aircraft has a map 
and compass. If that person is killed, you will have to get the map and compass from him. 
Pay close attention to where you are and to where you are going. Do not rely on others in 
the group to keep track of the route. Constantly orient yourself. Always try to determine, 
as a minimum, how your location relates to-- 

• The location of enemy units and controlled areas. 

• The location of friendly units and controlled areas. 

• The location of local water sources (especially important in the desert). 

• Areas that will provide good cover and concealment. 

This information will allow you to make intelligent decisions when you are in a survival 
and evasion situation. 

V -Vanquish Fear and Panic 

The greatest enemies in a combat survival and evasion situation are fear and panic. If 
uncontrolled, they can destroy your ability to make an intelligent decision. They may 
cause you to react to your feelings and imagination rather than to your situation. They can 



drain your energy and thereby cause other negative emotions. Previous survival and 
evasion training and self-confidence will enable you to vanquish fear and panic. 

I -Improvise 

In the United States, we have items available for all our needs. Many of these items are 
cheap to replace when damaged. Our easy come, easy go, easy-to -replace culture makes 
it unnecessary for us to improvise. This inexperience in improvisation can be an enemy in 
a survival situation. Learn to improvise. Take a tool designed for a specific purpose and 
see how many other uses you can make of it. 

Learn to use natural objects around you for different needs. An example is using a rock 
for a hammer. No matter how complete a survival kit you have with you, it will run out or 
wear out after a while. Your imagination must take over when your kit wears out. 

V -Value Living 

All of us were born kicking and fighting to live, but we have become used to the soft life. 
We have become creatures of comfort. We dislike inconveniences and discomforts. What 
happens when we are faced with a survival situation with its stresses, inconveniences, 
and discomforts? This is when the will to live- placing a high value on living-is vital. The 
experience and knowledge you have gained through life and your Army training will 
have a bearing on your will to live. Stubbornness, a refusal to give in to problems and 
obstacles that face you, will give you the mental and physical strength to endure. 

A -Act Like the Natives 

The natives and animals of a region have adapted to their environment. To get a feel of 
the area, watch how the people go about their daily routine. When and what do they eat? 
When, where, and how do they get their food? When and where do they go for water? 
What time do they usually go to bed and get up? These actions are important to you when 
you are trying to avoid capture. 

Animal life in the area can also give you clues on how to survive. Animals also require 
food, water, and shelter. By watching them, you can find sources of water and food. 



WARNING 

Animals cannot serve as an absolute guide to what you cj n eat and drink. Many 
inimals eat plants that are toxic to humans. 



Keep in mind that the reaction of animals can reveal your presence to the enemy. 



If in a friendly area, one way you can gain rapport with the natives is to show interest in 
their tools and how they get food and water. By studying the people, you learn to respect 



them, you often make valuable friends, and, most important, you learn how to adapt to 
their environment and increase your chances of survival. 

L -Live by Your Wits, But for Now, Learn Basic Skills 

Without training in basic skills for surviving and evading on the battlefield, your chances 
of living through a combat survival and evasion situation are slight. 

Learn these basic skills now—not when you are headed for or are in the battle. How you 
decide to equip yourself before deployment will impact on whether or not you survive. 
You need to know about the environment to which you are going, and you must practice 
basic skills geared to that environment. For instance, if you are going to a desert, you 
need to know how to get water in the desert. 

Practice basic survival skills during all training programs and exercises. Survival training 
reduces fear of the unknown and gives you self-confidence. It teaches you to live by your 
wits. 



g-% Six* Up the Situation 

JjJ^ {Surroundings; Physical Condltfon. Equipment) 


■ | Use AM Your Senses, 
\J Undue Haat* Uakes Waste 


E3 Hemember Wrier* You Are 


\# Vanquish Fear and Panic 


improvise 


\f Valua Living 


J\ Ad Like the Natives 


Uva by Yfcur WMa, But for How, Uarn Basic Skills 





PATTERN FOR SURVIVAL 

Develop a survival pattern that lets you beat the enemies of survival. This survival pattern 
must include food, water, shelter, fire, first aid, and signals placed in order of importance. 
For example, in a cold environment, you would need afire to get warm; a shelter to 



protect you from the cold, wind, and rain or snow; traps or snares to getfood; a means to 
signal friendly aircraft; and first aid to maintain health. If injured, first aid has top 
priority no matter what climate you are in. 

Change your survival pattern to meet your immediate physical needs as the environment 
changes. 

As you read the rest of this manual, keep in mind the keyword SURVIVAL and the need 
for a survival pattern. 



CHAPTER 2 



PSYCHOLOGY OF SURVIVAL 




It takes much more than the knowledge and skills to build shelters, get 
food, make fires, and travel without the aid of standard navigational 
devices to live successfully through a survival situation. Some people with 
little or no survival training have managed to survive life-threatening 
circumstances. Some people with survival training have not used their 
skills and died. A key ingredient in any survival situation is the mental 
attitude of the individual s) involved. Having survival skills is important; 
having the will to survive is essential. Without a desk to survive, acquired 
skills serve little purpose and invaluable knowledge goes to waste. 

There is a psychology to survival. The soldier in a survival environment 
faces many stresses that ultimately impact on his mind. These stresses can 
produce thoughts and emotions that, if poorly understood, can transform a 
confident, well-trained soldier into an indecisive, ineffective individual 
with questionable ability to survive. Thus, every soldier must be aware of 
and be able to recognize those stresses commonly associated with 
survival. Additionally, it is imperative that soldiers be aware of their 
reactions to the wide variety of stresses associated with survival. This 
chapter will identify and explain the nature of stress, the stresses of 
survival, and those internal reactions soldiers will naturally experience 
when faced with the stresses of a real-world survival situation. The 
knowledge you, the soldier, gain from this chapter and other chapters in 
this manual, will prepare you to come through the toughest times alive. 

A LOOK AT STRESS 



Before we can understand our psychological reactions in a survival setting, it is helpful to 
first know a little bit about stress. 



Stress is not a disease that you cure and eliminate. Instead, it is a condition we all 
experience. Stress can be described as our reaction to pressure. It is the name given to the 
experience we have as we physically, mentally, emotionally, and spiritually respond to 
life's tensions. 

Need for Stress 

We need stress because it has many positive benefits. Stress provides us with challenges; 
it gives us chances to learn about our values and strengths. Stress can show our ability to 
handle pressure without breaking; it tests our adaptability and flexibility; it can stimulate 
us to do our best. Because we usually do not consider unimportant events stressful, stress 
can also be an excellent indicator of the significance we attach to an event--in other 
words, it highlights what is important to us. 

We need to have some stress in our lives, but too much of anything can be bad. The goal 
is to have stress, but not an excess of it. Too much stress can take its toll on people and 
organizations. Too much stress leads to distress. Distress causes an uncomfortable 
tension that we try to escape and, preferably, avoid. Listed below are a few of the 
common signs of distress you may find in your fellow soldiers or yourself when faced 
with too much stress: 

Difficulty making decisions. 
Angry outbursts. 
Forgetfulness. 
Low energy level. 
Constant worrying. 
Propensity for mistakes. 
Thoughts about death or suicide. 
Trouble getting along with others. 
Withdrawing from others. 
Hiding from responsibilities. 
Carelessness. 

As you can see, stress can be constructive or destructive. It can encourage or discourage, 
move us along or stop us dead in our tracks, and make life meaningful or seemingly 
meaningless. Stress can inspire you to operate successfully and perform at your 
maximum efficiency in a survival situation. It can also cause you to panic and forget all 
your training. Key to your survival is your ability to manags the inevitable stresses you 
will encounter. The survivor is the soldier who works with his stresses instead of letting 
his stresses work on him. 

Survival Stressors 

Any event can lead to stress and, as everyone has experienced, events don't always come 
one at a time. Often, stressful events occur simultaneously. These events are not stress, 
but they produce it and are called "stressors." Stressors are the obvious cause while stress 



is the response. Once the body recognizes the presence of a stressor, it then begins to act 
to protect itself. 

In response to a stressor, the body prepares either to "fight or flee." This preparation 
involves an internal SOS sent throughout the body. As the body responds to this SOS, 
several actions take place. The body releases stored fuels (sugar and fats) to provide 
quick energy; breathing rate increases to supply more oxygen to the blood; muscle 
tension increases to prepare for action; blood clotting mechanisms are activated to reduce 
bleeding from cuts; senses become more acute (hearing becomes more sensitive, eyes 
become big, smell becomes sharper) so that you are more aware of your surrounding and 
heart rate and blood pressure rise to provide more blood to the muscles. This protective 
posture lets a person cope with potential dangers; however, a person cannot maintain 
such a level of alertness indefinitely. 

Stressors are not courteous; one stressor does not leave because another one arrives. 
Stressors add up. The cumulative effect of minor stressors can be a major distress if they 
all happen too close together. As the body's resistance to stress wears down and the 
sources of stress continue (or increase), eventually a state of exhaustion arrives. At this 
point, the ability to resist stress or use it in a positive way gives out and signs of distress 
appear. Anticipating stressors and developing strategies to cope with them are two 
ingredients in the effective management of stress. It is therefore essential that the soldier 
in a survival setting be aware of the types of stressors he will encounter. Let's take a look 
at a few of these. 

Injury, Illness, or Death 

Injury, illness, and death are real possibilities a survivor has to face. Perhaps nothing is 
more stressful than being alone in an unfamiliar environment where you could die from 
hostile action, an accident, or from eating something lethal. Illness and injury can also 
add to stress by limiting your ability to maneuver, get food and drink, find shelter, and 
defend yourself. Even if illness and injury don't lead to death, they add to stress through 
the pain and discomfort they generate. It is only by con-trolling the stress associated with 
the vulnerability to injury, illness, and death that a soldier can have the courage to take 
the risks associated with survival tasks. 

Uncertainly and Lack of Control 

Some people have trouble operating in settings where everything is not clear-cut. The 
only guarantee in a survival situation is that nothing is guaranteed. It can be extremely 
stressful operating on limited information in a setting where you have limited control of 
your surroundings. This uncertainty and lack of control also add to the stress of being ill, 
injured, or killed. 

Environment 



Even under the most ideal circumstances, nature is quite formidable. In survival, a soldier 
will have to contend with the stressors of weather, terrain, and the variety of creatures 
inhabiting an area. Heat, cold, rain, winds, mountains, swamps, deserts, insects, 
dangerous reptiles, and other animals are just a few of the challenges awaiting the soldier 
working to survive. Depending on how a soldier handles the stress of his environment, 
his surroundings can be either a source of food and protection or can be a cause of 
extreme discomfort leading to injury, illness, or death. 

Hunger and Thirst 

Without food and water a person will weaken and eventually die. Thus, getting and 
preserving food and water takes on increasing importance as the length of time in a 
survival setting increases. For a soldier used to having his provisions issued, foragng can 
be a big source of stress. 

Fatigue 

Forcing yourself to continue surviving is not easy as you grow more tired. It is possible to 
become so fatigued that the act of just staying awake is stressful in itself. 

Isolation 

There are some advantages to facing adversity with others. As soldiers we learn 
individual skills, but we train to function as part of a team. Although we, as soldiers, 
complain about higher headquarters, we become used to the information and guidance it 
provides, especially during times of confusion. Being in contact with others also provides 
a greater sense of security and a feeling someone is available to help if problems occur. A 
significant stressor in survival situations is that often a person or team has to rely solely 
on its own resources. 

The survival stressors mentioned in this section are by no means the only ones you may 
face. Remember, what is stressful to one person may not be stressful to another. Your 
experiences, training, personal outlook on life, physical and mental conditioning, and 
level of self-confidence contribute to what you will find stressful in a survival 
environment. The object is not to avoid stress, but rather to manage the stressors of 
survival and make them work for you. 

We now have a general knowledge of stress and the stressors common to survival; the 
next step is to examine our reactions to the stressors we may face. 

NATURAL REACTIONS 

Man has been able to survive many shifts in his environment throughout the centuries. 
His ability to adapt physically and mentally to a changing world kept him alive while 
other species around him gradually died off. The same survival mechanisms that kept our 



forefathers alive can help keep us alive as well! However, these survival mechanisms that 
can help us can also work against us if we don't understand and anticipate their presence. 

It is not surprising that the average person will have some psychological reactions in a 
survival situation. We will now examine some of the major internal reactions you and 
anyone with you might experience with the survival stressors addressed in the earlier 
paragraphs. Let's begin. 

Fear 

Fear is our emotional response to dangerous circumstances that we believe have the 
potential to cause death, injury, or illness. This harm is not just limited to physical 
damage; the threat to one's emotional and mental well-being can generate fear as well. 
For the soldier trying to survive, fear can have a positive function if it encourages him to 
be cautious in situations where recklessness could result in injury. Unfortunately, fear can 
also immobilize a person. It can cause him to become so frightened that he fails to 
perform activities essential for survival. Most soldiers will have some degree of fear 
when placed in unfamiliar surroundings under adverse conditions. There is no shame in 
this! Each soldier must train himself not to be overcome by his fears. Ideally, through 
realistic training, we can acquire the knowledge and skills needed to increase our 
confidence and thereby manage our fears. 

Anxiety 

Associated with fear is anxiety. Because it is natural for us to be afraid, it is also natural 
for us to experience anxiety. Anxiety can be an uneasy, apprehensive feeling we get when 
faced with dangerous situations (physical, mental, and emotional). When used in a 
healthy way, anxiety urges us to act to end, or at least master, the dangers that threaten 
our existence. If we were never anxious, there would be little motivation to make changes 
in our lives. The soldier in a survival setting reduces his anxiety by performing those 
tasks that will ensure his coming through the ordeal alive. As he reduces his anxiety, the 
soldier is also bringing under control the source of that anxiety- -his fears. In this form, 
anxiety is good; however, anxiety can also have a devastating impact. Anxiety can 
overwhelm a soldier to the point where he becomes easily confused and has difficulty 
thinking. Once this happens, it becomes more and more difficult for him to make good 
judgments and sound decisions. To survive, the soldier must learn techniques to calm his 
anxieties and keep them in the range where they help, not hurt. 

Anger and Frustration 

Frustration arises when a person is continually thwarted in his attempts to reach a goal. 
The goal of survival is to stay alive until you can reach help or until help can reach you. 
To achieve this goal, the soldier must complete some tasks with minimal resources. It is 
inevitable, in trying to do these tasks, that something will go wrong; that something will 
happen beyond the soldier's control; and that with one's life at stake, every mistake is 
magnified in terms of its importance. Thus, sooner or later, soldiers will have to cope 



with frustration when a few of their plans run into trouble. One outgrowth of this 
frustration is anger. There are many events in a survival situation that can frustrate or 
anger a soldier. Getting lost, damaged or forgotten equipment, the weather, inhospitable 
terrain, enemy patrols, and physical limitations are just a few sources of frustration and 
anger. Frustration and anger encourage impulsive reactions, irrational behavior, poorly 
thought-out decisions, and, in some instances, an "I quit" attitude (people sometimes 
avoid doing something they can't master). If the soldier can harness and properly channel 
the emotional intensity associated with anger and frustration, he can productively act as 
he answers the challenges of survival. If the soldier does not properly focus his angry 
feelings, he can waste much energy in activities that do little to further either his chances 
of survival or the chances of those around him. 

Depression 

It would be a rare person indeed who would not get sad, at least momentarily, when faced 
with the privations of survival. As this sadness deepens, we label the feeling 
"depression." Depression is closely linked with frustration and anger. The frustrated 
person becomes more and more angry as he fails to reach his goals. If the anger does not 
help the person to succeed, then the frustration level goes even higher. A destructive 
cycle between anger and frustration continues until the person becomes worn down- 
physically, emotionally, and mentally. When a person reaches this point, he starts to give 
up, and his focus shifts from "What can I do" to "There is nothing I can do." Depression 
is an expression of this hopeless, helpless feeling. There is nothing wrong with being sad 
as you temporarily think about your loved ones and remember what life is like back in 
"civilization" or "the world." Such thoughts, in fact, can give you the desire to try harder 
and live one more day. On the other hand, if you allow yourself to sink into a depressed 
state, then it can sap all your energy and, more important, your will to survive. It is 
imperative that each soldier resist succumbing to depression. 

Loneliness and Boredom 

Man is a social animal. This means we, as human beings, enjoy the company of others. 
Very few people want to be alone all the time! As you are aware, there is a distinct 
chance of isolation in a survival setting. This is not bad. Loneliness and boredom can 
bring to the surface qualities you thought only others had. The extent of your imagination 
and creativity may surprise you. When required to do so, you may discover some hidden 
talents and abilities. Most of all, you may tap into a reservoir of inner strength and 
fortitude you never knew you had. Conversely, loneliness and boredom can be another 
source of depression. As a soldier surviving alone, or with others, you must find ways to 
keep your mind productively occupied. Additionally, you must develop a degree of self- 
sufficiency. You must have faith in your capability to "go it alone." 

Guilt 

The circumstances leading to your being in a survival setting are sometimes dramatic and 
tragic. It may be the result of an accident or military mission where there was a loss of 



life. Perhaps you were the only, or one of a few, survivors. While naturally relieved to be 
alive, you simultaneously may be mourning the deaths of others who were less fortunate. 
It is not uncommon for survivors to feel guilty about being spared from death while 
others were not. This feeling, when used in a positive way, has encouraged people to try 
harder to survive with the belief they were allowed to live for some greater purpose in 
life. Sometimes, survivors tried to stay alive so that they could carry on the work of those 
killed. Whatever reason you give yourself, do not let guilt feelings prevent you from 
living. The living who abandon their chance to survive accomplish nothing. Such an act 
would be the greatest tragedy. 

PREPARING YOURSELF 

Your mission as a soldier in a survival situation is to stay alive. As you can see, you are 
going to experience an assortment of thoughts and emotions. These can work for you, or 
they can work to your downfall. Fear, anxiety, anger, frustration, guilt, depression, and 
loneliness are all possible reactions to the many stresses common to survival. These 
reactions, when controlled in a healthy way, help to increase a soldier's likelihood of 
surviving. They prompt the soldier to pay more attention in training, to fight back when 
scared, to take actions that ensure sustenance and security, to keep faith with his fellow 
soldiers, and to strive against large odds. When the survivor cannot control these 
reactions in a healthy way, they can bring him to a standstill. Instead of rallying his 
internal resources, the soldier listens to his internal fears. This soldier experiences 
psychological defeat long before he physically succumbs. Remember, survival is natural 
to everyone; being unexpectedly thrust into the life and death struggle of survival is not. 
Don't be afraid of your "natural reactions to this unnatural situation." Prepare yourself to 
rule over these reactions so they serve your ultimate interest- -staying alive with the honor 
and dignity associated with being an American soldier. 

It involves preparation to ensure that your reactions in a survival setting are productive, 
not destructive. The challenge of survival has produced countless examples of heroism, 
courage, and self-sacrifice. These are the qualities it can bring out in you if you have 
prepared yourself. Below are a few tips to help prepare yourself psychologically for 
survival. Through studying this manual and attending survival training you can develop 
the survival attitude. 

Know Yourself 

Through training, family, and friends take the time to discover who you are on the inside. 
Strengthen your stronger qualities and develop the areas that you know are necessary to 
survive. 

Anticipate Fears 

Don't pretend that you will have no fears. Begin thinking about what would frighten you 
the most if forced to survive alone. Train in those areas of concern to you. The goal is not 
to eliminate the fear, but to build confidence in your ability to function despite your fears. 



Be Realistic 

Don't be afraid to make an honest appraisal of situations. See circumstances as they are, 
not as you want them to be. Keep your hopes and expectations within the estimate of the 
situation. When you go into a survival setting with unrealistic expectations, you may be 
laying the groundwork for bitter disappointment. Follow the adage, "Hope for the best, 
prepare for the worst." It is much easier to adjust to pleasant surprises about one's 
unexpected good fortunes than to be upset by one's unexpected harsh circumstances. 

Adopt a Positive Attitude 

Learn to see the potential good in everything. Looking for the good not only boosts 
morale, it also is excellent for exercising your imagination and creativity. 

Remind Yourself What Is at Stake 

Remember, failure to prepare yourself psychologically to cope with survival leads to 
reactions such as depression, carelessness, inattention, loss of confidence, poor decision- 
making, and giving up before the body gives in. At stake is your life and the lives of 
others who are depending on you to do your share. 

Train 

Through military training and life experiences, begin today to prepare yourself to cope 
with the rigors of survival. Demonstrating your skills in training will give you the 
confidence to call upon them should the need arise. Remember, the more realistic the 
training, the less overwhelming an actual survival setting will be. 

Learn Stress Management Techniques 

People under stress have a potential to panic if they are not well-trained and not prepared 
psychologically to face whatever the circumstances may be. While we often cannot 
control the survival circumstances in which we find ourselves, it is within our ability to 
control our response to those circumstances. Learning stress management techniques can 
enhance significantly your capability to remain calm and focused as you work to keep 
yourself and others alive. A few good techniques to develop include relaxation skills, 
time management skills, assertiveness skills, and cognitive restructuring skills (the ability 
to control how you view a situation). 

Remember, "the will to survive" can also be considered to be "the refusal to give up." 



CHAPTER 3 



SURVIVAL PLANNING AND SURVIVAL KITS 




Survival planning is nothing more than realizing something could happen 
that would put you in a survival situation and, with that in mind, taking 
steps to increase your chances of survival. Thus, survival planning means 
preparation. 

