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Lake and Pond Management
Field Manual
Massachusetts Department of Environmental Management
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AMKEB 903
A Comprehensive Short Course in
Strategies to Preserve and Restore Lakes
1996 New England Lake Conference Edition
This special edition was made possible through a generous contribution from
Raytheon Company in support of watershed awareness and the
Massachusetts Watershed Initiative
Prepared By:
Horsley & Witten, Inc.
Consultants in Water Resources and Land Planning
11 Beacon Street, Suite 1005, Boston, MA 02108 • 617-367-6541
3179 Main Street, Barnstable, MA 02630 • 508-362-5570
Assisted By:
Baystate Environmental Consultants, Inc.
Lycott Environmental Research, Inc.
INTRODUCTION
The following lakes assessment and management field manual is grounded in
sciences, yet is focused on the practical problems facing DEM staff. This
manual consists of materials relevant to lake and pond assessment and
management, and includes written text and worksheets intended for DEM use.
Publication No. 1 7556 - 1 83 - 1 00 - 5/94 - 5.63 - C R
Recycled Paper Approved by: Philmore Anderson III. Stat* Pm^«;„„'a;
Approved by: Philmore Anderson III, State Purchasing Agent
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This field manual was prepared under funding provided by Massachusetts
Department of Environmental Management (DEM). It is intended as a
management guide for DEM staff members and lake managers.
Mark Cullman and Ruth Helfeld served as Project Managers for DEM.
Several authors contributed to this document.
David Mitchell and Kenneth Wagner of Baystate Environmental Consulting,
Inc. and Maryjo Moubry of Horsley Witten Hegemann, Inc. prepared the Lake
Assessment and Problem Identification Sections.
John Sigda and Maryjo Moubry prepared the Watershed Assessment Section.
The in-lake management portion of the Lake Management Plan Section was
prepared by Lee Lyman of Lycott Environmental Research, Inc. Maryjo
Moubry and Ingeborg Hegemann prepared the remainder of this section.
Scott Horsley served as editor of the coursebook.
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2012 with funding from
Boston Library Consortium Member Libraries
http://archive.org/details/lakepondmanagemeOOhors
Field Manual Outline
Page
SECTION 1: LAKE ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY
A. Written Field Text
1. What Parameters Should Be Analyzed 1
2. Importance of Water Quality Sampling 2
and Analysis
3. Basic Description of Water Quality Parameters 3
4. Relative Cost Effectiveness of Water Quality 12
Parameters
5. Diagnostic Study Methodology 18
6. Determining Appropriate Lake Uses 21
7. Lake Sampling Equipment 27
8. Water Sampling Methodology 42
9. Calculating a Discharge (Flow) Measurement 45
10. Estimation of Lake Volume 46
11. Estimation of Annual Flow Calculations 48
12. Estimation of Flushing Rate and 49
Detention Time
13. Vegetative Assessment 51
B. Worksheets 57
SECTION 2: WATERSHED ASSESSMENT
A. Written Field Text
1. Water and the Hydrologic Cycle 64
2. Surface Drainage Basin 65
3. Ground Water Drainage Basins 65
4. Watershed Delineation 66
5. Hydrologic Budget Estimation 70
6. Monitoring Well Installation and Sampling 71
7. Buildout Analysis 74
8. Nutrient Loading Analysis 76
B. Worksheets 78
DEM Lake Management Field Manual i HWH, Inc.
Field Manual Outline (continued)
SECTION 3: CAUSES OF LAKE PROBLEMS AND THEIR
IDENTIFICATION
A. Written Field Text
1. Common Aquatic Problems 84
2. Causes of Lake Change 89
3. Determining Appropriate Lake Uses 90
B. Worksheets 95
SECTION 4: DEVELOPMENT OF A LAKE MANAGEMENT PLAN
A. Written Field Text
1. In-Lake Management Techniques 96
2. Watershed Management Techniques 97
B. Worksheets 113
SECTION 5: ENVIRONMENTAL PERMITTING REQUIREMENTS
A. Written Field Text
1. Permits Required for Typical Restoration and 117
Management Plans
B. Worksheet 140
SECTION 6: POST-TREATMENT MONITORING
A. Written Text 141
DEM Lake Management Feld Manual ii HWH. Inc.
SECTION 1.