Preparation means having survival items and knowing how to use them 
People who live in snow regions prepare their vehicles for poor road 
conditions. They put snow tires on their vehicles, add extra weight in the 
back for traction, and they carry a shovel, salt, and a blanket. Another 
example of preparation is finding the emergency exits on an aircraft when 
you board it for a flight. Preparation could also mean knowing your 
intended route of travel and familiarizing yourself with the area. Finally, 
emergency planning is essential 

IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING 

Detailed prior planning is essential in potential survival situations. Including survival 
considerations in mission planning will enhance your chances of survival if an emergency 
occurs. For example, if your job re-quires that you work in a small, enclosed area that 
limits what you can carry on your person, plan where you can put your rucksack or your 
load-bearing equipment. Put it where it will not prevent you from getting out of the area 
quickly, yet where it is readily accessible. 

One important aspect of prior planning is preventive medicine. Ensuring that you have no 
dental problems and that your immunizations are current will help you avoid potential 
dental or health problems. A dental problem in a survival situation will reduce your 
ability to cope with other problems that you face. Failure to keep your shots current may 
mean your body is not immune to diseases that are prevalent in the area. 



Preparing and carrying a survival kit is as important as the considerations mentioned 
above. All Army aircraft normally have survival kits on board for the type area(s) over 
which they will fly. There are kits for over- water survival, for hot climate survival, and 
an aviator survival vest (see Appendix A for a description of these survival kits and their 



contents). If you are not an aviator, you will probably not have access to the survival 
vests or survival kits. However, if you know what these kits contain, it will help you to 
plan and to prepare your own survival kit. 

Even the smallest survival kit, if properly prepared, is invaluable when faced with a 
survival problem. Before making your survival kit, however, consider your unit's 
mission, the operational environment, and the equipment and vehicles assigned to your 
unit. 

SURVIVAL KITS 

The environment is the key to the types of items you will need in your survival kit. How 
much equipment you put in your kit depends on how you will carry the kit. A kit carried 
on your body will have to be smaller than one carried in a vehicle. Always layer your 
survival kit, keeping the most important items on your body. For example, your map and 
compass should always be on your body. Carry less important items on your load-bearing 
equipment. Place bulky items in the rucksack. 

In preparing your survival kit, select items you can use for more than one purpose. If you 
have two items that will serve the same function, pick the one you can use for another 
function. Do not duplicate items, as this increases your kit's size and weight. 

Your survival kit need not be elaborate. You need only functional items that will meet 
your needs and a case to hold the items. For the case, you might want to use a Band- Aid 
box, a first aid case, an ammunition pouch, or another suitable case. This case should be- 

• Water repellent or waterproof. 

• Easy to carry or attach to your body. 

• Suitable to accept varisized components. 

• Durable. 

In your survival kit, you should have-- 

First aid items. 

Water purification tablets or drops. 

Fire starting equipment. 

Signaling items. 

Food procurement items. 

Shelter items. 

Some examples of these items are-- 

• Lighter, metal match, waterproof matches. 

• Snare wire. 

• Signaling mirror. 

• Wrist compass. 



Fish and snare line. 

Fishhooks. 

Candle. 

Small hand lens. 

Oxytetracycline tablets (diarrhea or infection). 

Water purification tablets. 

Solar blanket. 

Surgical blades. 

Butterfly sutures. 

Condoms for water storage. 

Chap Stick. 

Needle and thread. 

Knife. 

Include a weapon only if the situation so dictates. Read about and practice the survival 
techniques in this manual. Consider your unit's mission and the environment in which 
your unit will operate. Then prepare your survival kit. 



CHAPTER 4 



BASIC SURVIVAL MEDICINE 




Foremost among the many problems that can compromise a survivor's 
ability to return to safety are medical problems resulting from parachute 
descent and landing, extreme climates, ground combat, evasion, and 
illnesses contracted in captivity. 

Many evaders and survivors have reported difficulty in treating injuries 
and illness due to the lack of training and medical supplies. For some, this 
led to capture or surrender. 

Survivors have related feeling of apathy and helplessness because they 
could not treat themselves in this environment. The ability to treat 
themselves increased their morale and cohesion and aided in their 
survival and eventual return to friendly forces. 

One man with a fair amount of basic medical knowledge can make a 
difference in the lives of many. Without qualified medical personnel 
available, it is you who must know what to do to stay alive. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE OF HEALTH 

To survive, you need water and food. You must also have and apply high personal 
hygiene standards. 

Water 



Your body loses water through normal body processes (sweating, urinating, and 
defecating). During average daily exertion when the atmospheric temperature is 20 
degrees Celsius (C) (68 degrees Fahrenheit), the average adult loses and therefore 
requires 2 to 3 liters of water daily. Other factors, such as heat exposure, cold exposure, 



intense activity, high altitude, burns, or illness, can cause your body to lose more water. 
You must replace this water. 

Dehydration results from inadequate replacement of lost body fluids. It decreases your 
efficiency and, if injured, increases your susceptibility to severe shock. Consider the 
following results of body fluid loss: 

• A 5 percent loss of body fluids results in thirst, irritability, nausea, and weakness. 

• A 10 percent loss results in dizziness, headache, inability to walk, and a tingling 
sensation in the limbs. 

• A 15 percent loss results in dim vision, painful urination, swollen tongue, 
deafness, and a numb feeling in the skin. 

• A loss greater than 15 percent of body fluids may result in death. 

The most common signs and symptoms of dehydration are- 
Dark urine with a very strong odor. 
Low urine output. 
Dark, sunken eyes. 
Fatigue. 

Emotional instability. 
Loss of skin elasticity. 
Delayed capillary refill in fingernail beds. 
Trench line down center of tongue. 

Thirst. Last on the list because you are already 2 percent dehydrated by the time 
you crave fluids. 

You replace the water as you lose it. Trying to make up a deficit is difficult in a survival 
situation, and thirst is not a sign of how much water you need. 

Most people cannot comfortably drink more than 1 liter of water at a time. So, even when 
not thirsty, drink small amounts of water at regular intervals each hour to prevent 
dehydration. 

If you are under physical and mental stress or subject to severe conditions, increase your 
water intake. Drink enough liquids to maintain a urine output of at least 0.5 liter every 24 
hours. 

In any situation where food intake is low, drink 6 to 8 liters of water per day. In an 
extreme climate, especially an arid one, the average person can lose 2.5 to 3.5 liters of 
water per hour. In this type of climate, you should drink 14 to 30 liters of water per day. 

With the loss of water there is also a loss of electrolytes (body salts). The average diet 
can usually keep up with these losses but in an extreme situation or illness, additional 
sources need to be provided. A mixture of 0.25 teaspoon of salt to 1 liter of water will 
provide a concentration that the body tissues can readily absorb. 



Of all the physical problems encountered in a survival situation, the loss of water is the 
most preventable. The following are basic guidelines for the prevention of dehydration: 

• Always drink water when eating. Water is used and consumed as a part of the 
digestion process and can lead to dehydration. 

• Acclimatize. The body performs more efficiently in extreme conditions when 
acclimatized. 

• Conserve sweat not water. Limit sweat -producing activities but drink water. 

• Ration water. Until you find a suitable source, ration your water sensibly. A daily 
intake of 500 cubic centimeter (0.5 liter) of a sugar-water mixture (2 teaspoons 
per liter) will suffice to prevent severe dehydration for at least a week, provided 
you keep water losses to a minimum by limiting activity and heat gain or loss. 

You can estimate fluid loss by several means. A standard field dressing holds about 0.25 
liter (one-fourth canteen) of blood. A soaked T-shirt holds 0.5 to 0.75 liter. 

You can also use the pulse and breathing rate to estimate fluid loss. Use the following as 
a guide: 

• With a 0.75 liter loss the wrist pulse rate will be under 100 beats per minute and 
the breathing rate 12 to 20 breaths per minute. 

• With a 0.75 to 1.5 liter loss the pulse rate will be 100 to 120 beats per minute and 
20 to 30 breaths per minute. 

• With a 1.5 to 2 liter loss the pulse rate will be 120 to 140 beats per minute and 30 
to 40 breaths per minute. Vital signs above these rates require more advanced 
care. 

Food 

Although you can live several weeks without food, you need an adequate amount to stay 
healthy. Without food your mental and physical capabilities will deteriorate rapidly, and 
you will become weak. Food replenishes the substances that your body burns and 
provides energy. It provides vitamins, minerals, salts, and other elements essential to 
good health. Possibly more important, it helps morale. 

The two basic sources of food are plants and animals (including fish). In varying degrees 
both provide the calories, carbohydrates, fats, and proteins needed for normal daily body 
functions. 

Calories are a measure of heat and potential energy. The average person needs 2,000 
calories per day to function at a minimum level. An adequate amount of carbohydrates, 
fats, and proteins without an adequate caloric intake will lead to starvation and 
cannibalism of the body's own tissue for energy. 

Plant Foods 



These foods provide carbohydrates- -the main source of energy. Many plants provide 
enough protein to keep the body at normal efficiency. Although plants may not provide a 
balanced diet, they will sustain you even in the arctic, where meat's heat -producing 
qualities are normally essential. Many plant foods such as nuts and seeds will give you 
enough protein and oils for normal efficiency. Roots, green vegetables, and plant food 
containing natural sugar will provide calories and carbohydrates that give the body 
natural energy. 

The food value of plants becomes more and more important if you are eluding the enemy 
or if you are in an area where wildlife is scarce. For instance- - 

• You can dry plants by wind, air, sun, or fire. This retards spoilage so that you can 
store or carry the plant food with you to use when needed. 

• You can obtain plants more easily and more quietly than meat. This is extremely 
important when the enemy is near. 

Animal Foods 

Meat is more nourishing than plant food. In fact, it may even be more readily available in 
some places. However, to get meat, you need to know the habits of, and how to capture, 
the various wildlife. 

To satisfy your immediate food needs, first seek the more abundant and more easily 
obtained wildlife, such as insects, crustaceans, mollusks, fish, and reptiles. These can 
satisfy your immediate hunger while you are preparing traps and snares for larger game. 

Personal Hygiene 

In any situation, cleanliness is an important factor in preventing infection and disease. It 
becomes even more important in a survival situation. Poor hygiene can reduce your 
chances of survival. 

A daily shower with hot water and soap is ideal, but you can stay clean without this 
luxury. Use a cloth and soapy water to wash yourself. Pay special attention to the feet, 
armpits, crotch, hands, and hair as these are prime areas for infestation and infection. If 
water is scarce, take an "air" bath. Remove as much of your clothing as practical and 
expose your body to the sun and air for at least 1 hour. Be careful not to sunburn. 

If you don't have soap, use ashes or sand, or make soap from animal fat and wood ashes, 
if your situation allows. To make soap-- 

• Extract grease from animal fat by cutting the fat into small pieces and cooking 
them in a pot. 

• Add enough water to the pot to keep the fat from sticking as it cooks. 

• Cook the fat slowly, stirring frequently. 

• After the fat is rendered, pour the grease into a container to harden. 



• Place ashes in a container with a spout near the bottom. 

• Pour water over the ashes and collect the liquid that drips out of the spout in a 
separate container. This liquid is the potash or lye. Another way to get the lye is to 
pour the slurry (the mixture of ashes and water) through a straining cloth. 

• In a cooking pot, mix two parts grease to one part potash. 

• Place this mixture over a fire and boil it until it thickens. 

After the mixture—the soap--cools, you can use it in the semiliquid state directly from the 
pot. You can also pour it into a pan, allow it to harden, and cut it into bars for later use. 

Keep Your Hands Clean 

Germs on your hands can infect food and wounds. Wash your hands after handling any 
material that is likely to carry germs, after visiting the latrine, after caring for the sick, 
and before handling any food, food utensils, or drinking water. Keep your fingernails 
closely trimmed and clean, and keep your fingers out of your mouth. 

Keep Your Hair Clean 

Your hair can become a haven for bacteria or fleas, lice, and other parasites. Keeping 
your hair clean, combed, and trimmed helps you avoid this danger. 

Keep Your Clothing Clean 

Keep your clothing and bedding as clean as possible to reduce the chance of skin 
infection as well as to decrease the danger of parasitic infestation. Clean your outer 
clothing whenever it becomes soiled. Wear clean underclothing and socks each day. If 
water is scarce, "air" clean your clothing by shaking, airing, and sunning it for 2 hours. If 
you are using a sleeping bag, turn it inside out after each use, fluff it, and air it. 

Keep Your Teeth Clean 

Thoroughly clean your mouth and teeth with a toothbrush at least once each day. If you 
don't have a toothbrush, make a chewing stick. Find a twig about 20 centimeters longand 
1 centimeter wide. Chew one end of the stick to separate the fibers. Now brush your teeth 
thoroughly. Another way is to wrap a clean strip of cloth around your fingers and rub 
your teeth with it to wipe away food particles. You can also brush your teeth with small 
amounts of sand, baking soda, salt, or soap. Then rinse your mouth with water, salt water, 
or willow bark tea. Also, flossing your teeth with string or fiber helps oral hygiene. 

If you have cavities, you can make temporary fillings by placing candle wax, tobacco, 
aspirin, hot pepper, tooth paste or powder, or portions of a ginger root into the cavity. 
Make sure you clean the cavity by rinsing or picking the particles out of the cavity before 
placing a filling in the cavity. 

Take Care of Your Feet 



To prevent serious foot problems, break in your shoes before wearing them on any 
mission. Wash and massage your feet daily. Trim your toenails straight across. Wear an 
insole and the proper size of dry socks. Powder and check your feet daily for blisters. 

If you get a small blister, do not open it. An intact blister is safe from infection. Apply a 
padding material around the blister to relieve pressure and reduce friction. If the blister 
bursts, treat it as an open wound. Clean and dress it daily and pad around it. Leave large 
blisters intact. To avoid having the blister burst or tear under pressure and cause a painful 
and open sore, do the following: 

• Obtain a sewing-type needle and a clean or sterilized thread. 

• Run the needle and thread through the blister after cleaning the blister. 

• Detach the needle and leave both ends of the thread hanging out of the blister. The 
thread will absorb the liquid inside. This reduces the size of the hob and ensures 
that the hole does not close up. 

• Pad around the blister. 

Get Sufficient Rest 

You need a certain amount of rest to keep going. Plan for regular rest periods of at least 
10 minutes per hour during your daily activities. Learn to make yourself comfortable 
under less than ideal conditions. A change from mental to physical activity or vice versa 
can be refreshing when time or situation does not permit total relaxation. 

Keep Camp Site Clean 

Do not soil the ground in the camp site area with urine or feces. Use latrines, if available. 
When latrines are not available, dig "cat holes" and cover the waste. Collect drinking 
water upstream from the camp site. Purify all water. 

MEDICAL EMERGENCIES 

Medical problems and emergencies you may be faced with include breathing problems, 
severe bleeding, and shock. 

Breathing Problems 

Any one of the following can cause airway obstruction, resulting in stopped breathing: 

• Foreign matter in mouth of throat that obstructs the opening to the trachea. 

• Face or neck injuries. 

• Inflammation and swelling of mouth and throat caused by inhaling smoke, flames, 
and irritating vapors or by an allergic reaction. 

• "Kink" in the throat (caused by the neck bent forward so that the chin rests upon 
the chest) may block the passage of air. 



• Tongue blocks passage of air to the lungs upon unconsciousness. When an 
individual is unconscious, the muscles of the lower jaw and tongue relax as the 
neck drops forward, causing the lower jaw to sag and the tongue to drop back and 
block the passage of air. 

Severe Bleeding 

Severe bleeding from any major blood vessel in the body is extremely dangerous. The 
loss of 1 liter of blood will produce moderate symptoms of shock. The loss of 2 liters will 
produce a severe state of shock that places the body in extreme danger. The loss of 3 
liters is usually fatal. 

Shock 

Shock (acute stress reaction) is not a disease in itself. It is a clinical condition 
characterized by symptoms that arise when cardiac output is insufficient to fill the 
arteries with blood under enough pressure to provide an adequate blood supply to the 
organs and tissues. 

LIFESAVING STEPS 

Control panic, both your own and the victim's. Reassure him and try to keep him quiet. 

Perform a rapid physical exam. Look for the cause of the injury and follow the ABCs of 
first aid, starting with the airway and breathing, but be discerning. A person may die from 
arterial bleeding more quickly than from an airway obstruction in some cases. 

Open Airway and Maintain 

You can open an airway and maintain it by using the following steps . 

Step 1. Check if the victim has a partial or complete airway obstruction. If he can cough 
or speak, allow him to clear the obstruction naturally. Stand by, reassure the victim, and 
be ready to clear his airway and perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation should he become 
unconscious. If his airway is completely obstructed, administer abdominal thrusts until 
the obstruction is cleared. 

Step 2. Using a finger, quickly sweep the victim's mouth clear of any foreign objects, 
broken teeth, dentures, sand. 

Step 3. Using the jaw thrust method, grasp the angles of the victim's lower jaw and lift 
with both hands, one on each side, moving the jaw forward. For stability, rest your 
elbows on the surface on which the victim is lying. If his lips are closed, gently open the 
lower lip with your thumb ( Figure 4-1) . 



4 

t 






rV 


P^ ^ 


* Grasp tha anglos of the lower 




l f% 


jaw and lifl with both hands, 




one on each side, moving the 






Jgwi&rwsrd. 

• If vfcHrrTB Sips st* closed, open 




te£FMw9 


the lower ip with your tnumb. 




4i|cy 





Figure 4-1, Jaw tliru.si method. 

Step 4. With the victim's airway open, pinch his nose closed with your thumb and 
forefinger and blow two complete breaths into his lungs. Allow the lungs to deflate after 
the second inflation and perform the following: 

• Look for his chest to rise and fall. 

• Listen for escaping air during exhalation. 

• Feel for flow of air on your cheek. 

Step 5. If the forced breaths do not stimulate spontaneous breathing, maintain the victim's 
breathing by performing mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. 

Step 6. There is danger of the victim vomiting during mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. 
Check the victim's mouth periodically for vomit and clear as needed. 

Note: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) may be necessary after 
cleaning the airway, but only after major bleeding is under control. See 
FM 21-20, the American Heart Association manual, the Red Cross 
manual, or most other first aid books for detailed instructions on CPR. 

Control Bleeding 

In a survival situation, you must control serious bleeding immediately because 
replacement fluids normally are not available and the victim can die within a matter of 
minutes. External bleeding falls into the following classifications (according to its 
source): 



Arterial. Blood vessels called arteries carry blood away from the heart and 
through the body. A cut artery issues bright red blood from the wound in distinct 
spurts or pulses that correspond to the rhythm of the heartbeat. Because the blood 
in the arteries is under high pressure, an individual can lose a large volume of 
blood in a short period when damage to an artery of significant size occurs. 



Therefore, arterial bleeding is the most serious type of bleeding. If not controlled 
promptly, it can be fatal. 

• Venous. Venous blood is blood that is returning to the heart through blood vessels 
called veins. A steady flow of dark red, maroon, or bluish blood characterizes 
bleeding from a vein. You can usually control venous bleeding more easily than 
arterial bleeding. 

• Capillary. The capillaries are the extremely small vessels that connect the arteries 
with the veins. Capillary bleeding most commonly occurs in minor cuts and 
scrapes. This type of bleeding is not difficult to control. 

You can control external bleeding by direct pressure, indirect (pressure points) pressure, 
elevation, digital ligation, or tourniquet. 

Direct Pressure 

The most effective way to control external bleeding is by applying pressure directly over 
the wound. This pressure must not only be firm enough to stop the bleeding, but it must 
also be maintained long enough to "seal off" the damaged surface. 

If bleeding continues after having applied direct pressure for 30 minutes, apply a pressure 
dressing. This dressing consists of a thick dressing of gauze or other suitable material 
applied directly over the wound and held in place with a tightly wrapped bandage (Figure 
4-2 ). It should be tighter than an ordinary compression bandage but not so tight that it 
impairs circulation to the rest of the limb. Once you apply the dressing, do not remove it, 
even when the dressing becomes blood soaked. 




WOUND 




PRESSURE APPUEO TO 
WOUND WITH BANDAGES 
ATTACHED TO DRESSING 




BANDAGES 




ADDITIOHA*. PRESSURE APfUJEP 
TOWOUND WITH HAND 





ADDITIONAL PRESSURE APPLIED TO 

WOUND WITH PAD IRAG) FIRMLY SECURED WITH 

CRAVAT OH OTHER STRIP OF MATERIAL 



Figure 4-2, Application ftf a pressure dressing. 

Leave the pressure dressing in place for 1 or 2 days, after which you can remove and 
replace it with a smaller dressing. 

In the long-term survival environment, make fresh, daily dressing changes and inspect for 
signs of infection. 

Elevation 



Raising an injured extremity as high as possible above the heart's level slows blood loss 
by aiding the return of blood to the heart and lowering the blood pressure at the wound. 
However, elevation alone will not control bleeding entirely; you must also apply direct 
pressure over the wound. When treating a snakebite, however, keep the extremity lower 
than the heart. 



Pressure Points 

A pressure point is a location where the main artery to the wound lies near the surface of 
the skin or where the artery passes directly over a bony prominence (Figure 4-3 ). You can 
use digital pressure on a pressure point to slow arterial bleeding until the application of a 
pressure dressing. Pressure point control is not as effective for controlling bleeding as 
direct pressure exerted on the wound. It is rare when a single major compressible artery 
supplies a damaged vessel. 




TEMPLE 

SIDE OF JAW 

ABOVE CLAVICLE 



MIDWAY ON GROIN 



UNDERSIDE OF 
LiFPEfl ARM 
CROOK OF ELBOW 

PROMT OF WFttSTT 



FRONT OF ANKLE 



Figure 4-X Prt&surt paiala. 

If you cannot remember the exact location of the pressure points, follow this rule: Apply 
pressure at the end of the joint just above the injured area. On hands, feet, and head, this 
will be the wrist, ankle, and neck, respectively. 



WARNING 



Use caution when applying pressure to the neck. Too mui h pressure for too Ions 



Maintain pressure points by placing a round stick in the joint, bending the joint over the 
stick, and then keeping it tightly bent by lashing. By using this method to maintain 
pressure, it frees your hands to work in other areas. 



Digital Ligation 



You can stop major bleeding immediately or slow it down by applying pressure with a 
finger or two on the bleeding end of the vein or artery. Maintain the pressure until the 
bleeding stops or slows down enough to apply a pressure bandage, elevation, and so 
forth. 

Tourniquet 

Use a tourniquet only when direct pressure over the bleeding point and all other methods 
did not control the bleeding. If you leave a tourniquet in place too long, the damage to the 
tissues can progress to gangrene, with a loss of the limb later. An improperly applied 
tourniquet can also cause permanent damage to nerves and other tissues at the site of the 
constriction. 

If you must use a tourniquet, place it around the extremity, between the wound and the 
heart, 5 to 10 centimeters above the wound site ( Figure 4-4) . Never place it directly over 
the wound or a fracture. Use a stick as a handle to tighten the tourniquet and tighten it 
only enough to stop blood flow. When you have tightened the tourniquet, bind the free 
end of the stick to the limb to prevent unwinding. 




1 Make a loop around the limb. 
Tie with square knoL 



SQUARE KNOT 




a Para a ittcfc, scabbard, or bayonet 
under the loop. 




3 Tighten tourniquet just enough to 
stop arterial Weeding. 




4 Bind free end of stteN to Unto to 
keep tourniquet from unwinding . 



Figure 4-4. Application of touraiqutL 

After you secure the tourniquet, clean and bandage the wound. A lone survivor does not 
remove or release an applied tourniquet. In a buddy system, however, the buddy can 
release the tourniquet pressure every 10 to 15 minutes for 1 or 2 minutes to let blood flow 
to the rest of the extremity to prevent limb loss. 

Prevent and Treat Shock 



Anticipate shock in all injured personnel. Treat all injured persons as follows, regardless 
of what symptoms appear ( Figure 4-5) : 



If the victim is conscious, place him on a level surface with the lower extremities 

elevated 15 to 20 centimeters. 

If the victim is unconscious, place him on his side or abdomen with his head 

turned to one side to prevent choking on vomit, blood, or other fluids. 

If you are unsure of the best position, place the victim perfectly flat. Once the 

victim is in a shock position, do not move him. 

Maintain body heat by insulating the victim from the surroundings and, in some 

instances, applying external heat. 

If wet, remove all the victim's wet clothing as soon as possible and replace with 

dry clothing. 

Improvise a shelter to insulate the victim from the weather. 

Use warm liquids or foods, a prewarmed sleeping bag, another person, warmed 

water in canteens, hot rocks wrapped in clothing, or fires on either side of the 

victim to provide external warmth. 

If the victim is conscious, slowly administer small doses of a warm salt or sugar 

solution, if available. 

If the victim is unconscious or has abdominal wounds, do not give fluids by 

mouth. 

Have the victim rest for at least 24 hours. 

If you are a lone survivor, lie in a depression in the ground, behind a tree, or any 

other place out of the weather, with your head lower than your feet. 

If you are with a buddy, reassess your patient constantly. 



CONSCIOUS VICTIM 



* Place on level surface, 

* Pemove all wet cfcrthlng. 

* Give worm fluids 

* Alow at least 24 hours 
rest. 



■ Insulate from ground. 

• Shatter from weather 
- Maintain body heal 

* Elevate tower extremities 15 cm 
to 20 cm. 




UNCONSCIOUS VICTIM 

Same as tor conscious victim, eacepi - 

* Place victim on side and lum head to one 
side 10 prmram choking on vomit, blood, 
or other fluids. 

* Do not elevate ariremlties 

* Do not administer fluids 




Figatt 4-5. Trealnifnl tar shock. 

BONE AND JOINT INJURY 



You could face bone and joint injuries that include fractures, dislocations, and sprains. 

Fractures 

There are basically two types of fractures: open and closed. With an open (or compound) 
fracture, the bone protrudes through the skin and complicates the actual fracture with an 
open wound. After setting the fracture, treat the wound as any other open wound. 



The closed fracture has no open wounds. Follow the guidelines for immobilization, and 
set and splint the fracture. 

The signs and symptoms of a fracture are pain, tenderness, discoloration, swelling 
deformity, loss of function, and grating (a sound or feeling that occurs when broken bone 
ends rub together). 

The dangers with a fracture are the severing or the compression of a nerve or blood vessel 
at the site of fracture. For this reason minimum manipulation should be done, and only 
very cautiously. If you notice the area below the break becoming numb, swollen, cool to 
the touch, or turning pale, and the victim shows signs of shock, a major vessel may have 
been severed. You must control this internal bleeding. Rest the victim for shock, and 
replace lost fluids. 

Often you must maintain traction during the splinting and healing process. You can 
effectively pull smaller bones such as the arm or lower leg by hand. You can create 
traction by wedging a hand or foot in the V-notch of a tree and pushing against the tree 
with the other extremity. You can then splint the break. 

Very strong muscles hold a broken thighbone (femur) in place making it difficult to 
maintain traction during healing. You can make an improvised traction splint using 
natural material ( Figure 4-6 ) as follows: 

• Get two forked branches or saplings at least 5 centimeters in diameter. Measure 
one from the patient's armpit to 20 to 30 centimeters past his unbroken leg. 
Measure the other from the groin to 20 to 30 centimeters past the unbroken leg. 
Ensure that both extend an equal distance beyond the end of the leg. 
Pad the two splints. Notch the ends without forks and lash a 20- to 30-centimeter 
cross member made from a 5-centimeter diameter branch between them. 
Using available material (vines, cloth, rawhide), tie the splint around the upper 
portion of the body and down the length of the broken leg. Follow the splinting 
guidelines . 

With available material, fashion a wrap that will extend around the ankle, with the 
two free ends tied to the cross member. 

Place a 10- by 2.5-centimeter stick in the middle of the free ends of the ankle 
wrap between the cross member and the foot. Using the stick, twist the material to 
make the traction easier. 

Continue twisting until the broken leg is as long or slightly longer than the 
unbroken leg. 
Lash the stick to maintain traction. 

Note: Over time you may lose traction because the material weakened. 
Check the traction periodically. If you must change or repair the splint, 
maintain the traction manually for a short time. 




UDNG SPUNT 
SHORT SPLINT 
ANKLE WRAP 
TWISTING STICK 

CROSS MEMBER 




Figure 4-6* Improvised traction splinL 



Dislocations 



Dislocations are the separations of bone joints causing the bones to go out of proper 
alignment. These misalignments can be extremely painful and can cause an impairment 
of nerve or circulatory function below the area affected. You must place these joints back 
into alignment as quickly as possible. 

Signs and symptoms of dislocations are joint pain, tenderness, swelling, discoloration, 
limited range of motion, and deformity of the joint. You treat dislocations by reduction, 
immobilization, and rehabilitation. 

Reduction or "setting" is placing the bones back into their proper alignment. You can use 
several methods, but manual traction or the use of weights to pull the bones are the safest 
and easiest. Once performed, reduction decreases the victim's pain and allows for normal 
function and circulation. Without an X ray, you can judge proper alignment by the look 
and feel of the joint and by comparing it to the joint on the opposite side. 

Immobilization is nothing more than splinting the dislocation after reduction. You can 
use any field- expedient material for a splint or you can splint an extremity to the body. 
The basic guidelines for splinting are- 



Splint above and below the fracture site. 

Pad splints to reduce discomfort. 

Check circulation below the fracture after making each tie on the splint. 



To rehabilitate the dislocation, remove the splints after 7 to 14 days. Gradually use the 
injured joint until fully healed. 

Sprains 

The accidental overstretching of a tendon or ligament causes sprains. The signs and 
symptoms are pain, swelling, tenderness, and discoloration (black and blue). 

When treating sprains, think RICE-- 
R Rest injured area. 

I Ice for 24 hours, then heat after that. 



C Compression- wrapping and/or splinting to help stabilize. If possible, leave 
the boot on a sprained ankle unless circulation is compromised. 

E Elevation of the affected area. 



BITES AND STINGS 

Insects and related pests are hazards in a survival situation. They not only cause 
irritations, but they are often carriers of diseases that cause severe allergic reactions in 
some individuals. In many parts of the world you will be exposed to serious, even fatal, 
diseases not encountered in the United States. 

Ticks can carry and transmit diseases, such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever common in 
many parts of the United States. Ticks also transmit the Lyme disease. 

Mosquitoes may carry malaria, dengue, and many other diseases. 

Flies can spread disease from contact with infectious sources. They are causes of sleeping 
sickness, typhoid, cholera, and dysentery. 

Fleas can transmit plague. 

Lice can transmit typhus and relapsing fever. 

The best way to avoid the complications of insect bites and stings is to keep 
immunizations (including booster shots) up-to-date, avoid insect -infested areas, use 
netting and insect repellent, and wear all clothing properly. 

If you get bitten or stung, do not scratch the bite or sting, it might become infected. 
Inspect your body at least once a day to ensure there are no insects attached to you. If you 



find ticks attached to your body, cover them with a substance, such as Vaseline, heavy 
oil, or tree sap, that will cut off their air supply. Without air, the tick releases its hold, and 
you can remove it. Take care to remove the whole tick. Use tweezers if you have them. 
Grasp the tick where the mouth parts are attached to the skin. Do not squeeze the tick's 
body. Wash your hands after touching the tick. Clean the tick wound daily until healed. 

Treatment 

It is impossible to list the treatment of all the different types of bites and stings. Treat 
bites and stings as follows: 

• If antibiotics are available for your use, become familiar with them before 
deployment and use them. 

• Predeployment immunizations can prevent most of the common diseases carried 
by mosquitoes and some carried by flies. 

• The common fly -borne diseases are usually treatable with penicillins or 
erythromycin. 

• Most tick-, flea-, louse-, and mite-borne diseases are treatable with tetracycline. 

• Most antibiotics come in 250 milligram (mg) or 500 mg tablets. If you cannot 
remember the exact dose rate to treat a disease, 2 tablets, 4 times a day for 10 to 
14 days will usually kill any bacteria. 

Bee and Wasp Stings 

If stung by a bee, immediately remove the stinger and venom sac, if attached, by scraping 
with a fingernail or a knife blade. Do not squeeze or grasp the stinger or venom sac, as 
squeezing will force more venom into the wound. Wash the sting site thoroughly with 
soap and water to lessen the chance of a secondary infection. 

If you know or suspect that you are allergic to insect stings, always carry an insect sting 
kit with you. 

Relieve the itching and discomfort caused by insect bites by applying- - 

Cold compresses. 

A cooling paste of mud and ashes. 

Sap from dandelions. 

Coconut meat. 

Crushed cloves of garlic. 

Onion. 

Spider Bites and Scorpion Stings 

The black widow spider is identified by a red hourglass on its abdomen. Only the female 
bites, and it has a neurotoxic venom. The initial pain is not severe, but severe local pain 
rapidly develops. The pain gradually spreads over the entire body and settles in the 



abdomen and legs. Abdominal cramps and progressive nausea, vomiting, and a rash may 
occur. Weakness, tremors, sweating, and salivation may occur. Anaphylactic reactions 
can occur. Symptoms begin to regress after several hours and are usually gone in a few 
days. Threat for shock. Be ready to perform CPR. Clean and dress the bite area to reduce 
the risk of infection. An antivenin is available. 

The funnelweb spider is a large brown or gray spider found in Australia. The symptoms 
and the treatment for its bite are as for the black widow spider. 

The brown house spider or brown recluse spider is a small, light brown spider identified 
by a dark brown violin on its back. There is no pain, or so little pain, that usually a victim 
is not aware of the bite. Within a few hours a painful red area with a mottled cyanotic 
center appears. Necrosis does not occur in all bites, but usually in 3 to 4 days, a star- 
shaped, firm area of deep purple discoloration appears at the bite site. The area turns dark 
and mummified in a week or two. The margins separate and the scab falls off, leaving an 
open ulcer. Secondary infection and regional swollen lymph glands usually become 
visible at this stage. The outstanding characteristic of the brown recluse bite is an ulcer 
that does not heal but persists for weeks or months. In addition to the ulcer, there is often 
a systemic reaction that is serious and may lead to death. Reactions (fever, chills, joint 
pain, vomiting, and a generalized rash) occur chiefly in children or debilitated persons. 

Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders found mainly in the tropics. Most do not inject venom, 
but some South American species do. They have large fangs. If bitten, pain and bleeding 
are certain, and infection is likely. Treat a tarantula bite as for any open wound, and try to 
prevent infection. If symptoms of poisoning appear, treat as for the bite of the black 
widow spider. 

Scorpions are all poisonous to a greater or lesser degree. There are two different 
reactions, depending on the species: 

• Severe local reaction only, with pain and swelling around the area of the sting. 
Possible prickly sensation around the mouth and a thick-feeling tongue. 

• Severe systemic reaction, with little or no visible local reaction. Local pain may 
be present. Systemic reaction includes respiratory difficulties, thick-feeling 
tongue, body spasms, drooling, gastric distention, double vision, blindness, 
involuntary rapid movement of the eyeballs, involuntary urination and defecation, 
and heart failure. Death is rare, occurring mainly in children and adults with high 
blood pressure or illnesses. 

Treat scorpion stings as you would a black widow bite. 
Snakebites 

The chance of a snakebite in a survival situation is rather small, if you are familiar with 
the various types of snakes and their habitats. However, it could happen and you should 
know how to treat a snakebite. Deaths from snakebites are rare. More than one-half of the 



snakebite victims have little or no poisoning, and only about one-quarter develop serious 
systemic poisoning. However, the chance of a snakebite in a survival situation can affect 
morale, and failure to take preventive measures or failure to treat a snakebite properly can 
result in needless tragedy. 

The primary concern in the treatment of snakebite is to limit the amount of eventual 
tissue destruction around the bite area. 

A bite wound, regardless of the type of animal that inflicted it, can become infected from 
bacteria in the animal's mouth. With nonpoisonous as well as poisonous snakebites, this 
local infection is responsible for a large part of the residual damage that results. 

Snake venoms not only contain poisons that attack the victim's central nervous system 
(neurotoxins) and blood circulation (hemotoxins), but also digestive enzymes 
(cytotoxins) to aid in digesting their prey. These poisons can cause a very large area of 
tissue death, leaving a large open wound. This condition could lead to the need for 
eventual amputation if not treated. 

Shock and panic in a person bitten by a snake can also affect the person's recovery. 
Excitement, hysteria, and panic can speed up the circulation, causing the body to absorb 
the toxin quickly. Signs of shock occur within the first 30 minutes after the bite. 

Before you start treating a snakebite, determine whether the snake was poisonous or 
nonpoisonous. Bites from a nonpoisonous snake will show rows of teeth. Bites from a 
poisonous snake may have rows of teeth showing, but will have one or more distinctive 
puncture marks caused by fang penetration. Symptoms of a poisonous bite may be 
spontaneous bleeding from the nose and anus, blood in the urine, pain at the site of the 
bite, and swelling at the site of the bite within a few minutes or up to 2 hours later. 

Breathing difficulty, paralysis, weakness, twitching, and numbness are also signs of 
neurotoxic venoms. These signs usually appear 1.5 to 2 hours after the bite. 

If you determine that a poisonous snake bit an individual, take the following steps: 

• Reassure the victim and keep him still. 

• Set up for shock and force fluids or give an intravenous (IV). 

• Remove watches, rings, bracelets, or other constricting items. 

• Clean the bite area. 

• Maintain an airway (especially if bitten near the face or neck) and be prepared to 
administer mouth-to-mouth resuscitation or CPR. 

• Use a constricting band between the wound and the heart. 

• Immobilize the site. 

• Remove the poison as soon as possible by using a mechanical suction device or 
by squeezing. 

Do not— 



• Give the victim alcoholic beverages or tobacco products. 

• Give morphine or other central nervous system (CNS) depressors. 

• Make any deep cuts at the bite site. Cutting opens capillaries that in turn open a 
direct route into the blood stream for venom and infection. 

Note: If medical treatment is over one hour away, make an incision (no 
longer than 6 millimeters and no deeper than 3 millimeter) over each 
puncture, cutting just deep enough to enlarge the fang opening, but only 
through the first or second layer of skin. Place a suction cup over the bite 
so that you have a good vacuum seal. Suction the bite site 3 to 4 times. 
Use mouth suction only as a last resort and only if you do not have open 
sores in your mouth. Spit the envenomed blood out and rinse your mouth 
with water. This method will draw out 25 to 30 percent of the venom. 

• Put your hands on your face or rub your eyes, as venom may be on your hands. 
Venom may cause blindness. 

• Break open the large blisters that form around the bite site. 

After caring for the victim as described above, take the following actions to minimize 
local effects: 

• If infection appears, keep the wound open and clean. 

• Use heat after 24 to 48 hours to help prevent the spread of local infection. Heat 
also helps to draw out an infection. 

• Keep the wound covered with a dry, sterile dressing. 

• Have the victim drink large amounts of fluids until the infection is gone. 

WOUNDS 

An interruption of the skin's integrity characterizes wounds. These wounds could be open 
wounds, skin diseases, frostbite, trench foot, and burns. 

Open Wounds 

Open wounds are serious in a survival situation, not only because of tissue damage and 
blood loss, but also because they may become infected. Bacteria on the object that made 
the wound, on the individual's skin and clothing, or on other foreign material or dirt that 
touches the wound may cause infection. 

By taking proper care of the wound you can reduce further contamination and promote 
healing. Clean the wound as soon as possible after it occurs by— 

• Removing or cutting clothing away from the wound. 

• Always looking for an exit wound if a sharp object, gun shot, or projectile caused 
a wound. 

• Thoroughly cleaning the skin around the wound. 



• Rinsing (not scrubbing) the wound with large amounts of water under pressure. 
You can use fresh urine if water is not available. 

The "open treatment" method is the safest way to manage wounds in survival situations. 
Do not try to close any wound by suturing or similar procedures. Leave the wound open 
to allow the drainage of any pus resulting from infection. As long as the wound can drain, 
it generally will not become life-threatening, regardless of how unpleasant it looks or 
smells. 

Cover the wound with a clean dressing. Place a bandage on the dressing to hold it in 
place. Change the dressing daily to check for infection. 

If a wound is gaping, you can bring the edges together with adhesive tape cut in the form 
of a "butterfly" or "dumbbell" ( Figure 4-7 ). 





r~^-± 


A 

1 hH 1 

1 wSk/ 1 

1 — /i njp — I 

c 



Figure 4-7. Bultrrfly closure 

In a survival situation, some degree of wound infection is almost inevitable. Pain, 
swelling, and redness around the wound, increased temperature, and pus in the wound or 
on the dressing indicate infection is present. 

To treat an infected wound- - 



Place a warm, moist compress directly on the infected wound. Change the 

compress when it cools, keeping a warm compress on the wound for a total of 30 

minutes. Apply the compresses three or four times daily. 

Drain the wound. Open and gently probe the infected wound with a sterile 

instrument. 

Dress and bandage the wound. 

Drink a lot of water. 



Continue this treatment daily until all signs of infection have disappeared. 

If you do not have antibiotics and the wound has become severely infected, does not heal, 
and ordinary debridement is impossible, consider maggot therapy, despite its hazards: 

• Expose the wound to flies for one day and then cover it. 

• Check daily for maggots. 

• Once maggots develop, keep wound covered but check daily. 

• Remove all maggots when they have cleaned out all dead tissue and before they 
start on healthy tissue. Increased pain and bright red blood in the wound indicate 
that the maggots have reached healthy tissue. 

• Flush the wound repeatedly with sterile water or fresh urine to remove the 
maggots. 

• Check the wound every four hours for several days to ensure all maggots have 
been removed. 

• Bandage the wound and treat it as any other wound. It should heal normally. 

Skin Diseases and Ailments 

Although boils, fungal infections, and rashes rarely develop into a serious health 
problem, they cause discomfort and you should treat them. 

Boils 

Apply warm compresses to bring the boil to a head. Then open the boil using a sterile 
knife, wire, needle, or similar item. Thoroughly clean out the pus using soap and water. 
Cover the boil site, checking it periodically to ensure no further infection develops. 

Fungal Infections 

Keep the skin clean and dry, and expose the infected area to as much sunlight as possible. 
Do not scratch the affected area. During the Southeast Asian conflict, soldiers used 
antifungal powders, lye soap, chlorine bleach, alcohol, vinegar, concentrated salt water, 
and iodine to treat fungal infections with varying degrees of success. As with any 
"unorthodox" method of treatment, use it with caution. 