LAKE ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY
LAKE ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY
WHAT PARAMETERS SHOULD BE ANALYZED
See Section 1 of
the coursebook for a
description of lake
functions.
See page 3-21
through 3-33 for
a discussion
of diagnostic
study methodologies.
When initially surveying a lake or pond the parameters
or measurements for the baseline data should include
information on the physical, chemical and biological
components of the lake. Following a thorough analysis of
the baseline data, further surveys can be designed to
accommodate individual lake or pond characteristics and
more effectively focus on the problem of concern. For
lakes or ponds with no apparent problem, it is still useful
to periodically monitor conditions to detect the symptoms
of the changes (e.g., eutrophication) as early as possible.
When selecting parameters to measure or determine for a
lake analysis, it is important to consider why they are
being collected. There are numerous examples of
extensive long-term monitoring data sets that have little
utility because they measured the wrong parameters,
switched parameters arbitrarily during the study, lack
important additional information (e.g., flow
measurements, weather conditions), have inappropriate
or redundant sampling locations, or the timing of
sampling was not coordinated with lake events (e.g.,
thermal stratification). Since the initial set of sampling
parameters often becomes the template for subsequent
samples, it should be designed carefully.
The information necessary to diagnose a lake or pond's
current condition and details of water quality monitoring
are presented in Section 3 of the course manual. The
reader is advised to refer to Section 3 of the course manual
for the relevant information. Information about the type
of equipment typically used for lake sampling is discussed
below.
DEM Lake Management field manual
HWH, Inc.
IMPORTANCE OF WATER QUALITY SAMPLING AND
ANALYSIS FOR PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION,
FEASIBILITY PLANNING, AND POLICY FORMATION
A manager of lakes and ponds often tries to reduce water-
quality problems (e.g., low dissolved oxygen, insufficient
water clarity) that are really symptoms of some underlying
problem (e.g., excessive nutrient loading from the
watershed). Generally, for solutions to be successfully
chosen and implemented, the root cause of a problem
must be correctly identified. Water quality sampling and
analysis is an important step to identify and evaluate
water quality problems.
By identifying the ultimate cause of a symptom, water
quality sampling also aids in the assessment of alternative
feasibility options. If the cause of the problem is excessive
nutrients coming in from the watershed, for example,
some sort of source control will generally alleviate the
problem. However, if the source of the problem is
nutrient-rich sediments already in the lake, as is the case
with most instances of excessive macrophyte growth, it is
often more cost-effective to deal with the symptom and
ignore the root cause.
Establishing baselines and detecting trends are two other
important goals of regular water quality sampling. Lakes
undergo natural changes in water chemistry and biology
from season to season and from year to year. Significant
degradation or change can be detected only in relation to a
base-line established by prior monitoring. Additionally,
water quality monitoring may allow detection of subtle
changes in water chemistry before they produce noticeable
reductions of the aesthetic or biological resource value of
the lake.
A monitoring program is also useful in for establishing
policies regarding use of the lake and goals for its
protection or remediation. Certain water qualities (e.g.,
very low clarity) are incompatible with certain uses (e.g.,
bathing); this can only be determined through water-
quality monitoring. Moreover, data on current water
DEM Lake Management field manual 2 HWH, Inc.
i
quality are often necessary to spur political movement for
lake protection or restoration, and these data are also
necessary to gauge their success or failure.
BASIC DESCRIPTION OF WATER QUALITY
PARAMETERS
m
What follows is a list of the physical-chemical parameters
most often measured in lakes. A short description of the
importance of each major parameter is also provided. An
excellent and detailed discussion of the cost of sampling,
optimal sampling density, and sampling costs can be
found in Chapter 8 of Ryding and Rast (1989).
Secchi Disk Transparency
See page 1-11 and 1-12 Use of a Secchi disk is a simple method to gauge water
of the coursebook for a clarity. A black and white disk (the Secchi disk) is lowered
discussion of bathymetry. ^ ^ ^^ ^^ ^ ^^ ^^^ ^ depth q{
disappearance is the Secchi disk transparency; thus, high
Secchi disk depths indicate high water clarity. Because
one's ability to see through water depends on ambient
light, Secchi disk measurements depend upon weather
conditions and the time of day as well as on factors
affecting water clarity. These factors include suspended
solids, phytoplankton density, and concentration of some
dissolved solids, especially dissolved organics.