Rashes 

To treat a skin rash effectively, first determine what is causing it. This determination may 
be difficult even in the best of situations. Observe the following rules to treat rashes: 

• If it is moist, keep it dry. 

• If it is dry, keep it moist. 

• Do not scratch it. 



Use a compress of vinegar or tannic acid derived from tea or from boiling acorns or the 
bark of a hardwood tree to dry weeping rashes. Keep dry rashes moist by rubbing a small 
amount of rendered animal fat or grease on the affected area. 

Remember, treat rashes as open wounds and clean and dress them daily. There are many 
substances available to survivors in the wild or in captivity for use as antiseptics to treat 
wound: 

• Iodine tablets. Use 5 to 15 tablets in a liter of water to produce a good rinse for 
wounds during healing. 

• Garlic. Rub it on a wound or boil it to extract the oils and use the water to rinse 
the affected area. 

• Salt water. Use 2 to 3 tablespoons per liter of water to kill bacteria. 

• Bee honey. Use it straight or dissolved in water. 

• Sphagnum moss. Found in boggy areas worldwide, it is a natural source of iodine. 
Use as a dressing. 

Again, use none ommer daily prepared materials with caution. 

Frostbite 

This injury results from frozen tissues. Light frostbite involves only the skin that takes on 
a dull, whitish pallor. Deep frostbite extends to a depth below the skin. The tissues 
become solid and immovable. Your feet, hands, and exposed facial areas are particularly 
vulnerable to frostbite. 

When with others, prevent frostbite by using the buddy system. Check your buddy's face 
often and make sure that he checks yours. If you are alone, periodically cover your nose 
and lower part of your face with your mittens. 

Do not try to thaw the affected areas by placing them close to an open flame. Gently rub 
them in lukewarm water. Dry the part and place it next to your skin to warm it at body 
temperature. 

Trench Foot 

This condition results from many hours or days of exposure to wet or damp conditions at 
a temperature just above freezing. The nerves and muscles sustain the main damage, but 
gangrene can occur. In extreme cases the flesh dies and it may become necessary to have 
the foot or leg amputated. The best prevention is to keep your feet dry. Carry extra socks 
with you in a waterproof packet. Dry wet socks against your body. Wash your feet daily 
and put on dry socks. 

Burns 



The following field treatment for burns relieves the pain somewhat, seems to help speed 
healing, and offers some protection against infection: 

• First, stop the burning process. Put out the fire by removing clothing, dousing 
with water or sand, or by rolling on the ground. Cool the burning skin with ice or 
water. For burns caused by white phosphorous, pick out the white phosphorous 
with tweezers; do not douse with water. 

• Soak dressings or clean rags for 10 minutes in a boiling tannic acid solution 
(obtained from tea, inner bark of hardwood trees, or acorns boiled in water). 
Cool the dressings or clean rags and apply over burns. 
Treat as an open wound. 
Replace fluid loss. 
Maintain airway. 
Treat for shock. 
Consider using morphine, unless the burns are near the face. 

ENVIRONMENTAL INJURIES 

Heatstroke, hypothermia, diarrhea, and intestinal parasites are environmental injuries you 
could face. 

Heatstroke 

The breakdown of the body's heat regulatory system (body temperature more than 40.5 
degrees C [105 degrees F]) causes a heatstroke. Other heat injuries, such as cramps or 
dehydration, do not always precede a heatstroke. Signs and symptoms of heatstroke are- 

• Swollen, beet-red face. 

• Reddened whites of eyes. 

• Victim not sweating. 

• Unconsciousness or delirium, which can cause pallor, a bluish color to lips and 
nail beds (cyanosis), and cool skin. 

Note: By this time the victim is in severe shock. Cool the victim as rapidly 
as possible. Cool him by dipping him in a cool stream. If one is not 
available, douse the victim with urine, water, or at the very least, apply 
cool wet corn-presses to all the joints, especially the neck, armpits, and 
crotch. Be sure to wet the victim's head. Heat loss through the scalp is 
great. Administer IVs and provide drinking fluids. You may fan the 
individual. 

Expect, during cooling- - 

• Vomiting. 

• Diarrhea. 

• Struggling. 



Shivering. 

Shouting. 

Prolonged unconsciousness. 

Rebound heatstroke within 48 hours. 

Cardiac arrest; be ready to perform CPR. 

Note: Treat for dehydration with lightly salted water. 
Hypothermia 

Defined as the body's failure to maintain a temperature of 36 degrees C (97 degrees F). 
Exposure to cool or cold temperature over a short or long time can cause hypothermia. 
Dehydration and lack of food and rest predispose the survivor to hypothermia. 

Unlike heatstroke, you must gradually warm the hypothermia victim. Get the victim into 
dry clothing. Replace lost fluids, and warm him. 

Diarrhea 

A common, debilitating ailment caused by a change of water and food, drinking 
contaminated water, eating spoiled food, becoming fatigued, and using dirty dishes. You 
can avoid most of these causes by practicing preventive medicine. If you get diarrhea, 
however, and do not have antidiarrheal medicine, one of the following treatments may be 
effective: 

• Limit your intake of fluids for 24 hours. 

• Drink one cup of a strong tea solution every 2 hours until the diarrhea slows or 
stops. The tannic acid in the tea helps to control the diarrhea. Boil the inner bark 
of a hardwood tree for 2 hours or more to release the tannic acid. 

• Make a solution of one handful of ground chalk, charcoal, or dried bones and 
treated water. If you have some apple pomace or the rinds of citrus fruit, add an 
equal portion to the mixture to make it more effective. Take 2 tablespoons of the 
solution every 2 hours until the diarrhea slows or stops. 

Intestinal Parasites 

You can usually avoid worm infestations and other intestinal parasites if you take 
preventive measures. For example, never go barefoot. The most effective way to prevent 
intestinal parasites is to avoid uncooked meat and raw vegetables contaminated by raw 
sewage or human waste used as a fertilizer. However, should you become infested and 
lack proper medicine, you can use home remedies. Keep in mind that these home 
remedies work on the principle of changing the environment of the gastrointestinal tract. 
The following are home remedies you could use: 

• Salt water. Dissolve 4 tablespoons of salt in 1 liter of water and drink. Do not 
repeat this treatment. 



• Tobacco. Eat 1 to 1.5 cigarettes. The nicotine in the cigarette will kill or stun the 
worms long enough for your system to pass them. If the infestation is severe, 
repeat the treatment in 24 to 48 hours, but no sooner. 

• Kerosene. Drink 2 tablespoons of kerosene but no more. If necessary, you can 
repeat this treatment in 24 to 48 hours. Be careful not to inhale the fumes. They 
may cause lung irritation. 

• Hot peppers. Peppers are effective only if they are a steady part of your diet. You 
can eat them raw or put them in soups or rice and meat dishes. They create an 
environment that is prohibitive to parasitic attachment. 

HERBAL MEDICINES 

Our modern wonder drugs, laboratories, and equipment have obscured more primitive 
types of medicine involving determination, common sense, and a few simple treatments. 
In many areas of the world, however, the people still depend on local "witch doctors" or 
healers to cure their ailments. Many of the herbs (plants) and treatments they use are as 
effective as the most modern medications available. In fact, many modern medications 
come from refined herbs. 



WARNING 



Use herbal medicines with extreme care, however, and oi ly when you lackorhavt 
limited medical supplies. Some herbal medicines are da lgerous and may cause 
further damage or even death. See , Survival U; e of Plants, for some basic 

herbal medicine treatments. 



CHAPTER 5 



SHELTERS 




A shelter can protect you from the sun, insects, wind, rain, snow, hot or 
cold temperatures, and enemy observation. It can give you a feeling of 
well-being. It can help you maintain your will to survive. 

In some areas, your need for shelter may take precedence over your need 
for food and possibly even your need for water. For example, prolonged 
exposure to cold can cause excessive fatigue and weakness (exhaustion). 
An exhausted person may develop a "passive" outlook, thereby losing the 
will to survive. 

The most common error in making a shelter is to make it too large. A 
shelter must be large enough to protect you. It must also be small enough 
to contain your body heat, especially in cold climates. 

SHELTER SITE SELECTION 

When you are in a survival situation and realize that shelter is a high priority, start 
looking for shelter as soon as possible. As you do so, remember what you will need at the 
site. Two requisites are— 

• It must contain material to make the type of shelter you need. 

• It must be large enough and level enough for you to lie down comfortably. 

When you consider these requisites, however, you cannot ignore your tactical situation or 
your safety. You must also consider whether the site-- 



• Provides concealment from enemy observation. 

• Has camouflaged escape routes. 



• Is suitable for signaling, if necessary. 

• Provides protection against wild animals and rocks and dead trees that might fall. 

• Is free from insects, reptiles, and poisonous plants. 

You must also remember the problems that could arise in your environment. For 
instance-- 

• Avoid flash flood areas in foothills. 

• Avoid avalanche or rockslide areas in mountainous terrain. 

• Avoid sites near bodies of water that are below the high water mark. 

In some areas, the season of the year has a strong bearing on the site you select. Ideal 
sites for a shelter differ in winter and summer. During cold winter months you will want 
a site that will protect you from the cold and wind, but will have a source of fuel and 
water. During summer months in the same area you will want a source of water, but you 
will want the site to be almost insect free. 

When considering shelter site selection, use the word BLISS as a guide. 

B - Blend in with the surroundings. 

L - Low silhouette. 

I - Irregular shape. 

S - Small. 

S - Secluded location. 

TYPES OF SHELTERS 

When looking for a shelter site, keep in mind the type of shelter (protection) you need. 
However, you must also consider- - 

• How much time and effort you need to build the shelter. 

• If the shelter will adequately protect you from the elements (sun, wind, rain, 
snow). 

• If you have the tools to build it. If not, can you make improvised tools? 

• If you have the type and amount of materials needed to build it. 

To answer these questions, you need to know how to make various types of shelters and 
what materials you need to make them. 

Poncho Lean-To 



It takes only a short time and minimal equipment to build this lean-to ( Figure 5-1 ). You 
need a poncho, 2 to 3 meters of rope or parachute suspension line, three stakes about 30 
centimeters long, and two trees or two poles 2 to 3 meters apart. Before selectingthetrees 
you will use or the location of your poles, check the wind direction. Ensure that the back 
of your lean-to will be into the wind. 




Figure 5-1, 1'uinLho lean-tit. 

To make the lean-to-- 

• Tie off the hood of the poncho. Pull the drawstring tight, roll the hood longways, 
fold it into thirds, and tie it off with the drawstring. 

• Cut the rope in half. On one long side of the poncho, tie half of the rope to the 
corner grommet. Tie the other half to the other corner grommet. 

• Attach a drip stick (about a 10-centimeter stick) to each rope about 2.5 
centimeters from the grommet. These drip sticks will keep rainwater from running 
down the ropes into the lean-to. Tying strings (about 10 centimeters long) to each 
grommet along the poncho's top edge will allow the water to run to and down the 
line without dripping into the shelter. 

• Tie the ropes about waist high on the trees (uprights). Use a round turn and two 
half hitches with a quick-release knot. 

• Spread the poncho and anchor it to the ground, putting sharpened sticks through 
the grommets and into the ground. 

If you plan to use the lean-to for more than one night, or you expect rain, make a center 
support for the lean-to. Make this support with a line. Attach one end of the line to the 
poncho hood and the other end to an overhanging branch. Make sure there is no slack in 
the line. 

Another method is to place a stick upright under the center of the lean-to. This method, 
however, will restrict your space and movements in the shelter. 



For additional protection from wind and rain, place some brush, your rucksack, or other 
equipment at the sides of the lean-to. 

To reduce heat loss to the ground, place some type of insulating material, such as leaves 
or pine needles, inside your lean-to. 

Note: When at rest, you lose as much as 80 percent of your body heat to 
the ground. 

To increase your security from enemy observation, lower the lean-to's silhouette by 
making two changes. First, secure the support lines to the trees at knee height (not at 
waist height) using two knee-high sticks in the two center grommets (sides of lean-to). 
Second, angle the poncho to the ground, securing it with sharpened sticks , as above. 

Poncho Tent 

This tent ( Figure 5-2) provides a low silhouette. It also protects you from the elements on 
two sides. It has, however, less usable space and observation area than a lean-to, 
decreasing your reaction time to enemy detection. To make this tent, you need a poncho, 
two 1.5- to 2.5-meter ropes, six sharpened sticks about 30 centimeters long, and two trees 
2 to 3 meters apart. 




Figure 5-2. Puncho lent uslitg overhang iir branch. 

To make the tent-- 

• Tie off the poncho hood in the same way as the poncho lean-to. 

• Tie a 1.5- to 2.5-meter rope to the center grommet on each side of the poncho. 

• Tie the other ends of these ropes at about knee height to two trees 2 to 3 meters 
apart and stretch the poncho tight. 

• Draw one side of the poncho tight and secure it to the ground pushing sharpened 
sticks through the grommets. 



• Follow the same procedure on the other side. 

If you need a center support, use the same methods as for the poncho lean-to. Another 
center support is an A-frame set outside but over the center of the tent ( Figure 5-3) . Use 
two 90- to 120-centimeter-long sticks, one with a forked end, to form the A-frame. Tie 
the hood's drawstring to the A-frame to support the center of the tent. 



■pp«« 


■pm 


l 


Rife! 1 




^H 






<^H 



Figure 5-3, Poncho teal with A^rame, 

Three-Pole Parachute Tepee 

If you have a parachute and three poles and the tactical situation allows, make a 
parachute tepee. It is easy and takes very little time to make this tepee. It provides 
protection from the elements and can act as a signaling device by enhancing a small 
amount of light from a fire or candle. It is large enough to hold several people and their 
equipment and to allow sleeping, cooking, and storing firewood. 

You can make this tepee using parts of or a whole personnel main or reserve parachute 
canopy. If using a standard personnel parachute, you need three poles 3.5 to 4.5 meters 
long and about 5 centimeters in diameter. 

To make this tepee ( Figure 5-4 )-- 



Lay the poles on the ground and lash them together at one end. 

Stand the framework up and spread the poles to form a tripod. 

For more support, place additional poles against the tripod. Five or six additional 

poles work best, but do not lash them to the tripod. 

Determine the wind direction and locate the entrance 90 degrees or more from the 

mean wind direction. 



Lay out the parachute on the "backside" of the tripod and locate the bridle loop 

(nylon web loop) at the top (apex) of the canopy. 

Place the bridle loop over the top of a free-standing pole. Then place the pole 

back up against the tripod so that the canopy's apex is at the same height as the 

lashing on the three poles. 

Wrap the canopy around one side of the tripod. The canopy should be of double 

thickness, as you are wrapping an entire parachute. You need only wrap half of 

the tripod, as the remainder of the canopy will encircle the tripod in the opposite 

direction. 

Construct the entrance by wrapping the folded edges of the canopy around two 

free-standing poles. You can then place the poles side by side to close the tepee's 

entrance. 

Place all extra canopy underneath the tepee poles and inside to create a floor for 

the shelter. 

Leave a 30- to 50-centimeter opening at the top for ventilation if you intend to 

have a fire inside the tepee. 




PARACHUTE CANOPY 




Figure 5-4, Thrce-polc parachute tepee. 

One-Pole Parachute Tepee 

You need a 14-gore section (normally) of canopy, stakes, a stout center pole, and inner 
core and needle to construct this tepee. You cut the suspension lines except for 40- to 45- 
centimeter lengths at the canopy's lower lateral band. 

To make this tepee ( Figure 5-5 )-- 

• Select a shelter site and scribe a circle about 4 meters in diameter on the ground. 



Stake the parachute material to the ground using the lines remaining at the lower 

lateral band. 

After deciding where to place the shelter door, emplace a stake and tie the first 

line (from the lower lateral band) securely to it. 

Stretch the parachute material taut to the next line, emplace a stake on the scribed 

line, and tie the line to it. 

Continue the staking process until you have tied all the lines. 

Loosely attach the top of the parachute material to the center pole with a 

suspension line you previously cut and, through trial and error, determine the 

point at which the parachute material will be pulled tight once the center pole is 

upright. 

Then securely attach the material to the pole. 

Using a suspension line (or inner core), sew the end gores together leaving 1 or 

1.2 meters for a door. 




Figure 5-S, Out-polr panitfiutr tepee. 



No-Pole Parachute Tepee 

You use the same materials, except for the center pole, as for the one-pole parachute 
tepee. 

To make this tepee ( Figure 5-6 )-- 



Tie a line to the top of parachute material with a previously cut suspension line. 

Throw the line over a tree limb, and tie it to the tree trunk. 

Starting at the opposite side from the door, emplace a stake on the scribed 3.5- to 

4.3-meter circle. 

Tie the first line on the lower lateral band. 

Continue emplacing the stakes and tying the lines to them. 

After staking down the material, unfasten the line tied to the tree trunk, tighten the 

tepee material by pulling on this line, and tie it securely to the tree trunk. 




Figure 5-6. Np*paFe pNmchuic tep«. 



One-Man Shelter 



A one-man shelter you can easily make using a parachute requires a tree and three poles. 
One pole should be about 4.5 meters long and the other two about 3 meters long. 

To make this shelter ( Figure 5-7) -- 



• Secure the 4.5-meter pole to the tree at about waist height. 

• Lay the two 3 -meter poles on the ground on either side of and in the same 
direction as the 4.5-meter pole. 

• Lay the folded canopy over the 4.5 meter pole so that about the same amount of 
material hangs on both sides. 

• Tuck the excess material under the 3-meter poles, and spread it on the ground 
inside to serve as a floor. 

• Stake down or put a spreader between the two 3-meter poles at the shelter's 
entrance so they will not slide inward. 

• Use any excess material to cover the entrance. 




rigu tt 5-7. Ont-man shelter. 

The parachute cloth makes this shelter wind resistant, and the shelter is small enough that 
it is easily warmed. A candle, used carefully, can keep the inside temperature 
comfortable. This shelter is unsatisfactory, however, when snow is falling as even a light 
snowfall will cave it in. 

Parachute Hammock 



You can make a hammock using 6 to 8 gores of parachute canopy and two trees about 4.5 
meters apart ( Figure 5-8 ). 




1 Lay out pfl/Bchute and cul six 
gores of mBtorina. 




SPREADER BAH 

3 Suspend hammock between 
two trees with the skirt higher 
than the apex* Place a 
spreader bar between the fines 
at the skirt and (ace ii to ihs 
Skirt StrStCh an awning fine 
between the two trees. 

* An alternate and more Blab's 
configuration woulfcl be to tie 
each side Of the shirt to a sopn 
rale tree However, this con- 
figuration of three trees Gourd 
be difficult to find 




2 Skirting from one side, make 
two folds each, one gore in 
width, yielding a base of Ihree 
thicknesses of material. 




I 

STABILIZE R BARS 



4 Drape the remaining three 
gores oyer the awning lira and 
luck the sixth gore into the 
shelter. Prop forked branches 
under the spreader bar to 
stabilize the shelter 



Figure 5-8. Parachute tiammuL^ 



Field-Expedient Lean-To 



If you are in a wooded area and have enough natural materials, you can make a field- 
expedient lean-to ( Figure 5-9 ) without the aid of tools or with only a knife. It takes longer 
to make this type of shelter than it does to make other types, but it will protect you from 
the elements. 




I'lgiir* 5-9. FiEM-cx|HditiH Icdn lo and fire rrfWttttG 



You will need two trees (or upright poles) about 2 meters apart; one pole about 2 meters 
long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter; five to eight poles about 3 meters long and 2.5 
centimeters in diameter for beams; cord or vines for securing the horizontal support to the 
trees; and other poles, saplings, or vines to crisscross the beams. 

To make this lean-to-- 

• Tie the 2-meter pole to the two trees at waist to chest height. This is the horizontal 
support. If a standing tree is not available, construct a biped using Y-shaped sticks 
or two tripods. 

• Place one end of the beams (3-meter poles) on one side of the horizontal support. 
As with all lean-to type shelters, be sure to place the lean-to's backside into the 
wind. 

• Crisscross saplings or vines on the beams. 

• Cover the framework with brush, leaves, pine needles, or grass, starting at the 
bottom and working your way up like shingling. 

• Place straw, leaves, pine needles, or grass inside the shelter for bedding. 

In cold weather, add to your lean-to's comfort by building a fire reflector wall ( Figure 5- 
9). Drive four 1.5-meter-long stakes into the ground to support the wall. Stack green logs 
on top of one another between the support stakes. Form two rows of stacked logs to 
create an inner space within the wall that you can fill with dirt. This action not only 
strengthens the wall but makes it more heat reflective. Bind the top of the support stakes 
so that the green logs and dirt will stay in place. 

With just a little more effort you can have a drying rack. Cut a few 2- centimeter- diameter 
poles (length depends on the distance between the lean-to's horizontal support and the top 
of the fire reflector wall). Lay one end of the poles on the lean-to support and the other 



end on top of the reflector wall. Place and tie into place smaller sticks across these poles. 
You now have a place to dry clothes, meat, or fish. 

Swamp Bed 

In a marsh or swamp, or any area with standing water or continually wet ground, the 
swamp bed ( Figure 5- 10) keeps you out of the water. When selecting such a site, consider 
the weather, wind, tides, and available materials. 




Tigure 5- 10. Swamp bed. 



To make a swamp bed- 



Look for four trees clustered in a rectangle, or cut four poles (bamboo is ideal) 

and drive them firmly into the ground so they form a rectangle. They should be 

far enough apart and strong enough to support your height and weight, to include 

equipment. 

Cut two poles that span the width of the rectangle. They, too, must be strong 

enough to support your weight. 

Secure these two poles to the trees (or poles). Be sure they are high enough above 

the ground or water to allow for tides and high water. 

Cut additional poles that span the rectangle's length. Lay them across the two side 

poles, and secure them. 

Cover the top of the bed frame with broad leaves or grass to form a soft sleeping 

surface. 

Build a fire pad by laying clay, silt, or mud on one comer of the swamp bed and 

allow it to dry. 



Another shelter designed to get you above and out of the water or wet ground uses the 
same rectangular configuration as the swamp bed. You very simply lay sticks and 
branches lengthwise on the inside of the trees (or poles) until there is enough material to 
raise the sleeping surface above the water level. 



Natural Shelters 

Do not overlook natural formations that provide shelter. Examples are caves, rocky 
crevices, clumps of bushes, small depressions, large rocks on leeward sides of hills, large 
trees with low-hanging limbs, and fallen trees with thick branches. However, when 
selecting a natural formation- - 

• Stay away from low ground such as ravines, narrow valleys, or creek beds. Low 
areas collect the heavy cold air at night and are therefore colder than the 
surrounding high ground. Thick, brushy, low ground also harbors more insects. 

• Check for poisonous snakes, ticks, mites, scorpions, and stinging ants. 

• Look for loose rocks, dead limbs, coconuts, or other natural growth than could fall 
on your shelter. 

Debris Hut 

For warmth and ease of construction, this shelter is one of the best. When shelter is 
essential to survival, build this shelter. 

To make a debris hut ( Figure 5-11) -- 

• Build it by making a tripod with two short stakes and a long ridgepole or by 
placing one end of a long ridgepole on top of a sturdy base. 

• Secure the ridgepole (pole running the length of the shelter) using the tripod 
method or by anchoring it to a tree at about waist height. 

• Prop large sticks along both sides of the ridgepole to create a wedge-shaped 
ribbing effect. Ensure the ribbing is wide enough to accommodate your body and 
steep enough to shed moisture. 

• Place finer sticks and brush crosswise on the ribbing. These form a latticework 
that will keep the insulating material (grass, pine needles, leaves) from falling 
through the ribbing into the sleeping area. 

• Add light, dry, if possible, soft debris over the ribbing until the insulating material 
is at least 1 meter thick--the thicker the better. 

• Place a 30-centimeter layer of insulating material inside the shelter. 

• At the entrance, pile insulating material that you can drag to you once inside the 
shelter to close the entrance or build a door. 

• As a final step in constructing this shelter, add shingling material or branches on 
top of the debris layer to prevent the insulating material from blowing away in a 
storm. 




Tree-Pit Snow Shelter 



l"i|!urp 5-11. Debris huL 



If you are in a cold, snow-covered area where evergreen trees grow and you have a 
digging tool, you can make a tree-pit shelter ( Figure 5-12 ). 



PACKED 1 \ tJSy I ' I 

snow v/Sti * 

EVERGREEN __R^ f ffiHflP 
BOUGHS ; L l||pP!-|dy.N| 


P»™£.. ^^ EVERGREEN 
MTJPfcv BOUGHS 

Mr 

1 k*a-A / PACKED 

yTT ( SN0W 

jftflMJ^f' 7 _ GROUND 
E^T^^T* '*■ LEVEL 



Figure 5-12. Tree- pi I snow shelter. 



To make this shelter-- 

• Find a tree with bushy branches that provides overhead cover. 

• Dig out the snow around the tree trunk until you reach the depth and diameter you 
desire, or until you reach the ground. 

• Pack the snow around the top and the inside of the hole to provide support. 

• Find and cut other evergreen boughs. Place them over the top of the pit to give 
you additional overhead cover. Place evergreen boughs in the bottom of thepitfor 
insulation. 

See Chapter 15 for other arctic or cold weather shelters. 

Beach Shade Shelter 

This shelter protects you from the sun, wind, rain, and heat. It is easy to make using 
natural materials. 

To make this shelter ( Figure 5-13 )-- 

• Find and collect driftwood or other natural material to use as support beams and 
as a digging tool. 

• Select a site that is above the high water mark. 

• Scrape or dig out a trench running north to south so that it receives the least 
amount of sunlight. Make the trench long and wide enough for you to lie down 
comfortably. 

• Mound soil on three sides of the tiench. The higher the mound, the more space 
inside the shelter. 

• Lay support beams (driftwood or other natural material) that span the trench on 
top of the mound to form the framework for a roof. 

• Enlarge the shelter's entrance by digging out more sand in front of it. 

• Use natural materials such as grass or leaves to form a bed inside the shelter. 




Figure 5-13* tUmvh shade startler. 



Desert Shelters 



In an arid environment, consider the time, effort, and material needed to make a shelter. 
If you have material such as a poncho, canvas, or a parachute, use it along with such 
terrain features as rock outcropping, mounds of sand, or a depression between dunes or 
rocks to make your shelter. 

Using rock outcroppings-- 

• Anchor one end of your poncho (canvas, parachute, or other material) on the edge 
of the outcrop using rocks or other weights. 

• Extend and anchor the other end of the poncho so it provides the best possible 
shade. 

In a sandy area-- 

• Build a mound of sand or use the side of a sand dune for one side of the shelter. 

• Anchor one end of the material on top of the mound using sand or other weights. 

• Extend and anchor the other end of the material so it provides the best possible 
shade. 

Note: If you have enough material, fold it in half and form a 30-centimeter 
to 45-centimeter airspace between the two halves. This airspace will 
reduce the temperature under the shelter. 



A belowground shelter ( Figure 5-14) can reduce the midday heat as much as 16 to 22 
degrees C (30 to 40 degrees F). Building it, however, requires more time and effort than 
for other shelters. Since your physical effort will make you sweat more and increase 
dehydration, construct it before the heat of the day. 




DIG7BENCH PCNCHQ 
4S-BO cm DEEP LINER 



PONCHO . SAND ANCHOR 




ligure 5-14. Helowground dfseil shelter. 



To make this shelter-- 



• Find a low spot or depression between dunes or rocks. If necessary, dig a trench 
45 to 60 centimeters deep and long and wide enough for you to lie in comfortably. 

• Pile the sand you take from the trench to form a mound around three sides. 

• On the open end of the trench, dig out more sand so you can get in and out of your 
shelter easily. 

• Cover the trench with your material. 

• Secure the material in place using sand, rocks, or other weights. 

If you have extra material, you can further decrease the midday temperature in the trench 
by securing the material 30 to 45 centimeters above the other cover. This layering of the 
material will reduce the inside temperature 11 to 22 degrees C (20 to 40 degrees F). 



Another type of belowground shade shelter is of similar construction, except all sides are 
open to air currents and circulation. For maximum protection, you need a minimum of 
two layers of parachute material ( Figure 5-15) . White is the best color to reflect heat; the 
innermost layer should be of darker material. 





^=^= 


^ 




^-^.j ^"f-—-^ C&>^ 


^__ __>^~ 


>v *"?- 


^_ *. -^ 


^^^fl^- ^"— - 


— ■ — - — -^^ " ^ j ^_ 


^KSS.. 


yBrMS&^r - -.v. ij^fe 


■/X ir'* MMMf ' ! ^ 


■W' 


''\ -V" — 


Ai- :*^/v*BflflnSP^ ■■ ; i 


ft?-" 






■ ■ , ''v]f 




30-45 cm 

BETWEEN LAYERS 


45 cm ABOVE OH BELOW 




A 


GROUND SURFACE (PREFERRED 

FOR COOLEST TEMPERATURES) 







■igun? 5-L5h Operi desert shelter, 



CHAPTER 6 



WATER PROCUREMENT 



4 



:, 



Water is one of your most urgent needs in a survival situation. You can' t 
live long without it, especially in hot areas where you lose water rapidly 
through perspiration. Even in cold areas, you need a minimum of 2 liters 
of water each day to maintain efficiency. 

More than three-fourths of your body is composed of fluids. Your body 
loses fluid as a result of heat, cold, stress, and exertion. To function 
effectively, you must replace the fluid your body loses. So, one of your first 
goals is to obtain an adequate supply of water. 

WATER SOURCES 

Almost any environment has water present to some degree. Figure 6-1 lists possible 
sources of water in various environments. It also provides information on how to make 
the water potable. 



Erti/lroftmem Saurce at Water Ma king Potable 



Frigid areas 


SfKWBTKJ Ice 


Melt and purity 


Da nrt eat wtthout mert- 
Ing! Eating snow and ice 
can reduce body tempera- 
ture and will lead lb more 
dehydration 

Snow and Ice are no purer 
man the water from which 
Iheyocfne 

Sea. ice that fe gray m 
color Of opeque Is tatty. 
Do not use it without do- 
salting it Sea ice that Is 
crystalline wtth a bluish 
cast has little sail in It 


Atrtft 


Sea 


Use desalter hit 


Co not drink ssawater 
without desalting 


m* 


Catch rain In tarpe c+ 
in other watef-hotelfng 
malarial or containers 


If tap Of water-holding 

materia] has become en- 
crusted with salt wash It in 
the sea. before using {very 
little saft will remain on it) 


Sea loe 




See remarki above for 
frigid areas 



Figure 6-1, VVjicr sources in different environ menu. 



Means ..if 
Obtaining and/Q* 
Environment Source of Water Making Pol able 



Beach 


Ground Dig note deep 


Alternate melhod If a con- 




enough to ailow 


tainer or bark pal is avoii- 




water id seep In; 


able- HM container or pal 




obtain rocks, build 


wan $eswater t bund fire 




fire, and host rocks; 


and boil walet to produce 




drop hot rocks in 


steam; hokJ cloth over 




water hold doth 


container to absorb steam; 




over holB to absorb 


wring water from cloth 




steam, wring water 
from cloth. 




!">". = ■■- 


Ground Dig holes deep 


fn a aand fluna bett. any 




< in valleys and ko* enough 10 aJJow water 


aum labia water wll be 




araas lo seep In. 


found beneath the onglnpl 




-at tool of cone*™ 


valtey floor at the edge of 
dunes. 




banks of dry nvftr 




beads 






-at tool of cliffs or 






rack outcrops 






• at firel depression 






behind first sand 






tfuna of dry daserl 






lakes 






• whaieVef you find 




damp surface 






sand 






* vvherever you find 






green «Kj sLlbGn 




Cacti Cut off the top ol a 


Wllhout a machete. 




barrel cactus and 


cutting into a cactus is 




mash or squeeze 


dtfficurt and tafcee time 




the pulp 


since you must get past 

Uie long, strong spines 




CAUTION: Do not 


and cul through the 




eat pulp. Place 


tough rind 




pulp in rbOuth, 






luck out julr.e ,. 






and discard pulp. 





FiEiir* 6-1. Water sources in different environments fceittinued). 



vlrcnmenl Source- oM 



f.'O ino Of 

Obi aiming and- or 

Making Rouble 



Desflrt Depressions or 




Periodic rainfall may 


(continued) hates In rocks 




collect in pools, seep 
into tenures, or collect 

In holes In rocks. 


Fissures in rock 


Insert flexible tubing 






and siphon wa^r. if fis- 




sure Is largo enough. 






you can lower a con- 






tainer Into n 




Porous rock 


Insert flexible tubing 
and siphon water 




Condensafcon 


Lfsa clolh to absorb 


Extram© temperature vaiN 


on metal 


."■„, vi then wring 


auons betwuon night end 




water from cloth. 


day may cause condensa- 
tion on metal surfaces. 

Following ere signs to 
watch for in the desert to 
help you lind water 

* AH tr&irs teid to water. , 
Ybu should follow In rhe 
direction ti wtith the 
trails converge, Signs of 
camps, campfire ashes, 
animal droppings, and 
trampied terrain ma/ 
mark trails 

• Flocks of birds will circle 
over water holes. Some 
birds fly to water botes at 
dawn and sunset. Their 
dbght at these times Is 
generally fast and close 
to the ground. Bird 
tracks « chirping sounds 
in Ihe evening or early 
morning sornetirrras indi- 
cate that water is nearby 



Figure 6-1, Water sources in different environments (continued). 



Note: If you do not have a canteen, a cup, a can, or other type of 
container, improvise one from plastic or water-resistant cloth. Shape the 
plastic or cloth into a bowl by pleating it. Use pins or other suitable items- 
-even your hands--to hold the pleats. 

If you do not have a reliable source to replenish your water supply, stay alert for ways in 
which your environment can help you. 



CAUTION 

Do not substitute the fluids listed in Figure 6-2 for water. 



pn 


Alcoholic beverage* 


Peiiydrata the body and ctaud judgment 


Urine 


Contain harmful body wastes. Is about 
2 percent safe 


Blood 


Is salty and PQtjpfctat ed a food: therefore, requires 

additional body fltnds to digest May rwismit .-ii-h.v-.ri 


Saawater 


Is about 4 percent salt. 1! takes about 2 Irters ol body 
fluids lo rid the body of waste from l liter of seawator. 
Therefore, by drinking seawater you deplete your 
body's water supply, whjch can cause doatfi 



figure 6-2. The effects ^substitute Fluids. 

Heavy dew can provide water. Tie rags or tufts of fine grass around your ankles and walk 
through dew-covered grass before sunrise. As the rags or grass tufts absorb the dew, 
wring the water into a container. Repeat the process until you have a supply of water or 
until the dew is gone. Australian natives sometimes mop up as much as a liter an hour 
this way. 

Bees or ants going into a hole in a tree may point to a water-filled hole. Siphon the water 
with plastic tubing or scoop it up with an improvised dipper. You can also stuff cloth in 
the hole to absorb the water and then wring it from the cloth. 

Water sometimes gathers in tree crotches or rock crevices. Use the above procedures to 
get the water. In arid areas, bird droppings around a crack in the rocks may indicate water 
in or near the crack. 

Green bamboo thickets are an excellent source of fresh water. Water from green bamboo 
is clear and odorless. To get the water, bend a green bamboo stalk, tie it down, and cut off 
the top ( Figure 6-3 ). The water will drip freely during the night. Old, cracked bamboo 
may contain water. 




Figure 6-3. Water from gr«n barn hue. 



CAUTION 

Purify the water before drinking it. 



Wherever you find banana or plantain trees, you can get water. Cut down the tree, leaving 
about a 30-centimeter stump, and scoop out the center of the stump so that the hollow is 
bowl-shaped. Water from the roots will immediately start to fill the hollow. The first 
three fillings of water will be bitter, but succeeding fillings will be palatable. The stump 
( Figure 6-4 ) will supply water for up to four days. Be sure to cover it to keep out insects. 




CUT HERE 



I CUT OUT BOWL 




Wloler will M bowl Itam roote 



Figure 6-1. Water from plantain or banana tree stump. 



Some tropical vines can give you water. Cut a notch in the vine as high as you can reach, 
then cut the vine off close to the ground. Catch the dropping liquid in a container or in 
your mouth ( Figure 6-5 ). 



i&ijjsf 








KM 




NOTCH IN VINE 


Fm3 






B a \M 


CONTAINER TO 
CATCH WATER 






VMj 



Figure 6-5. Water from a vine. 



CAUTION 

Do not drink the liquid if it is sticky, milky, or bitter tasting. 



The milk from green (unripe) coconuts is a good thirst quencher. However, the milk from 
mature coconuts contains an oil that acts as a laxative. Drink in moderation only. 

In the American tropics you may find large trees whose branches support air plants. 
These air plants may hold a considerable amount of rainwater in their overlapping, 
thickly growing leaves. Strain the water through a cloth to remove insects and debris. 

You can get water from plants with moist pulpy centers. Cut off a section of the plantand 
squeeze or smash the pulp so that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container. 

Plant roots may provide water. Dig or pry the roots out of the ground, cut them into short 
pieces, and smash the pulp so that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container. 

Fleshy leaves, stems, or stalks, such as bamboo, contain water. Cut or notch the stalks at 
the base of a joint to drain out the liquid. 

The following trees can also provide water: 

• Palms. Palms, such as the buri, coconut, sugar, rattan, and nips, contain liquid. 
Bruise a lower frond and pull it down so the tree will "bleed" at the injury. 

• Traveler's tree. Found in Madagascar, this tree has a cuplike sheath at the base of 
its leaves in which water collects. 



Umbrella tree. The leaf bases and roots of this tree of western tropical Africa can 
provide water. 

Baobab tree. This tree of the sandy plains of northern Australia and Africa 
collects water in its bottlelike trunk during the wet season. Frequently, you can 
find clear, fresh water in these trees after weeks of dry weather. 





CAUTION 








Do not keep the sap from plants 


longer than 24 hours. 


It begins 


fermenting, 


becoming 


dangerous as a water source. 











STILL CONSTRUCTION 

You can use stills in various areas of the world. They draw moisture from the ground and 
from plant material. You need certain materials to build a still, and you need time to let it 
collect the water. It takes about 24 hours to get 0.5 to 1 liter of water. 

Aboveground Still 

To make the aboveground still, you need a sunny slope on which to place the still, a clear 
plastic bag, green leafy vegetation, and a small rock ( Figure 6-6 ). 



CLEAR RUSTIC BAG 
ONE-HALF TO THREE- 
FOURTHS FULL Of GREEN 
VEGETATION 



DIRECT SUN LIGHT 



KNOT OR PLUG 
TUBING, STRAW, OR 
REEO 




SLOPING GROUND 



figure 6-6. Abovegroiiiul snlar wafer UJIL 



To make the still- 



Fill the bag with air by turning the opening into the breeze or by "scooping" air 
into the bag. 

Fill the plastic bag half to three-fourths full of green leafy vegetation. Be sure to 
remove all hard sticks or sharp spines that might puncture the bag. 



CAUTION 

Do not use poisonous vegetation. It will provide poisonous liquid. 



• Place a small rock or similar item in the bag. 

• Close the bag and tie the mouth securely as close to the end of the bag as possible 
to keep the maximum amount of air space. If you have a piece of tubing, a small 
straw, or a hollow reed, insert one end in the mouth of the bag before you tie it 
securely. Then tie off or plug the tubing so that air will not escape. This tubing 
will allow you to drain out condensed water without untying the bag. 

• Place the bag, mouth downhill, on a slope in full sunlight. Position the mouth of 
the bag slightly higher than the low point in the bag. 

• Settle the bag in place so that the rock works itself into the low point in the bag. 

To get the condensed water from the still, loosen the tie around the bag's mouth and tip 
the bag so that the water collected around the rock will drain out. Then retie the mouth 
securely and reposition the still to allow further condensation. 

Change the vegetation in the bag after extracting most of the water from it. This will 
ensure maximum output of water. 

Belowground Still 

To make a belowground still, you need a digging tool, a container, a clear plastic sheet, a 
drinking tube, and a rock ( Figure 6-7 ). 



SAND OR DIPT TO 
ANCHOR PLASTIC SHEET 



DUNKING TUBE 




GREEN FOLIAGE 
MOISTURE PRODUCERS 



CONTAINER 



Figure fi-7 + Relowgrnund stilL 

Select a site where you believe the soil will contain moisture (such as a dry stream bed or 
a low spot where rainwater has collected). The soil at this site should be easy to dig, and 
sunlight must hit the site most of the day. 

To construct the still— 

• Dig a bowl-shaped hole about 1 meter across and 60 centimeters deep. 

• Dig a sump in the center of the hole. The sump's depth and perimeter will depend 
on the size of the container that you have to place in it. The bottom of the sump 
should allow the container to stand upright. 

• Anchor the tubing to the container's bottom by forming a loose overhand knot in 
the tubing. 

• Place the container upright in the sump. 

• Extend the unanchored end of the tubing up, over, and beyond the lip of the hole. 

• Place the plastic sheet over the hole, covering its edges with soil to hold it in 
place. 

• Place a rock in the center of the plastic sheet. 

• Lower the plastic sheet into the hole until it is about 40 centimeters below ground 
level. It now forms an inverted cone with the rock at its apex. Make sure that the 
cone's apex is directly over your container. Also make sure the plastic cone does 
not touch the sides of the hole because the earth will absorb the condensed water. 

• Put more soil on the edges of the plastic to hold it securely in place and to prevent 
the loss of moisture. 

• Plug the tube when not in use so that the moisture will not evaporate. 



You can drink water without disturbing the still by using the tube as a straw. 



You may want to use plants in the hole as a moisture source. If so, dig out additional soil 
from the sides of the hole to form a slope on which to place the plants. Then proceed as 
above. 

If polluted water is your only moisture source, dig a small trough outside the hole about 
25 centimeters from the still's lip ( Figure 6-8 ). Dig the trough about 25 centimeters deep 
and 8 centimeters wide. Pour the polluted water in the trough. Be sure you do not spill 
any polluted water around the rim of the hole where the plastic sheet touches the soil. The 
trough holds the polluted water and the soil filters it as the still draws it. The water then 
condenses on the plastic and drains into the container. This process works extremely well 
when your only water source is salt water. 



SANDOROSRTTO 
ANCHOR PUSTIC SHEET 



DRINKING TUBE 




WATER THOUGH FOR 
POLLUTED WATER 



WATER THOUGH FOR 

POLLUTED WATER 



CONTAINER 



Figure 6-& Itrhiwj-nHind still to get potabte water from polluted wattr. 