Because turbidity, especially in deep stratified lakes, is
primarily affected by phytoplankton biomass, Secchi disk
depths can be used as an indicator of trophic status. Thus,
mesotrophic lakes are those with readings from 3 to 6
meters, and eutrophic lakes generally have readings less
than 3 meters. However, in lakes with heavy weed
growth, Secchi-disk readings can be very high despite the
obvious eutrophic nature of the water body. Conversely,
in ponds stained by organic acids or cloudy with
sediments, Secchi-disk readings can be very low despite
ininimal aquatic plant growth.
DEM Lake Management field manual 3 HWH, inc.
See page 1-16
through 1-21 of the
coursebook for a
discussion of lake
stratification and
mixing.
Temperature and Stratification
Temperature gradients are set up in lakes as upper layers
of water are warmed by radiant energy from the sun and
thermal energy from the air. Because the density of water
decreases as water temperature rises above 40° C, colder
water near the bottom tends to remain below warmer
water near the surface, setting up a temperature-density
gradient called stratification. (Swimmers should
recognize this phenomenon; deeper waters tend to be
much cooler than those near the surface). Stratification
usually begins in early spring, intensifies in summer, and
breaks down in the fall as sunlight wanes and air
temperatures fall.
Wind tends to counteract the formation of stable
temperature gradients by mixing and stirring the water
column. However, if the wind is too weak or the density
gradient too strong or too deep, wind-mixing will be
unable to stir the entire water column. In this case, long-
term stratification can occur, dividing the lake into a
warm, upper layer— the epilimnion— and a cold, bottom
layer—the hypolimnion. The zone of transition between
the two strata is called the thermocline, or metalimnion.
Lakes that remain stratified for periods longer than
several months are said to undergo stable stratification.
Because more energy (i.e., higher wind velocity) is
required to stir deeper columns of water, stratification
tends to be more long-lived in deeper lakes compared to
stratification in shallow lakes. Deep temperate lakes
generally stratify from spring to fall, and mix completely
during early spring and late fall when winds are strong
and thermal-density gradients are weak. Shallow lakes
and ponds, on the other hand, tend to mix more or less
completely throughout the summer. They may become
stratified for short periods, especially during warm, calm
days, but this stratification soon breaks down as the
epilimnion cools and /or the wind rises.
Stratification is important because physical, chemical, and
biological processes behave quite differently in warm, sun-
DEM Lake Management field manual
HWH.Lnc.
lit epilimnia compared to these processes in cold, dark
bottom waters. Consequently, the water column, which
starts out essentially homogeneous during spring mixing,
often becomes divided in the summer into two strata with
very different chemical and biological characteristics. For
example, while the epilimnion is usually nearly saturated
with oxygen, dissolved oxygen tends to become depleted
in bottom waters. If the hypolimnion becomes completely
anoxic, game-fish that require cold water (e.g., trout and
salmon) may be unable to survive in the lake. In
addition, nutrient dynamics in anoxic waters differ from
those in oxygenated waters. Oxygen-depletion promotes
the release of phosphorus and certain metals (e.g.,
manganese and iron) from the sediments. The release of
phosphorus may exacerbate eutrophication and impede
efforts to redress excessive nutrient loadings.
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen may be the most critical lake chemistry
parameter. During prolonged periods of low oxygen
concentrations (less than about five milligrams per liter),
cold-water fish (trout, salmon) may die of asphyxiation.
Warm-water fish are generally more tolerant of oxygen
depletion, surviving well until oxygen falls below 2 mg/1.
Dissolved oxygen dynamics also greatly affect nutrient
dynamics in lakes. The solubility of phosphorus increases
significantly in the absence of oxygen; thus, anoxia can
promote release of this vital nutrient from the sediments.
Oxygen concentrations in lakes are primarily affected by
the physical processes of dissolution from the atmosphere,
(called re-aeration) and by the biological processes of
photosynthesis and respiration. During daylight hours,
oxygen is produced by plants and phytoplankton in the
euphotic zone, the upper layer in which light is adequate
for photosynthesis. The depth of the euphotic zone can be
approximated by multiplying the Secchi disk depth by
three. Since surface waters can also become oxygenated by
contact with the air, upper layers generally contain high
amounts of dissolved oxygen. In contrast, dark bottom
waters receive no oxygen from photosynthesis or from the
atmosphere. Respiratory processes which consume oxygen
DEM Lake Management field manual 5 HWH, Inc.
predominate below the euphotic zone; thus, bottom
waters often become anoxic.
The relationship between depth and oxygen dynamics
demonstrates the importance of thermal stratification. In
shallow lakes without stable stratification, mixing
continuously brings bottom waters to the surface where
the oxygen is replenished through re-aeration and
photosynthesis. In deep lakes that undergo stable
stratification, however, bottom waters stay well below the
surface from spring to fall. Without access to atmospheric
or photosynthetic oxygen to meet the needs of biological
respiration, these bottom waters can become depleted in
oxygen.
Bacteria
Since fecal contamination contains a number of
pathogens that present risks to human health, bacteria
that tend to occur in feces are used as a warning indicator
of the presence of these fecal pathogens. However, the
diagnostic bacteria themselves are not usually pathogenic;
high bacteria levels do not in themselves pose any real
health risk.
Three types of bacteria are generally measured in lakes
and ponds: total coliform, fecal coliform, and fecal
streptococci. Total coliform bacteria are probably the most
widely used indicator group, even though they are
probably the least reliable indicator of fecal pollution.
Total coliform includes the fecal coliform bacteria which
come from animal waste, but also includes some bacteria
that naturally occur in soils. Therefore, high total
coliform counts do not necessarily indicate a high degree
of fecal contamination.
Fecal coliforms are that subset of the total coliform group
that usually originate in fecal material. The primary
species of the fecal coliform group is Escherichia coli, a
normally non-pathogenic bacterium found in the guts of
warm- blooded animals. Fecal streptococci are another
group of bacteria found in the guts of warm-blooded
animals. Different organisms generally have different
DEM Lake Management field manual 6 HWH, Inc.
ratios of fecal coliform to fecal streptococci, so the ratio of
the two can be used to identify the source of the
contamination.
ANIMAL SOURCE AND FC/FS RATIOS*
Human
4.4
Duck
0.6
Turkey
0.1
Chicken
0.4
Cow
0.2
Sheep
0.4
•Taken from Microbiological Methods for Monitoring
the Environment: Water and Wastes. EPA-600/8-78-017.
Edited by Robert Border and John Winter.
See page 1-21
through 1-17 of the
coursebook for a discussion
of lake nutrient and
chemical regimes.
Because of the frequent co-incidence of these indicator
bacterial groups and human pathogens, EPA has set
standards for total coliform and fecal coliform
concentrations in bathing beaches. The EPA limit for total
coliform is 1000 organisms per 100 ml, while the limits for
fecal coliform bacteria are that the geometric mean should
be below 200 organisms per 100 ml, and 10% of all samples
should not exceed 400 organisms per 100 ml. There are no
standards set for fecal streptococci bacteria.
Phosphorus
According to what is called Iiebig's "Law of the
Minimum," the productivity of aquatic systems is
controlled by the nutrient that is in lowest supply
compared to the nutritional requirements of aquatic
plants and algae. This nutrient, called the limiting
nutrient, is the component that most often constrains
plant growth.
In most freshwater systems, phosphorus is the most
critical plant nutrient. Phosphorus is so important to the
health of a lake that some lake classification schemes
DEM Lake Management field manual
HWH.Inc.
depend entirely on the in-lake phosphorus concentration
(see Table 1). Generally, lakes with low concentrations of
phosphorus tend to be clean and aesthetically pleasing,
while the opposite is true of lakes with high
concentrations of phosphorus.
TABLE 1
TROPHIC STATE CLASSIFICATION
Phosphorus Concentration
(mg/liter) State
<0.010
Oligotrophic
0.010
0.020
0.020
0.050
Mesotrophic
Eutrophic
Trophic
Lake Use
Suitable for water-based recreation and
propagation of cold water fisheries,
such as trout. Very high clarity and
aesthetically pleasing.
Suitable for water-based recreation but
often not for cold water fisheries.
Clarity less than oligotrophic lake.
Reduction in aesthetic properties
diminishes enjoyment for body contact
recreation. Generally very productive
for warm water fisheries.
>0.050
Hyper-eutrophic
A typical "old aged" lake in advanced
succession. Some fisheries, but high
levels of sedimentation and algae or
macrophyte growth may be
diminishing open water surface area.