You will need at least three stills to meet your individual daily water intake needs. 
WATER PURIFICATION 



Rainwater collected in clean containers or in plants is usually safe for drinking. However, 
purify water from lakes, ponds, swamps, springs, or streams, especially the water near 
human settlements or in the tropics. 

When possible, purify all water you got from vegetation or from the ground by using 
iodine or chlorine, or by boiling. 

Purify water by- - 

• Using water purification tablets. (Follow the directions provided.) 



• Placing 5 drops of 2 percent tincture of iodine in a canteen full of clear water. If 
the canteen is full of cloudy or cold water, use 10 drops. (Let the canteen of water 
stand for 30 minutes before drinking.) 

• Boiling water for 1 minute at sea level, adding 1 minute for each additional 300 
meters above sea level, or boil for 10 minutes no matter where you are. 

By drinking nonpotable water you may contract diseases or swallow organisms that can 
harm you. Examples of such diseases or organisms are-- 

• Dysentery. Severe, prolonged diarrhea with bloody stools, fever, and weakness. 

• Cholera and typhoid. You may be susceptible to these diseases regardless of 
inoculations. 

• Flukes. Stagnant, polluted water- -especially in tropical areas—often contains 
blood flukes. If you swallow flukes, they will bore into the bloodstream, live as 
parasites, and cause disease. 

• Leeches. If you swallow a leech, it can hook onto the throat passage or inside the 
nose. It will suck blood, create a wound, and move to another area. Each bleeding 
wound may become infected. 

WATER FILTRATION DEVICES 

If the water you find is also muddy, stagnant, and foul smelling, you can clear the water— 

• By placing it in a container and letting it stand for 12 hours. 

• By pouring it through a filtering system. 

Note: These procedures only clear the water and make it more palatable. 
You will have to purify it. 

To make a filtering system, place several centimeters or layers of filtering material such 
as sand, crushed rock, charcoal, or cloth in bamboo, a hollow log, or an article of clothing 
( Figure 6-9 ). 




l-'i^in i' 6-9. TOiter fllierinfi systems. 



Remove the odor from water by adding charcoal from your fire. Let the water stand for 
45 minutes before drinking it. 



CHAPTER 7 



FIRECRAFT 



* 



In many survival situations, the ability to start afire can make the 
difference between living and dying. Fire can fulfill many needs. It can 
provide warmth and comfort. It not only cooks and preserves food, it also 
provides warmth in the form of heated food that saves calories our body 
normally uses to produce body heat. You can use fire to purify water, 
sterilize bandages, signal for rescue, and provide protection from animals. 
It can be a psychological boost by providing peace of mind and 
companionship. You can also use fire to produce tools and weapons. 

Fire can cause problems, as well. The enemy can detect the smoke and 
light it produces. It can cause forest fires or destroy essential equipment. 
Fire can also cause burns carbon monoxide poisoning when used in 
shelters. 

Remember weigh your need for fire against your need to avoid enemy 
detection. 

BASIC FIRE PRINCIPLES 

To build a fire, it helps to understand the basic principles of a fire. Fuel (in a nongaseous 
state) does not burn directly. When you apply heat to a fuel, it produces a gas. This gas, 
combined with oxygen in the air, burns. 

Understanding the concept of the fire triangle is very important in correctly constructing 
and maintaining a fire. The three sides of the triangle represent air, heat, and fuel. If you 
remove any of these, the fire will go out. The correct ratio of these components is very 
important for a fire to burn at its greatest capability. The only way to learn this ratio is to 
practice. 



SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATION 

You will have to decide what site and arrangement to use. Before building a fire 
consider- - 

• The area (terrain and climate) in which you are operating. 

• The materials and tools available. 

• Time: how much time you have? 

• Need: why you need a fire? 

• Security: how close is the enemy? 

Look for a dry spot that-- 

• Is protected from the wind. 

• Is suitably placed in relation to your shelter (if any). 

• Will concentrate the heat in the direction you desire. 

• Has a supply of wood or other fuel available. (See Figure 7-4 for types of material 
you can use.) 



* Birch bar* 

* Shr&dded inner bark 
from cedar, chestnut 
tod elm trees 

- Fine wood shavings 

■ Dead grass, ferns; moss, 
ftingl 

* Strew 

■ Sawdust 

■ vory fine pitshwood 
scrapings 

* Dead evergreen needles 

* Punk (the completely 
rotted portions of dead 
logs or trees) 

* Evergreen irae knots 

* Bird down [Una leathers) 

* Down e<*&d heads 
{milkweed, dry cattails, 
bulrush, or thleUe) 

* Bne, dned vegetable 
fibers 

•Spongy (hiwd* ol dead 
puflbail 

■ Deed palm leaver 

-Skmlike membrane lining 
bamboo 

■ Lint from pocket and 
seams 

rGh&rred cloth 

* Waxed paper 

* Outer bamboo shavings 
-Gunpowder 

■ Cotton 

* Unt 



• Small twigs 

■ Smai strips of wood 

• Spirt wood 
» Heavy cardboard 

■ Fteces Of wood removed 
from the Inside of target 
pieces 

• Wood that has been 
doused with htghty 
flammnbte matenate, 
such as gasoline, nil. 
or wax 



■ Dry r standing wood and 
dry. dead branches 

■ pty Inside (heart) of 
faiien tree trunks and 
large branches 

- Green wood that ra finery 
split 

■ Dry grasses twisted Into 
bunches 

■ Peat oiy enough to bum 
(this may be round at the 
top of undercut banks} 

* Dried animaJ dung 

• AjilrnaHats 

♦ Coal, oil shale, or oil tying 
on fw surface 



Figure 7-4. Materials for building lires, 

If you are in a wooded or brush-covered area, clear the brush and scrape the surface soil 
from the spot you have selected. Clear a circle at least 1 meter in diameter so there is 
little chance of the fire spreading. 



If time allows, construct a fire wall using logs or rocks. This wall will help to reflector 
direct the heat where you want it ( Figure 7-1) . It will also reduce flying sparks and cut 
down on the amount of wind blowing into the fire. However, you will need enough wind 
to keep the fire burning. 



CAUTION 

Do not use wet or porous rocks as they may explode when heated. 




STRAIGHT 

FIRE 

WALL 



LSHAPED 

FIRE 

WALL 



Figure 7-1. Types nf fin walls. 

In some situations, you may find that an underground fireplace will best meet your needs. 
It conceals the fire and serves well for cooking food. To make an underground fireplace 
or Dakota fire hole ( Figure 7-2 )-- 

• Dig a hole in the ground. 

• On the upwind side of this hole, poke or dig a large connecting hole for 
ventilation. 

• Build your fire in the hole as illustrated. 



t; 


J THE£TQ 




•V / 


DISPERSE SMOKE 

AJRFLDW 




mi 


^7 j J !Tk* 


Ul 




ft L^J / 


^^J£S 




15-35 cmJH 

OPENING 


WX&i* 


25'3Dcm 






IKS 


"J//^ 


l5-20«-rt 
OPENING 

1 


■ 






20-25 cm 





ligure 7*1, Dakota firt hole. 

If you are in a snow-covered area, use green logs to make a dry base for your fire ( Figure 
7-3 ). Trees with wrist -sized trunks are easily broken in extreme cold. Cut or break several 
green logs and lay them side by side on top of the snow. Add one or two more layers. Lay 
the top layer of logs opposite those below it. 




Figure 7-3. bast for fir* in sii<iu-*tnvtrt4 ar*a r 

FIRE MATERIAL SELECTION 



You need three types of materials ( Figure 7-4) to build a fire--tinder, kindling, and fuel. 

Tinder is dry material that ignites with little heat--a spark starts a fire. The tinder must be 
absolutely dry to be sure just a spark will ignite it. If you only have a device that 
generates sparks, charred cloth will be almost essential. It holds a spark for long periods, 
allowing you to put tinder on the hot area to generate a small flame. You can make 
charred cloth by heating cotton cloth until it turns black, but does not burn. Once it is 



black, you must keep it in an airtight container to keep it dry. Prepare this cloth well in 
advance of any survival situation. Add it to your individual survival kit. 

Kindling is readily combustible material that you add to the burning tinder. Again, this 
material should be absolutely dry to ensure rapid burning. Kindling increases the fire's 
temperature so that it will ignite less combustible material. 

Fuel is less combustible material that burns slowly and steadily once ignited. 

HOW TO BUILD A FIRE 

There are several methods for laying a fire, each of which has advantages. The situation 
you find yourself in will determine which fire to use. 

Tepee 

To make this fire ( Figure 7-5 ), arrange the tinder and a few sticks of kindling in the shape 
of a tepee or cone. Light the center. As the tepee burns, the outside logs will fall inward, 
feeding the fire. This type of fire burns well even with wet wood. 




I- 1 Cure 7-5, Methods for laying fires. 



Lean-To 

To lay this fire ( Figure 7-5 ), push a green stick into the ground at a 30-degree angle. 
Point the end of the stick in the direction of the wind. Place some tinder deep under this 



lean-to stick. Lean pieces of kindling against the lean-to stick. Light the tinder. As the 
kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling. 

Cross-Ditch 

To use this method ( Figure 7-5 ), scratch a cross about 30 centimeters in size in the 
ground. Dig the cross 7.5 centimeters deep. Put a large wad of tinder in the middle of the 
cross. Build a kindling pyramid above the tinder. The shallow ditch allows air to sweep 
under the tinder to provide a draft. 

Pyramid 

To lay this fire ( Figure 7-5 ), place two small logs or branches parallel on the ground. 
Place a solid layer of small logs across the parallel logs. Add three or four more layers of 
logs or branches, each layer smaller than and at a right angle to the layer below it. Make a 
starter fire on top of the pyramid. As the starter fire burns, it will ignite the logs below it. 
This gives you a fire that burns downward, requiring no attention during the night. 

There are several other ways to lay a fire that are quite effective. Your situation and the 
material available in the area may make another method more suitable. 

HOW TO LIGHT A FIRE 

Always light your fire from the upwind side. Make sure to lay your tinder, kindling, and 
fuel so that your fire will burn as long as you need it. Igniters provide the initial heat 
required to start the tinder burning. They fall into two categories: modern methods and 
primitive methods. 

Modern Methods 

Modem igniters use modem devices—items we normally think of to start a fire. 

Matches 

Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them in a waterproof container 
along with a dependable striker pad. 

Convex Lens 

Use this method ( Figure 7-6) only on bright, sunny days. The lens can come from 
binoculars, camera, telescopic sights, or magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to 
concentrate the sun's rays on the tinder. Hold the lens over the same spot until the tinder 
begins to smolder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into flame, and apply it to the fire lay. 



NTr 




^sj cy 


/ 


SxjS^C^ 


1 


t \§§J^ 


[a 

v m 


:— TvvVsri| 




\v V^* "' 


— 1^^. j 



lij^urr 7-d + 1,tn» method. 



Metal Match 



Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion exposed. Place the tip of the metal 
match on the dry leaf, holding the metal match in one hand and a knife in the other. 
Scrape your knife against the metal match to produce sparks. The sparks will hit the 
tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder, proceed as above. 

Battery 

Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method depends on the type of battery 
available. Attach a wire to each terminal. Touch the ends of the bare wires together next 
to the tinder so the sparks will ignite it. 

Gunpowder 

Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If so, carefully extract the bullet 
from the shell casing, and use the gunpowder as tinder. A spark will ignite the powder. 
Be extremely careful when extracting the bullet from the case. 

Primitive Methods 

Primitive igniters are those attributed to our early ancestors. 
Flint and Steel 



The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive methods to use. The flint and steel 
method is the most reliable of the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharp- 



edged rock edge with a piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will not produce a good 
spark). This method requires a loose-jointed wrist and practice. When a spark has caught 
in the tinder, blow on it. The spark will spread and burst into flames. 

Fire-Plow 

The fire-plow ( Figure 7-7) is a friction method of ignition. You rub a hardwood shaft 
against a softer wood base. To use this method, cut a straight groove in the base and plow 
the blunt tip of the shaft up and down the groove. The plowing action of the shaft pushes 
out small particles of wood fibers. Then, as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the 
friction ignites the wood particles. 



s\ 












^ 


\ HARDWOOD 








\r ^t- 


J- 


SOFTWOOD 


**"">■* 


^w* 



Figure 7-7. Firs' plow. 



Bow and Drill 



The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill (Figure 7-8) is simple, but you must 
exert much effort and be persistent to produce a fire. You need the following items to use 
this method: 



Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of hardwood or bone with a 

slight depression in one side. Use it to hold the drill in place and to apply 

downward pressure. 

Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood stick about 2 centimeters 

in diameter and 25 centimeters long. The top end is round and the low end blunt 

(to produce more friction). 

Fire board. Its size is up to you. A seasoned softwood board about 2.5 

centimeters thick and 10 centimeters wide is preferable. Cut a depression about 2 



centimeters from the edge on one side of the board. On the underside, make a V- 

shaped cut from the edge of the board to the depression. 

Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about 2.5 centimeters in diameter and a 

string. The type of wood is not important. The bowstring can be any type of 

cordage. You tie the bowstring from one end of the bow to the other, without any 

slack. 



\ n 1 hi& 


// 




rM\^os^ 






W r^TTra 


= ^/fT\ 


mm im S 


SOCKET ^--^gj --^^fC 
DRILL 


^X r't^Jf 1 


FIRE BOARD 


^Z3*^ CORD 





Figure 7-8. Unw and drilL 

To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then place a bundle of tinder under the 
V-shaped cut in the fire board. Place one foot on the fire board. Loop the bowstring over 
the drill and place the drill in the precut depression on the fire board. Place the socket, 
held in one hand, on the top of the drill to hold it in position. Press down on the drill and 
saw the bow back and forth to twirl the drill ( Figure 7-8 ). Once you have established a 
smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the bow faster. This action will 
grind hot black powder into the tinder, causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until 
it ignites. 

Note: Primitive fire-building methods are exhaustive and require practice 
to ensure success. 



HELPFUL HINTS 



Use nonaromatic seasoned hardwood for fuel, if possible. 



Collect kindling and tinder along the trail. 



Add insect repellent to the tinder. 



Keep the firewood dry. 



Dry damp firewood near the fire. 



Bank the fire to keep the coals alive overnight. 



Carry lighted punk, when possible. 



Be sure the fire is out before leaving camp. 



Do not select wood lying on the ground. It may appear to be dry but generally doesn't 
provide enough friction. 



CHAPTER 8 



FOOD PROCUREMENT 




After water, man's most urgent requirement is food. In contemplating 
virtually any hypothetical survival situation, the mind immediately turns to 
thoughts of food. Unless the situation occurs in an arid environment, even 
water, which is more important to maintaining body functions, will almost 
always follow food in our initial thoughts. The survivor must remember 
that the three essentials of survival-water, food, and shelter--are 
prioritized according to the estimate of the actual situation. This estimate 
must not only be timely but accurate as well. Some situations may well 
dictate that shelter precede both food and water. 

ANIMALS FOR FOOD 

Unless you have the chance to take large game, concentrate your efforts on the smaller 
animals, due to their abundance. The smaller animal species are also easier to prepare. 
You must not know all the animal species that are suitable as food. Relatively few are 
poisonous, and they make a smaller list to remember. What is important is to learn the 
habits and behavioral patterns of classes of animals. For example, animals that are 
excellent choices for trapping, those that inhabit a particular range and occupy a den or 
nest, those that have somewhat fixed feeding areas, and those that have trails leading 
from one area to another. Larger, herding animals, such as elk or caribou, roam vast areas 
and are somewhat more difficult to trap. Also, you must understand the food choices of a 
particular species. 



You can, with relatively few exceptions, eat anything that crawls, swims, walks, or flies. 
The first obstacle is overcoming your natural aversion to a particular food source. 
Historically, people in starvation situations have resorted to eating everything imaginable 
for nourishment. A person who ignores an otherwise healthy food source due to a 



personal bias, or because he feels it is unappetizing, is risking his own survival. Although 
it may prove difficult at first, a survivor must eat what is available to maintain his health. 

Insects 

The most abundant life-form on earth, insects are easily caught. Insects provide 65 to 80 
percent protein compared to 20 percent for beef. This fact makes insects an important, if 
not overly appetizing, food source. Insects to avoid include all adults that sting or bite, 
hairy or brightly colored insects, and caterpillars and insects that have a pungent odor. 
Also avoid spiders and common disease carriers such as ticks, flies, and mosquitoes. 

Rotting logs lying on the ground are excellent places to look for a variety of insects 
including ants, termites, beetles, and grubs, which are beetle larvae. Do not overlook 
insect nests on or in the ground. Grassy areas, such as fields, are good areas to search 
because the insects are easily seen. Stones, boards, or other materials lying on the ground 
provide the insects with good nesting sites. Check these sites. Insect larvae are also 
edible. Insects such as beetles and grasshoppers that have a hard outer shell will have 
parasites. Cook them before eating. Remove any wings and barbed legs also. You can eat 
most insects raw. The taste varies from one species to another. Wood grubs are bland, 
while some species of ants store honey in their bodies, giving them a sweet taste. You can 
grind a collection of insects into a paste. You can mix them with edible vegetation. You 
can cook them to improve their taste. 

Worms 

Worms (Annelidea) are an excellent protein source. Dig for them in damp humus soil or 
watch for them on the ground after a rain. After capturing them, drop them into clean, 
potable water for a few minutes. The worms will naturally purge or wash themselves out, 
after which you can eat them raw. 

Crustaceans 

Freshwater shrimp range in size from 0.25 centimeter up to 2.5 centimeters. They can 
form rather large colonies in mats of floating algae or in mud bottoms of ponds and lakes. 

Crayfish are akin to marine lobsters and crabs. You can distinguish them by their hard 
exoskeleton and five pairs of legs, the front pair having oversized pincers. Crayfish are 
active at night, but you can locate them in the daytime by looking under and around 
stones in streams. You can also find them by looking in the soft mud near the 
chimneylike breathing holes of their nests. You can catch crayfish by tying bits of offal or 
internal organs to a string. When the crayfish grabs the bait, pull it to shore before it has a 
chance to release the bait. 

You find saltwater lobsters, crabs, and shrimp from the surfs edge out to water 10 meters 
deep. Shrimp may come to a light at night where you can scoop them up with a net. You 
can catch lobsters and crabs with a baited trap or a baited hook. Crabs will come to bait 



placed at the edge of the surf, where you can trap or net them. Lobsters and crabs are 
nocturnal and caught best at night. 

Mollusks 

This class includes octopuses and freshwater and saltwater shellfish such as snails, clams, 
mussels, bivalves, barnacles, periwinkles, chitons, and sea urchins (Figure 8-1 ). You find 
bivalves similar to our freshwater mussel and terrestrial and aquatic snails worldwide 
under all water conditions. 




Figure 8-1. Ediblt mu!lu\kv 



River snails or freshwater periwinkles are plentiful in rivers, streams, and lakes of 
northern coniferous forests. These snails may be pencil point or globular in shape. 



In fresh water, look for mollusks in the shallows, especially in water with a sandy or 
muddy bottom. Look for the narrow trails they leave in the mud or for the dark elliptical 
slit of their open valves. 

Near the sea, look in the tidal pools and the wet sand. Rocks along beaches or extending 
as reefs into deeper water often bear clinging shellfish. Snails and limpets cling to rocks 
and seaweed from the low water mark upward. Large snails, called chitons, adhere tightly 
to rocks above the surf line. 

Mussels usually form dense colonies in rock pools, on logs, or at the base of boulders. 



CAUTION 

Mussels may be poisonous in tropical zones during the summer! 



Steam, boil, or bake mollusks in the shell. They make excellent stews in combination 
with greens and tubers. 



CAUTION 

Do not eat shellfish that are not covered by water at high tide! 



Fish 

Fish represent a good source of protein and fat. They offer some distinct advantages to 
the survivor or evader. They are usually more abundant than mammal wildlife, and the 
ways to get them are silent. To be successful at catching fish, you must know their habits. 
For instance, fish tend to feed heavily before a storm. Fish are not likely to feed after a 
storm when the water is muddy and swollen. Light often attracts fish at night. When there 
is a heavy current, fish will rest in places where there is an eddy, such as near rocks. Fish 
will also gather where there are deep pools, under overhanging brush, and in and around 
submerged foliage, logs, or other objects that offer them shelter. 

There are no poisonous freshwater fish. However, the catfish species has sharp, 
needlelike protrusions on its dorsal fins and barbels. These can inflict painful puncture 
wounds that quickly become infected. 

Cook all freshwater fish to kill parasites. Also cook saltwater fish caught within a reef or 
within the influence of a freshwater source as a precaution. Any marine life obtained 
farther out in the sea will not contain parasites because of the saltwater environment. You 
can eat these raw. 

Certain saltwater species of fish have poisonous flesh. In some species the poison occurs 
seasonally in others, it is permanent. Examples of poisonous saltwater fish are the 
porcupine fish, triggerfish, cowfish, thorn fish, oilfish, red snapper, jack, and puffer 



( Figure 8-2 ). The barracuda, while not actually poisonous itself, may transmit ciguatera 
(fish poisoning) if eaten raw. 




Figure 8-2. Fi.sh with poisonau-S fltsh. 



Amphibians 



Frogs and salamanders are easily found around bodies of fresh water. Frogs seldom move 
from the safety of the water's edge. At the first sign of danger, they plunge into the water 
and bury themselves in the mud and debris. There are few poisonous species of frogs. 
Avoid any brightly colored frog or one that has a distinct "X" mark on it's back. Do not 



confuse toads with frogs. You normally find toads in drier environments. Several species 
of toads secrete a poisonous substance through their skin as a defense against attack. 
Therefore, to avoid poisoning, do not handle or eat toads. 

Salamanders are nocturnal. The best time to catch them is at night using a light. They can 
range in size from a few centimeters to well over 60 centimeters in length. Look in water 
around rocks and mud banks for salamanders. 

Reptiles 

Reptiles are a good protein source and relatively easy to catch. You should cook them, 
but in an emergency, you can eat them raw. Their raw flesh may transmit parasites, but 
because reptiles are cold-blooded, they do not carry the blood diseases of the warm- 
blooded animals. 

The box turtle is a commonly encountered turtle that you should not eat. It feeds on 
poisonous mushrooms and may build up a highly toxic poison in its flesh. Cooking does 
not destroy this toxin. Avoid the hawksbill turtle, found in the Atlantic Ocean, because of 
its poisonous thorax gland. Poisonous snakes, alligators, crocodiles, and large sea turtles 
present obvious hazards to the survivor. 

Birds 

All species of birds are edible, although the flavor will vary considerably. You may skin 
fish-eating birds to improve their taste. As with any wild animal, you must understand 
birds' common habits to have a realistic chance of capturing them. You can take pigeons, 
as well as some other species, from their roost at night by hand. During the nesting 
season, some species will not leave the nest even when approached. Knowing where and 
when the birds nest makes catching them easier ( Figure 8-3 ). Birds tend to have regular 
flyways going from the roost to a feeding area, to water, and so forth. Careful observation 
should reveal where these flyways are and indicate good areas for catching birds in nets 
stretched across the flyways ( Figure 8-4 ). Roosting sites and waterholes are some of the 
most promising areas for trapping or snaring. 



Types of Bkds 


frequent Netting Places 


Nesting Periods 


Inland buds 


Trees, *oods r or fields 


Spring and early summer 
m temperate and arctic 
regions: year round in the 
tropica 


Crones and herons 


Mangrove- Swamp* Of 
high frees near w*ist 


Spring and early summer 


Soma Species of owls 


HigJlWGCS 


Late December through 
March 


Ducks, geese, and 
swans 


Tundra areas near ponds. 

rtvsrs. Of lakes 


Spring and early summer 
in arctic regions 


Some see birds 


Sandbars or low send 
islands 


Spring and earfy summer 
in temperate and arctic | 
regtons I 


Gu|[s L auks, mures. 
and cormorants 


Steep rocky coasts 


Spring and early summer 
In temperate and arctic 

regKtns 



Figure 8-3. Bird nesting places. 




Figure 8-J. Calcniog birds in a neL 

Nesting birds present another food source--eggs. Remove all but two or three eggs from 
the clutch, marking the ones that you leave. The bird will continue to lay more eggs to fill 
the clutch. Continue removing the fresh eggs, leaving the ones you marked. 

Mammals 



Mammals are excellent protein sources and, for Americans, the most tasty food source. 
There are some drawbacks to obtaining mammals. In a hostile environment, the enemy 



may detect any traps or snares placed on land. The amount of injury an animal can inflict 
is in direct proportion to its size. All mammals have teeth and nearly all will bite in self- 
defense. Even a squirrel can inflict a serious wound and any bite presents a serious risk of 
infection. Also, a mother can be extremely aggressive in defense of her young. Any 
animal with no route of escape will fight when cornered. 

All mammals are edible; however, the polar bear and bearded seal have toxic levels of 
vitamin A in their livers. The platypus, native to Australia and Tasmania, is an egg- 
laying, semiaquatic mammal that has poisonous glands. Scavenging mammals, such as 
the opossum, may carry diseases. 

TRAPS AND SNARES 

For an unarmed survivor or evader, or when the sound of a rifle shot could be a problem, 
trapping or snaring wild game is a good alternative. Several well-placed traps have the 
potential to catch much more game than a man with a rifle is likely to shoot. To be 
effective with any type of trap or snare, you must-- 

• Be familiar with the species of animal you intend to catch. 

• Be capable of constructing a proper trap. 

• Not alarm the prey by leaving signs of your presence. 

There are no catchall traps you can set for all animals. You must determine what species 
are in a given area and set your traps specifically with those animals in mind. Look for 
the following: 

Runs and trails. 

Tracks. 

Droppings. 

Chewed or rubbed vegetation. 

Nesting or roosting sites. 

Feeding and watering areas. 

Position your traps and snares where there is proof that animals pass through. You must 
determine if it is a "run" or a "trail." A trail will show signs of use by several species and 
will be rather distinct. A run is usually smaller and less distinct and will only contain 
signs of one species. You may construct a perfect snare, but it will not catch anything if 
haphazardly placed in the woods. Animals have bedding areas, waterholes, and feeding 
areas with trails leading from one to another. You must place snares and traps around 
these areas to be effective. 

For an evader in a hostile environment, trap and snare concealment is important. It is 
equally important, however, not to create a disturbance that will alarm the animal and 
cause it to avoid the trap. Therefore, if you must dig, remove all fresh dirt from the area. 
Most animals will instinctively avoid a pitfall-type trap. Prepare the various parts of a 
trap or snare away from the site, carry them in, and set them up. Such actions make it 



easier to avoid disturbing the local vegetation, thereby alerting the prey. Do not use 
freshly cut, live vegetation to construct a trap or snare. Freshly cut vegetation will "bleed" 
sap that has an odor the prey will be able to smell. It is an alarm signal to the animal. 

You must remove or mask the human scent on and around the trap you set. Although 
birds do not have a developed sense of smell, nearly all mammals depend on smell even 
more than on sight. Even the slightest human scent on a trap will alarm the prey and 
cause it to avoid the area. Actually removing the scent from a trap is difficult but masking 
it is relatively easy. Use the fluid from the gall and urine bladders of previous kills. Do 
not use human urine. Mud, particularly from an area with plenty of rotting vegetation, is 
also good. Use it to coat your hands when handling the trap and to coat the trap when 
setting it. In nearly all parts of the world, animals know the smell of burned vegetation 
and smoke. It is only when a fire is actually burning that they become alarmed. 
Therefore, smoking the trap parts is an effective means to mask your scent. If one of the 
above techniques is not practical, and if time permits, allow a trap to weather for a few 
days and then set it. Do not handle a trap while it is weathering. When you position the 
trap, camouflage it as naturally as possible to prevent detection by the enemy and to 
avoid alarming the prey. 

Traps or snares placed on a trail or run should use channelization. To build a channel, 
construct a funnel-shaped barrier extending from the sides of the trail toward the trap, 
with the narrowest part nearest the trap. Channelization should be inconspicuous to avoid 
alerting the prey. As the animal gets to the trap, it cannot turn left or right and continues 
into the trap. Few wild animals will back up, preferring to face the direction of travel. 
Channelization does not have to be an impassable barrier. You only have to make it 
inconvenient for the animal to go over or through the barrier. For best effect, the 
channelization should reduce the trail's width to just slightly wider than the targeted 
animal's body. Maintain this constriction at least as far back from the trap as the animal's 
body length, then begin the widening toward the mouth of the funnel. 

Use of Bait 

Baiting a trap or snare increases your chances of catching an animal. When catching fish, 
you must bait nearly all the devices. Success with an unbaited trap depends on its 
placement in a good location. A baited trap can actually draw animals to it. The bait 
should be something the animal knows. This bait, however, should not be so readily 
available in the immediate area that the animal can get it close by. For example, baiting a 
trap with corn in the middle of a corn field would not be likely to work. Likewise, if corn 
is not grown in the region, a corn-baited trap may arouse an animal's curiosity and keep it 
alerted while it ponders the strange food. Under such circumstances it may not go for the 
bait. One bait that works well on small mammals is the peanut butter from a meal, ready- 
to -eat (MRE) ration. Salt is also a good bait. When using such baits, scatter bits of it 
around the trap to give the prey a chance to sample it and develop a craving for it. The 
animal will then overcome some of its caution before it gets to the trap. 



If you set and bait a trap for one species but another species takes the bait without being 
caught, try to determine what the animal was. Then set a proper trap for that animal, 
using the same bait. 

Note: Once you have successfully trapped an animal, you will not only 
gain confidence in your ability, you also will have resupplied yourself with 
bait for several more traps. 

Trap and Snare Construction 

Traps and snares crush, choke, hang, or entangle the prey. A single trap or snare will 
commonly incorporate two or more of these principles. The mechanisms that provide 
power to the trap are almost always very simple. The struggling victim, the force of 
gravity, or a bent sapling's tension provides the power. 

The heart of any trap or snare is the trigger. When planning a trap or snare, ask yourself 
how it should affect the prey, what is the source of power, and what will be the most 
efficient trigger. Your answers will help you devise a specific trap for a specific species. 
Traps are designed to catch and hold or to catch and kill. Snares are traps that incorporate 
a noose to accomplish either function. 

Simple Snare 

A simple snare ( Figure 8-5) consists of a noose placed over a trail or den hole and 
attached to a firmly planted stake. If the noose is some type of cordage placed upright on 
a game trail, use small twigs or blades of grass to hold it up. Filaments from spider webs 
are excellent for holding nooses open. Make sure the noose is large enough to pass freely 
over the animal's head. As the animal continues to move, the noose tightens around its 
neck. The more the animal struggles, the tighter the noose gets. This type of snare usually 
does not kill the animal. If you use cordage, it may loosen enough to slip off the animal's 
neck. Wire is therefore the best choice for a simple snare. 




Figure 8-5, S'Eflipk sna« + 



Drag Noose 



Use a drag noose on an animal run ( Figure 8-6 ). Place forked sticks on either side of the 
run and lay a sturdy crossmember across them. Tie the noose to the crossmember and 
hang it at a height above the animal's head. (Nooses designed to catch by the head should 
never be low enough for the prey to step into with a foot.) As the noose tightens around 
the animal's neck, the animal pulls the crossmember from the forked sticks and drags it 
along. The surrounding vegetation quickly catches the crossmember and the animal 
becomes entangled. 



II 

UNDER ¥ OVER 

WIRE IS TWISTED 
TO ITS ENDS 




FUNNEL! NG 



Figure 8-6. Pr&fl noose* 



Twitch- Up 



A twitch-up is a supple sapling, which, when bent over and secured with a triggering 
device, will provide power to a variety of snares. Select a hardwood sapling along the 
trail. A twitch-up will work much faster and with more force if you remove all the 
branches and foliage. 

Twitch- Up Snare 

A simple twitch-up snare uses two forked sticks, each with a long and short leg (Figure 8- 
7). Bend the twitch-up and mark the trail below it. Drive the long leg of one forked stick 
firmly into the ground at that point. Ensure the cut on the short leg of this stick is parallel 
to the ground. Tie the long leg of the remaining forked stick to a piece of cordage secured 
to the twitch-up. Cut the short leg so that it catches on the short leg of the other forked 
stick. Extend a noose over the trail. Set the trap by bending the twitch-up and engaging 
the short legs of the forked sticks. When an animal catches its head in the noose, it pulls 
the forked sticks apart, allowing the twitch-up to spring up and hang the prey. 



Note: Do not use green sticks for the trigger. The sap that oozes out could 
glue them together. 




Figure 8*7, TWiteSt-nip snare 



Squirrel Pole 



A squirrel pole is a long pole placed against a tree in an area showing a lot of squirrel 
activity ( Figure 8-8) . Place several wire nooses along the top and sides of the pole so that 
a squirrel trying to go up or down the pole will have to pass through one or more of them. 
Position the nooses (5 to 6 centimeters in diameter) about 2.5 centimeters off the pole. 
Place the top and bottom wire nooses 45 centimeters from the top and bottom of the pole 
to prevent the squirrel from getting its feet on a solid surface. If this happens, the squirrel 
will chew through the wire. Squirrels are naturally curious. After an initial period of 
caution, they will try to go up or down the pole and will get caught in a noose. The 
struggling animal will soon fall from the pole and strangle. Other squirrels will soon 
follow and, in this way, you can catch several squirrels. You can emplace multiple poles 
to increase the catch. 




CROSS SECTION OF 
POLE AND SNARE WtftE 



Fi^u re 8-H. Squirrel pole. 



Ojibwa Bird Pole 



An Ojibwa bird pole is a snare used by native Americans for centuries (Figure 8-9 ). To 
be effective, place it in a relatively open area away from tall trees. For best results, pick a 
spot near feeding areas, dusting areas, or watering holes. Cut a pole 1.8 to 2.1 meters long 
and trim away all limbs and foliage. Do not use resinous wood such as pine. Sharpen the 
upper end to a point, then drill a small diameter hole 5 to 7.5 centimeters down from the 
top. Cut a small stick 10 to 15 centimeters long and shape one end so that it will almost 
fit into the hole. This is the perch. Plant the long pole in the ground with the pointed end 
up. Tie a small weight, about equal to the weight of the targeted species, to a length of 
cordage. Pass the free end of the cordage through the hole, and tie a slip noose that covers 
the perch. Tie a single overhand knot in the cordage and place the perch against the hole. 
Allow the cordage to slip through the hole until the overhand knot rests against the pole 
and the top of the perch. The tension of the overhand knot against the pole and perch will 
hold the perch in position. Spread the noose over the perch, ensuring it covers the perch 
and drapes over on both sides. Most birds prefer to rest on something above ground and 
will land on the perch. As soon as the bird lands, the perch will fall, releasing the over- 
hand knot and allowing the weight to drop. The noose will tighten around the bird's feet, 
capturing it. If the weight is too heavy, it will cut the bird's feet off, allowing it to escape. 




Figure 8-9. Qjibwa bird pole 



Noosing Wand 



A noose stick or "noosing wand" is useful for capturing roosting birds or small mammals 
( Figure 8-10) . It requires a patient operator. This wand is more a weapon than a trap. It 
consists of a pole (as long as you can effectively handle) with a slip noose of wire or stiff 
cordage at the small end. To catch an animal, you slip the noose over the neck of a 
roosting bird and pull it tight. You can also place it over a den hole and hide in a nearby 
blind. When the animal emerges from the den, you jerk the pole to tighten the noose and 
thus capture the animal. Carry a stout club to kill the prey. 




Figure 8-IOl Noticing wand. 



Treadle Spring Snare 



Use a treadle snare against small game on a trail (Figure 8-11 ). Dig a shallow hole in the 
trail. Then drive a forked stick (fork down) into the ground on each side of the hole on 
the same side of the trail. Select two fairly straight sticks that span the two forks. Position 
these two sticks so that their ends engage the forks. Place several sticks over the hole in 
the trail by positioning one end over the lower horizontal stick and the other on the 
ground on the other side of the hole. Cover the hole with enough sticks so that the prey 
must step on at least one of them to set off the snare. Tie one end of a piece of cordage to 
a twitch-up or to a weight suspended over a tree limb. Bend the twitch-up or raise the 
suspended weight to determine where You will tie a 5 centimeter or so long trigger. Form 
a noose with the other end of the cordage. Route and spread the noose over the top of the 
sticks over the hole. Place the trigger stick against the horizontal sticks and route the 
cordage behind the sticks so that the tension of the power source will hold it in place. 



Adjust the bottom horizontal stick so that it will barely hold against the trigger. A the 
animal places its foot on a stick across the hole, the bottom horizontal stick moves down, 
releasing the trigger and allowing the noose to catch the animal by the foot. Because of 
the disturbance on the trail, an animal will be wary. You must therefore use 
channelization. 




LINE PRESSURE 
ON TRIGGER STICK 
HOLDS HORIZONTAL 
BARS IN PLACE 




TRAIL 



LINE PRESSURE ^-x^^ 

ON TRIGGER STICK 
HO LOS HORIZONTAL 
BAR IN PLACE 




jap*- 




Figure *-lL Treadle spring snare. 



Figure 4 Deadfall 



The figure 4 is a trigger used to drop a weight onto a prey and crush it (Figure 8-12) . The 
type of weight used may vary, but it should be heavy enough to kill or incapacitate the 



prey immediately. Construct the figure 4 using three notched sticks. These notches hold 
the sticks together in a figure 4 pattern when under tension. Practice making this trigger 
before-hand; it requires close tolerances and precise angles in its construction. 



f 



FRONT SIDE 
VIEW VIEW 

UPRIGHT STICK 




I" 1 -*" 



mc 



FRONT 
VIEW 



znz 



RELEASE STICK 



TOP 
VIEW 

BAFT STICK 




Figure K 12. Figure 4 dtadfalL 



Paiute Deadfall 



The Paiute deadfall is similar to the figure 4 but uses a piece of cordage and a catch stick 
( Figure 8-13) . It has the advantage of being easier to set than the figure 4. Tie one end of 
a piece of cordage to the lower end of the diagonal stick. Tie the other end of the cordage 
to another stick about 5 centimeters long. This 5-centimeter stick is the catch stick. Bring 
the cord halfway around the vertical stick with the catch stick at a 90-degree angle. Place 
the bait stick with one end against the drop weight, or a peg driven into the ground, and 
the other against the catch stick. When a prey disturbs the bait stick, it falls free, releasing 
the catch stick. As the diagonal stick flies up, the weight falls, crushing the prey. 




Viftiirf 8-13. IMiutf dradfall. 



Bow Trap 



A bow trap is one of the deadliest traps. It is dangerous to man as well as animals (Figure 
8-14) . To construct this trap, build a bow and anchor it to the ground with pegs. Adjust 
the aiming point as you anchor the bow. Lash a toggle stick to the trigger stick. Two 
upright sticks driven into the ground hold the trigger stick in place at a point where the 
toggle stick will engage the pulled bow string. Place a catch stick between the toggle 
stick and a stake driven into the ground. Tie a trip wire or cordage to the catch stick and 
route it around stakes and across the game trail where you tie it off (as in Figure 8-14 ). 
When the prey trips the trip wire, the bow looses an arrow into it. A notch in the bow 
serves to help aim the arrow. 



WARNING 



This is a lethal trap. 




Figure 8-14. Bow imp. 



Pig Spear Shaft 



To construct the pig spear shaft, select a stout pole about 2.5 meters long (Figure 8-15 ). 
At the smaller end, firmly lash several small stakes. Lash the large end tightly to a tree 
along the game trail. Tie a length of cordage to another tree across the trail. Tie a sturdy, 
smooth stick to the other end of the cord. From the first tree, tie a trip wire or cord low to 
the ground, stretch it across the trail, and tie it to a catch stick. Make a slip ring from 
vines or other suitable material. Encircle the trip wire and the smooth stick with the slip 
ring. Emplace one end of another smooth stick within the slip ring and its other end 
against the second tree. Pull the smaller end of the spear shaft across the trail and position 
it between the short cord and the smooth stick. As the animal trips the trip wire, the catch 
stick pulls the slip ring off the smooth sticks, releasing the spear shaft that springs across 
the trail and impales the prey against the tree. 



WARNING 



This is a lethal trap. Approach it with a ution! 







1 \ 


J^Sr-^-4 




i \ 




^IP^ 5 ^: 1 






* 






41* 




•/ 



Figure A- 15, Fig spear shaft. 



tfotf/e Jra/7 



A bottle trap is a simple trap for mice and voles (Figure 8-16) . Dig a hole 30 to 45 
centimeters deep that is wider at the bottom than at the top. Make the top of the hole as 
small as possible. Place a piece of bark or wood over the hole with small stones under it 
to hold it up 2.5 to 5 centimeters off the ground. Mice or voles will hide under the cover 
to escape danger and fall into the hole. They cannot climb out because of the wall's 
backward slope. Use caution when checking this trap; it is an excellent hiding place for 
snakes. 




figure 8-16. fertile imp. 

KILLING DEVICES 



There are several killing devices that you can construct to help you obtain small game to 
help you survive. The rabbit stick, the spear, the bow and arrow, and the sling are such 
devices. 

Rabbit Stick 

One of the simplest and most effective killing devices is a stout stick as long as your arm, 
from fingertip to shoulder, called a "rabbit stick." You can throw it either overhand or 
sidearm and with considerable force. It is very effective against small game that stops and 
freezes as a defense. 

Spear 

You can make a spear to kill small game and to fish. Jab with the spear, do not throw it. 
See spearfishing below. 

Bow and Arrow 

A good bow is the result of many hours of work. You can construct a suitable short-term 
bow fairly easily. When it loses its spring or breaks, you can replace it. Select a 
hardwood stick about one meter long that is free of knots or limbs. Carefully scrape the 
large end down until it has the same pull as the small end. Careful examination will show 
the natural curve of the stick. Always scrape from the side that faces you, or the bow will 
break the first time you pull it. Dead, dry wood is preferable to green wood. To increase 
the pull, lash a second bow to the first, front to front, forming an "X" when viewed from 
the side. Attach the tips of the bows with cordage and only use a bowstring on one bow. 

Select arrows from the straightest dry sticks available. The arrows should be about half as 
long as the bow. Scrape each shaft smooth all around. You will probably have to 
straighten the shaft. You can bend an arrow straight by heating the shaft over hot coals. 
Do not allow the shaft to scorch or bum. Hold the shaft straight until it cools. 

You can make arrowheads from bone, glass, metal, or pieces of rock. You can also 
sharpen and fire harden the end of the shaft. To fire harden wood, hold it over hot coals, 
being careful not to bum or scorch the wood. 