Source: K.H. Reckhow, M N. Beaullac and J.T. Simpson, Modeling Phosphorus Loading and
Lake Response Under Uncertainty: A Manual and Compilation of Export Coefficients, June 1980.
DEM Lake Management field manual
8
HWH.Inc.
Assigning a trophic status to shallow and small lakes
based solely on phosphorus values can be problematic for
two reasons. First, trophic-state classifications are based
on large, deep lakes that are primarily pelagic (deep, open
water). Such a classification scheme may not apply to
shallow lakes and ponds which are primarily littoral zone
(shallow areas that support rooted vegetation). Most
species of rooted aquatic vegetation can derive
phosphorus from the sediments; hence, concentration of
phosphorus in the water column may have little impact
on the growth of these potential nuisance plants. Second,
given the negative connotations associated with the
colloquial definition of "eutrophic", classification as
"eutrophic" can give misleading impressions about the
health of a lake. One should note that the criterion for the
mesotrophic-eutrophic border is 0.020 mg/1, but the EPA
warning limit for phosphorus concentrations in standing
water is 0.025 mg/1. Clearly, many eutrophic lakes are
healthy and useful resources
Several forms of phosphorus are commonly measured:
total phosphorus which included soluble phosphorus,
inorganic phosphorus, and phosphorus bound in living
and non-living organic matter. Since soluble phosphorus
is constantly being absorbed by phytoplankton and bacteria
and being released by living and non-living matter,
samples for soluble phosphorus should either be filtered
in the field or chilled and filtered immediately upon
arrival at the laboratory.
Nitrogen
After phosphorus, nitrogen is the most important
nutrient essential for plant growth in aquatic systems.
Nitrogen commonly occurs in three forms in aquatic
systems: nitrate, ammonia, and organic nitrogen. Four
forms of nitrogen compounds are commonly measured in
lakes and ponds: nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, and total
Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN). Using these values, total
nitrogen can be calculated as the sum of the nitrogen in
TKN, nitrate, and nitrite. Organic nitrogen, which is the
nitrogen produced by animals and plants, can be
DEM Lake Management field manual 9 HWH. Inc.
calculated as the difference between the concentration of
TKN and the concentration of ammonia nitrogen.
pH and Alkalinity
The pH of a lake is a measure of the acidity of the water.
A pH of 7.0 is neutral. Values below 7.0 denote acidic
waters, and values above 7.0 denote basic waters. Most
healthy aquatic systems maintain a pH reading between
6.5 and 8 pH units. Fish cannot tolerate pH levels below 4
and above 11, and their growth and health will be affected
by long-term exposure to waters less than 6.0 pH units and
greater than 9.5 pH units (Boyd 1982).
The pH and alkalinity of an aquatic system are closely
related. The alkalinity measured in a pond represents the
water body's buffering capacity, or its acid neutralization
capacity which is measured in mg/1 of CaC03- Low levels
of alkalinity suggest either that a lake has undergone
acidification and /or that it is prone to acidification. If a
lake's alkalinity is less than 20 mg/1 CaC03, it can be
considered "sensitive" to acidic precipitation.
Chloride and Conductivity
The primary natural sources of chloride are from the
weathering of soils and rocks, and from wet and dry
precipitation. The latter can be a particularly important
source of chloride, especially in areas near the ocean from
salt aerosols. Anthropogenic sources of chloride are
roadway salts and waste-waters. Both can be a significant
source of chloride to a lake.
Conductivity is the ability of a water sample to conduct
electricity, and measures the presence of ions in solution.
Since chloride is often the predominant ion in surface
waters, conductivity values for water samples will often
show similar patterns to concentrations of chloride.
Chloride and conductivity are generally used as measures
of pollution from de-icing salts, and sometimes as
measures of overall fertility.
DEM Lake Management field manual 10 HWH, Inc.
Suspended Solids
Suspended solids are a measure of the amount of
particulate matter that can be filtered out of the water.
Suspended solids include living and non-living matter
that may originate within the pond (autochthonous
material) or outside the pond (allochthonous material).
Autochthonous suspended solids are primarily
phytoplankton or organic particles in some state of decay.
Allochthonous particles may be a mixture of organic and
non-organic particles that are washed or blown into the
lake.
The concentration of suspended solids in tributary waters
can be a useful indicator of sediment loads that can
identify potential problems with excessive sedimentation.
In contrast, the motley nature of the particles that make
up suspended solids decreases its information value for
in-lake samples. If the suspended solids are primarily
mineral solids washed into the watershed, high levels of
suspended solids could signify excessive erosion and a
potential for filling of the lake basin. In contrast, if the
suspended solids are primarily biodegradable organic
materials produced within the lake itself, high suspended
solids would not necessarily indicate either of the above
conditions.
Sulfate
Major sources of sulfate are fertilizers, weathering of
rocks, and atmospheric deposition primarily associated
with entrained sea salts and combustion of fossil fuels.
The latter is a major source of sulfate and acid rain, since
sulfur compounds form one of the major components of
acid rain. Thus, changes in sulfate concentrations over
time could be an indicator of acid rain, although changes
in alkalinity and pH yield more important information in
this regard.
Sulfur is a component in some amino acids and, therefore
is an essential element to all living organisms. It is
generally found in abundance, so it rarely, if ever, limits
production in natural aquatic systems. In the absence of
DEM Lake Management field manual 11 HWH. Inc.
See page 1-29
through 1-34 of the
coursebook for a
review of biological
lake components.
oxygen, sulfate is reduced to H2S, so eutrophic lakes are
often vertically stratified with respect to these compounds:
sulfate at the surface, hydrogen sulfide at the bottom.
After sodium and chloride, sulfate is one of the major
ions of salt waters. High levels of sulfate, therefore, can
occur naturally near the ocean or in estuarine systems.
Phytoplankton Taxa and Biomass
Phytoplankton taxa can provide information on lake
status, since certain taxa (e.g., large blue-greens) tend to
dominate eutrophic lakes. Phytoplankton cell counts are
not a good indicator of algal biomass, however, because
individual phytoplankton cells from different taxa can
differ in mass by four or more orders of magnitude.
Chlorophyll a, the major photosynthetic pigment of
phytoplankton, offers a better indicator of algal biomass.
Lakes can be classified on the basis of chlorophyll a
concentrations. For example, the OECD (1982) classifies
mesotrophic lakes as those having average chlorophyll a
concentrations ranging from 2.5 to 8 mg/nA Eutrophic
lakes tend to have greater than 8 mg/m^, and oligotrophic
lakes tend to have less than 2.5 mg/nA
RELATIVE COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF WATER
QUALITY PARAMETERS
Given limited resources and the need for regular
sampling, the lake manager must decide which
parameters yield the most information for the least
money. Unfortunately, while certain parameters are
usually cost-effective in any situation, the cost-
effectiveness of others will vary from lake to lake. The
following is a brief assessment, based on experience in
New England, of the most cost-effective analyses.
DEM Lake Management field manual
12
HWH.Inc.
1. Parameters that should be measured in almost every
case.
The following parameters— water temperature, dissolved
Parameters which oxygen, Secchi-disk depth, pH, total phosphorus, and
should be measured JO ' ,r f. . * . .,
by dem staff. macTophyte taxonomic distribution and density—should
probably be measured in all cases since they are either very
inexpensive or very important.
Water temperature has many important effects on water
chemistry and biology both directly through impacts on
bio- chemical processes and indirectly through thermal
stratification. Temperature meters are inexpensive and
long-lived; thus, after the initial capital investment,
temperature readings are very inexpensive. Temperature
readings taken during the period of potential stratification
(May to October) are probably one of the most cost-
effective of all diagnostic tools, especially in deeper lakes
prone to stratification.
Given the impact of dissolved oxygen concentrations on
fish health and phosphorus dynamics, dissolved oxygen is
also a very important parameter. Data on temporal and
spatial distribution of dissolved oxygen is especially
important in stratified lakes and in lakes with dense
vegetation having periodic fish kills. When investigating
the latter, measurements should be taken right before sun
rise when oxygen concentrations are at a minimurn.
The cost for analysis of oxygen depends primarily on the
technique. Precise chemical methods can be fairly
expensive (up to $20 per sample), but less expensive and
less accurate chemical methods can be found in simple
water quality kits (e.g., Hach kits). Oxygen meters are
somewhat expensive ($300 to $1000) but should last a
relatively long-time (> 5 years) with very low upkeep
costs. Chios purchased, meters provide accurate readings
quickly and repetitively. They are simple to operate and
can provide a large number of readings quickly.