You must notch the ends of the arrows for the bowstring. Cut or file the notch; do not 
split it. Fletching (adding feathers to the notched end of an arrow) improves the arrow's 
flight characteristics, but is not necessary on a field- expedient arrow. 

Sling 

You can make a sling by tying two pieces of cordage, about sixty centimeters long, at 
opposite ends of a palm-sized piece of leather or cloth. Place a rock in the cloth and wrap 
one cord around the middle finger and hold in your palm. Hold the other cord between 
the forefinger and thumb. To throw the rock, spin the sling several times in a circle and 



release the cord between the thumb and forefinger. Practice to gain proficiency. The sling 
is very effective against small game. 

FISHING DEVICES 

You can make your own fishhooks, nets and traps and use several methods to obtain fish 
in a survival situation. 

Improvised Fishhooks 

You can make field- expedient fishhooks from pins, needles, wire, small nails, or any 
piece of metal. You can also use wood, bone, coconut shell, thorns, flint, seashell, or 
tortoise shell. You can also make fishhooks from any combination of these items (Figure 
8-17). 







ft 



CAflVeDWOOD WIRE 

GORGE HOOK 



THORN HOOKS 



CARVED 
WOOD SHANKS 



Figurt W 17. Improvised fivhhimkv. 

To make a wooden hook, cut a piece of hardwood about 2.5 centimeters long and about 6 
millimeters in diameter to form the shank. Cut a notch in one end in which to place the 
point. Place the point (piece of bone, wire, nail) in the notch. Hold the point in the notch 
and tie securely so that it does not move out of position. This is a fairly large hook. To 
make smaller hooks, use smaller material. 

A gorge is a small shaft of wood, bone, metal, or other material. It is sharp on both ends 
and notched in the middle where you tie cordage. Baitthe gorge by placing a piece of bait 
on it lengthwise. When the fish swallows the bait, it also swallows the gorge. 

Stakeout 



A stakeout is a fishing device you can use in a hostile environment (Figure 8-18 ). To 
construct a stakeout, drive two supple saplings into the bottom of the lake, pond, or 
stream with their tops just below the water surface. Tie a cord between them and slightly 
below the surface. Tie two short cords with hooks or gorges to this cord, ensuring that 



they cannot wrap around the poles or each other. They should also not slip along the long 
cord. Bait the hooks or gorges. 



REED- 




WEED 



HiTiirr K-1H. NLikettut. 



Gill Net 



If a gill net is not available, you can make one using parachute suspension line or similar 
material ( Figure 8-19) . Remove the core lines from the suspension line and tie the easing 
between two trees. Attach several core lines to the easing by doubling them over and 
tying them with prusik knots or girth hitches. The length of the desired net and the size of 
the mesh determine the number of core lines used and the space between them. Starting at 
one end of the easing, tie the second and the third core lines together using an overhand 
knot. Then tie the fourth and fifth, sixth and seventh, and so on, until you reach the last 
core line. You should now have all core lines tied in pairs with a single core line hanging 
at each end. Start the second row with the first core line, tie it to the second, the third to 
the fourth, and so on. 




Figure B-19, Making a gill nrL 



To keep the rows even and to regulate the size of the mesh, tie a guideline to the trees. 
Position the guideline on the opposite side of the net you are working on. Move the 
guideline down after completing each row. The lines will always hang in pairs and you 
always tie a cord from one pair to a cord from an adjoining pair. Continue tying rows 
until the net is the desired width. Thread a suspension line easing along the bottom of the 
net to strengthen it. Use the gill net as shown in Figure 8-20 . 




Figure 8- 10. Setting h gill act in the stream. 



Fish Traps 



You may trap fish using several methods ( Figure 8-21 ). Fish baskets are one method. 
You construct them by lashing several sticks together with vines into a funnel shape. You 
close the top, leaving a hole large enough for the fish to swim through. 




POOL Oft SHORE FISH TRAP 



TIDAL FLAT FISH TRAP 



Figure 6-21. Various types of fish traps. 

You can also use traps to catch saltwater fish, as schools regularly approach the shore 
with the incoming tide and often move parallel to the shore. Pick a location at high tide 
and build the trap at low tide. On rocky shores, use natural rock pools. On coral islands, 
use natural pools on the surface of reefs by blocking the openings as the tide recedes. On 
sandy shores, use sandbars and the ditches they enclose. Build the trap as a low stone 
wall extending outward into the water and forming an angle with the shore. 

Spearfishing 

If you are near shallow water (about waist deep) where the fish are large and plentiful, 
you can spear them. To make a spear, cut a long, straight sapling (Figure 8-22 ). Sharpen 
the end to a point or attach a knife, jagged piece of bone, or sharpened metal. You can 
also make a spear by splitting the shaft a few inches down from the end and inserting a 
piece of wood to act as a spreader. You then sharpen the two separated halves to points. 
To spear fish, find an area where fish either gather or where there is a fish run. Place the 



spear point into the water and slowly move it toward the fish. Then, with a sudden push, 
impale the fish on the stream bottom. Do not try to lift the fish with the spear, as it with 
probably slip off and you will lose it; hold the spear with one hand and grab and hold the 
fish with the other. Do not throw the spear, especially if the point is a knife. You cannot 
afford to lose a knife in a survival situation. Be alert to the problems caused by light 
refraction when looking at objects in the water. 






~ET~ir T 



Figure B-22, Types of spear poiqts* 



Chop Fishing 



At night, in an area with a good fish density, you can use a light to attract fish. Then, 
armed with a machete or similar weapon, you can gather fish using the back side of the 
blade to strike them. Do not use the sharp side as you will cut them in two pieces and end 
up losing some of the fish. 

Fish Poison 



Another way to catch fish is by using poison. Poison works quickly. It allows you to 
remain concealed while it takes effect. It also enables you to catch several fish at one 
time. When using fish poison, be sure to gather all of the affected fish, because many 
dead fish floating downstream could arouse suspicion. Some plants that grow in warm 
regions of the world contain rotenone, a substance that stuns or kills cold-blooded 
animals but does not harm persons who eat the animals. The best place to use rotenone, 
or rotenone-producing plants, is in ponds or the headwaiters of small streams containing 
fish. Rotenone works quickly on fish in water 21 degrees C (70 degrees F) or above. The 
fish rise helplessly to the surface. It works slowly in water 10 to 21 degrees C (50 to 70 
degrees F) and is ineffective in water below 10 degrees C (50 degrees F). The following 
plants, used as indicated, will stun or kill fish: 



Anamirta cocculus ( Figure 8-23) . This woody vine grows in southern Asia and on 

islands of the South Pacific. Crush the bean-shaped seeds and throw them in the 

water. 

Croton tiglium ( Figure 8-23) . This shrub or small tree grows in waste areas on 

islands of the South Pacific. It bears seeds in three angled capsules. Crush the 

seeds and throw them into the water. 

Barringtonia ( Figure 8-23) . These large trees grow near the sea in Malaya and 

parts of Polynesia. They bear a fleshy one-seeded fruit. Crush the seeds and bark 

and throw into the water. 

Derris eliptica ( Figure 8-23 ). This large genus of tropical shrubs and woody vines 

is the main source of commercially produced rotenone. Grind the roots into a 

powder and mix with water. Throw a large quantity of the mixture into the water. 

Duboisia ( Figure 8-23 ). This shrub grows in Australia and bears white clusters of 

flowers and berrylike fruit. Crush the plants and throw them into the water. 

Tephrosia ( Figure 8-23 ). This species of small shrubs, which bears beanlike pods, 

grows throughout the tropics. Crush or bruise bundles of leaves and stems and 

throw them into the water. 

Lime. You can get lime from commercial sources and in agricultural areas that use 

large quantities of it. You may produce your own by burning coral or seashells. 

Throw the lime into the water. 

Nut husks. Crush green husks from butternuts or black walnuts. Throw the husks 

into the water. 




HARRINGTON I A 




DU&O^IA 



DEfifilSEUPTlCA 




TEPHPOSW 



Fiftsrt S-£3. Fish'pflisooinjj plants 

PREPARATION OF FISH AND GAME FOR 
COOKING AND STORAGE 

You must know how to prepare fish and game for cooking and storage in a survival 
situation. Improper cleaning or storage can result in inedible fish or game. 



Fish 



Do not eat fish that appears spoiled. Cooking does not ensure that spoiled fish will be 
edible. Signs of spoilage are-- 

• Sunken eyes. 

• Peculiar odor. 

• Suspicious color. (Gills should be red to pink. Scales should be a pronounced 
shade of gray, not faded.) 

• Dents stay in the fish's flesh after pressing it with your thumb. 

• Slimy, rather than moist or wet body. 

• Sharp or peppery taste. 

Eating spoiled or rotten fish may cause diarrhea, nausea, cramps, vomiting, itching, 
paralysis, or a metallic taste in the mouth. These symptoms appear suddenly, one to six 
hours after eating. Induce vomiting if symptoms appear. 

Fish spoils quickly after death, especially on a hot day. Prepare fish for eating as soon as 
possible after catching it. Cut out the gills and large blood vessels that lie near the spine. 
Gut fish that is more than 10 centimeters long. Scale or skin the fish. 

You can impale a whole fish on a stick and cook it over an open fire. However, boiling 
the fish with the skin on is the best way to get the most food value. The fats and oil are 
under the skin and, by boiling, you can save the juices for broth. You can use any of the 
methods used to cook plant food to cook fish. Pack fish into a ball of clay and bury it in 
the coals of a fire until the clay hardens. Break open the clay ball to get to the cooked 
fish. Fish is done when the meat flakes off. If you plan to keep the fish for later, smoke or 
fry it. To prepare fish for smoking, cut off the head and remove the backbone. 

Snakes 

To skin a snake, first cut off its head and bury it. Then cut the skin down the body 15 to 
20 centimeters ( Figure 8-24) . Peel the skin back, then grasp the skin in one hand and the 
body in the other and pull apart. On large, bulky snakes it may be necessary to slit the 
belly skin. Cook snakes in the same manner as small game. Remove the entrails and 
discard. Cut the snake into small sections and boil or roast it. 



Pint klU the snake. Ihen - 




1 Grip the dead snake 

flmnty behind ura head 




3 Slil belly and remove 
innards. 




2 Cut off at teas! I5&ti 

behind the head. 



4 Skin 




Figure $-24, Cleaning a snake. 



Birds 



After killing the bird, remove its feathers by either plucking or skinning. Remember, 
skinning removes some of the food value. Open up the body cavity and remove its 
entrails, saving the craw (in seed-eating birds), heart, and liver. Cut off the feet. Cook by 
boiling or roasting over a spit. Before cooking scavenger birds, boil them at least 20 
minutes to kill parasites. 

Skinning and Butchering Game 

Bleed the animal by cutting its throat. If possible, clean the carcass near a stream. Place 
the carcass belly up and split the hide from throat to tail, cutting around all sexual organs 
( Figure 8-25) . Remove the musk glands at points A and B to avoid tainting the meat. For 
smaller mammals, cut the hide around the body and insert two fingers under the hide on 
both sides of the cut and pull both pieces off ( Figure 8-26 ). 



Note: When cutting the hide, insert the knife blade under the skin and turn 
the blade up so that only the hide gets cut. This will also prevent cutting 
hair and getting it on the meat. 




Figure 8-25. Skinning and butchering larftc ^.irin-. 



/ =pZ2- 



Cut the hide around the codv 




2 insert two ting&rs imaw the 
Nde on boih sides d me cut 
and pull berth piacaa off. 



Figure li-ifi. Skinning small game. 

Remove the entrails from smaller game by splitting the body open and pulling them out 
with the fingers. Do not forget the chest cavity. For larger game, cut the gullet away from 
the diaphragm. Roll the entrails out of the body. Cut around the anus, then reach into the 
lower abdominal cavity, grasp the lower intestine, and pull to remove. Remove the urine 
bladder by pinching it off and cutting it below the fingers. If you spill urine on the meat, 
wash it to avoid tainting the meat. Save the heart and liver. Cut these open and inspect for 
signs of worms or other parasites. Also inspect the liver's color; it could indicate a 
diseased animal. The liver's surface should be smooth and wet and its color deep red or 
purple. If the liver appears diseased, discard it. However, a diseased liver does not 
indicate you cannot eat the muscle tissue. 

Cut along each leg from above the foot to the previously made body cut. Remove the 
hide by pulling it away from the carcass, cutting the connective tissue where necessary. 
Cut off the head and feet. 



Cut larger game into manageable pieces. First, slice the muscle tissue connecting the 
front legs to the body. There are no bones or joints connecting the front legs to the body 



on four-legged animals. Cut the hindquarters off where they join the body. You must cut 
around a large bone at the top of the leg and cut to the ball and socket hip joint. Cut the 
ligaments around the joint and bend it back to separate it. Remove the large muscles (the 
tenderloin) that lie on either side of the spine. Separate the ribs from the backbone. There 
is less work and less wear on your knife if you break the ribs first, then cut through the 
breaks. 

Cook large meat pieces over a spit or boil them. You can stew or boil smaller pieces, 
particularly those that remain attached to bone after the initial butchering, as soup or 
broth. You can cook body organs such as the heart, liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys 
using the same methods as for muscle meat. You can also cook and eat the brain. Cut the 
tongue out, skin it, boil it until tender, and eat it. 

Smoking Meat 

To smoke meat, prepare an enclosure around a fire ( Figure 8-27 ). Two ponchos snapped 
together will work. The fire does not need to be big or hot. The intent is to produce 
smoke, not heat. Do not use resinous wood in the fire because its smoke will ruin the 
meat. Use hardwoods to produce good smoke. The wood should be somewhat green. If it 
is too dry, soak it. Cut the meat into thin slices, no more than 6 centimeters thick, and 
drape them over a framework. Make sure none of the meat touches another piece. Keep 
the poncho enclosure around the meat to hold the smoke and keep a close watch on the 
fire. Do not let the fire get too hot. Meat smoked overnight in this manner will last about 
1 week. Two days of continuous smoking will preserve the meat for 2 to 4 weeks. 
Properly smoked meat will look like a dark, curled, brittle stick and you can eat it without 
further cooking. You can also use a pit to smoke meat ( Figure 8-28) . 



PONCH SHELTER OR fc U 
PARACHUTE HALF lM 

Jfi- 1 — THREE POLES 




. 


-^5yr£ ffj,M STRIPS OF MEAT 

#^ *^€ThpJ\ to se smoked 

FIRE PIT 
TEPEE SMOKE H 



Figure S-*t Smoking m«L 




]■ i-iu t - soft Smoking meat ovtr a [fit- 



Drying Meat 



To preserve meat by drying, cut it into 6-millimeter strips with the grain. Hang the meat 
strips on a rack in a sunny location with good air flow. Keep the strips out of the reach of 



animals and cover them to keep blowflies off. Allow the meat to dry thoroughly before 
eating. Properly dried meat will have a dry, crisp texture and will not feel cool to the 
touch. 

Other Preservation Methods 

You can also preserve meats using the freezing or brine and salt methods. 

Freezing 

In cold climates, you can freeze and keep meat indefinitely. Freezing is not a means of 
preparing meat. You must still cook it before eating. 

Brine and Salt 

You can preserve meat by soaking it thoroughly in a saltwater solution. The solution 
must cover the meat. You can also use salt by itself. Wash off the salt before cooking. 



CHAPTER 9 



SURVIVAL USE OF PLANTS 




After having solved the problems of finding water, shelter, and animal 
food, you will have to consider the use of plants you can eat. In a survival 
situation you should always be on the lookout for familiar wild foods and 
live off the land whenever possible. 

You must not count on being able to go for days without food as some 
sources would suggest. Even in the most static survival situation, 
maintaining health through a complete and nutritious diet is essential to 
maintaining strength and peace of mind. 

Nature can provide you with food that will let you survive any ordeal, if 
you don't eat the wrong plant. You must therefore learn as much as 
possible beforehand about the flora of the region where you will be 
operating. Plants can provide you with medicines in a survival situation. 
Plants can supply you with weapons and raw materials to construct 
shelters and build fires. Plants can even provide you with chemicals for 
poisoning fish, preserving animal hides, and for camouflaging yourself 
and your equipment. 

Note: You will find illustrations of the plants described in this chapter in 
Appendixes B and C. 



EDIBILITY OF PLANTS 

Plants are valuable sources of food because they are widely available, easily procured, 
and, in the proper combinations, can meet all your nutritional needs. 



The critical factor in using plants for food is to avoid accidental poisoning. Eat onlj 
those plants you can positively identify and you know are safe to eat. 



Absolutely identify plants before using them as food. Poison hemlock has killed people 
who mistook it for its relatives, wild carrots and wild parsnips. 

At times you may find yourself in a situation for which you could not plan. In this 
instance you may not have had the chance to learn the plant life of the region in which 
you must survive. In this case you can use the Universal Edibility Test to determine 
which plants you can eat and those to avoid. 

It is important to be able to recognize both cultivated and wild edible plants in a survival 
situation. Most of the information in this chapter is directed towards identifying wild 
plants because information relating to cultivated plants is more readily available. 

Remember the following when collecting wild plants for food: 

• Plants growing near homes and occupied buildings or along roadsides may have 
been sprayed with pesticides. Wash them thoroughly. In more highly developed 
countries with many automobiles, avoid roadside plants, if possible, due to 
contamination from exhaust emissions. 

• Plants growing in contaminated water or in water containing Giardia lamblia and 
other parasites are contaminated themselves. Boil or disinfect them. 

• Some plants develop extremely dangerous fungal toxins. To lessen the chance of 
accidental poisoning, do not eat any fruit that is starting to spoil or showing signs 
of mildew or fungus. 

• Plants of the same species may differ in their toxic or subtoxic compounds 
content because of genetic or environmental factors. One example of this is the 
foliage of the common chokecherry. Some chokecherry plants have high 
concentrations of deadly cyanide compounds while others have low 
concentrations or none. Horses have died from eating wilted wild cherry leaves. 
Avoid any weed, leaves, or seeds with an almondlike scent, a characteristic of the 
cyanide compounds. 

• Some people are more susceptible to gastric distress (from plants) than others. If 
you are sensitive in this way, avoid unknown wild plants. If you are extremely 
sensitive to poison ivy, avoid products from this family, including any parts from 
sumacs, mangoes, and cashews. 

• Some edible wild plants, such as acorns and water lily rhizomes, are bitter. These 
bitter substances, usually tannin compounds, make them unpalatable. Boiling 
them in several changes of water will usually remove these bitter properties. 

• Many valuable wild plants have high concentrations of oxalate compounds, also 
known as oxalic acid. Oxalates produce a sharp burning sensation in your mouth 
and throat and damage the kidneys. Baking, roasting, or drying usually destroys 
these oxalate crystals. The corm (bulb) of the jack-in-the-pulpit is known as the 
"Indian turnip," but you can eat it only after removing these crystals by slow 
baking or by drying. 



WARNING 

Do not eat mushrooms in a survival situation! The only wj y to tell if a mushroom is 
edible is by positive identification. There is no room for exp Timentation. Symptoms 
of the most dangerous mushrooms affecting the central ne rvous system may show 



Plant Identification 

You identify plants, other than by memorizing particular varieties through familiarity, by 
using such factors as leaf shape and margin, leaf arrangements, and root structure. 

The basic leaf margins ( Figure 9-1) are toothed, lobed, and toothless or smooth. 




Figure 9-1. [rut mucins. 



These leaves may be lance- shaped, elliptical, egg-shaped, oblong, wedge-shaped, 
triangular, long-pointed, or top-shaped ( Figure 9-2) . 





LANCESHAPED 



ELLIPTIC 





OBLONG 




&* 



LONG- POINTED 




WEDGE-SHAPED TFHANGULflH 




TOP SHAPED 



Figure u -2. Leaf shapes. 

The basic types of leaf arrangements ( Figure 9-3 ) are opposite, alternate, compound, 
simple, and basal rosette. 




SIMPLE 



BASAL ROSETTE 



ALT EH MATE 



Figure 9-3* J+Jif arrjnptmeuls. 



The basic types of root structures ( Figure 9-4) are the bulb, clove, taproot, tuber, rhizome, 
corm, and crown. Bulbs are familiar to us as onions and, when sliced in half, will show 
concentric rings. Cloves are those bulblike structures that remind us of garlic and will 
separate into small pieces when broken apart. This characteristic separates wild onions 
from wild garlic. Taproots resemble carrots and may be single- rooted or branched, but 
usually only one plant stalk arises from each root. Tubers are like potatoes and daylilies 
and you will find these structures either on strings or in clusters underneath the parent 
plants. Rhizomes are large creeping rootstock or underground stems and many plants 
arise from the "eyes" of these roots. Corms are similar to bulbs but are solid when cut 
rather than possessing rings. A crown is the type of root structure found on plants such as 
asparagus and looks much like a mophead under the soil's surface. 




TAPROOT 



TUBEAS 




**^=*^££v^ 



Figure 9*4. Kwn structures 

Learn as much as possible about plants you intend to use for food and their unique 
characteristics. Some plants have both edible and poisonous parts. Many are edible only 
at certain times of the year. Others may have poisonous relatives that look very similar to 
the ones you can eat or use for medicine. 

Universal Edibility Test 



There are many plants throughout the world. Tasting or swallowing even a small portion 
of some can cause severe discomfort, extreme internal disorders, and even death. 
There
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