The pH of a water body should be measured in most cases
because it is very important to the biology of the lake,
DEM Lake Management field manual 13 HWH, Inc.
subject to external forces in the form of acidic
precipitation, and easy and inexpensive to measure.
Electrode meters are relatively inexpensive and long-lived
and provide numerous readings quickly and easily.
Secchi disk readings are also recommended because they
are so inexpensive and easy and because they directly
measure water clarity. Reductions in clarity occur with
increases in algal biomass and with increases in sediments
washed in from the watershed. Both of these phenomena
will reduce the long-term health of the lake, and the
Secchi disk offers a simple, reliable method to track
changes in these parameters.
The concentration of total phosphorus should also be
measured in almost all cases. As explained above,
phosphorus is most often the critical element in plant
growth, and thus, the most important single predictor of
lake trophic status. Depending on the laboratory,
phosphorus analyses can cost from $15 to $40 per sample.
However, several factors limit cost-effectiveness of
analyzing phosphorus concentrations. Total phosphorus
concentrations can vary significantly over a single year
and from year to year (by factors of 2 or 3 or more); thus,
many samples must be taken to get an accurate idea of the
true phosphorus level in a system. In addition, rooted
plants can derive almost all of their phosphorus from the
sediment, so in-lake concentrations can be misleading in
terms of nuisance plant growth. In the latter case,
characterization of water column phosphorus may not be
cost-effective in terms of weed management, although
high water column phosphorus probably indicates a
continuing source of pollution to the water body.
A survey of the density, distribution, and taxonomic
composition of the macrophyton is almost always cost-
effective when studying New England lakes. M sst are
small and relatively shallow with extensive littoral zones,
conditions that foster excessive macrophyte growth. This
is a common problem faced in lakes, and feasibility
options depend on the species and densities of
macrophytes present.
DEM Lake Management field manual 14 HWH, Inc.
Additional parameters
which may be necessary
for DEM investigations.
2. Parameters that should be measured in more in-depth
investigations.
The following parameters are recommended in most texts
on the subject, but yield less information per sampling
dollar than the parameters above. They are also
somewhat difficult to interpret.
Concentrations of the various forms of nitrogen are
generally measured in lake monitoring studies, since
nitrogen is the second most important plant nutrient.
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen, nitrate, and ammonia are most
commonly recommended for measurement. Analysis for
nitrite is also sometimes recommended, but this advice
should be ignored in most cases, since nitrite is rarely
present in appreciable quantities.
However, measurement of all four or three parameters
can be relatively expensive, costing from $40 to $75 per
sample. Moreover, the information gained is often not
very useful. These expensive analyses are often justified
so that the limiting nutrient— nitrogen or phosphorus-
can be identified by the ratio of total nitrogen to total
phosphorus. However, in many eutrophic lakes with
high phosphorus and low N:P ratios, both nitrogen and
phosphorus concentrations occur in abundance, and
neither nitrogen nor phosphorus limits plant growth.
Even in those cases where nitrogen availability does limit
plant growth, lake managers generally try to reduce
phosphorus inputs instead, because phosphorus is much
easier to control.
Soluble phosphorus is another parameter that can be very
useful in certain situations. Low soluble phosphorus
levels can be used as evidence of phosphorus limitation,
and high levels usually indicate the opposite. However,
as with the case with N:P ratios, most lake management
focuses on phosphorus control even when other
nutrients are limiting, so the value of this parameter is
limited.
DEM Lake Management field manual
15
HWH.Inc.
For various reasons, nevertheless, the nitrogen species
should be measured in cases where funds are available.
Measurement of total nitrogen is important to isolate or
detect pollution loading, and ammonia may reach toxic
levels in hyper-eutrophic systems after plant die-offs.
Moreover, measurement of nitrogen levels provide
another base-line to detect changes over time.
Alkalinity should be measured in those lakes with low pH
or in areas where nearby lakes are undergoing
acidification. Chloride and conductivity should be
measured periodically in systems to determine whether
road salts are impacting aquatic resources. All three
analyses are fairly inexpensive-$10 to $20 per test per
sample.
For swimming beaches, bacteria monitoring is essential.
For other lakes, bacteria can be a somewhat useful
monitoring tool for septic contamination, although non-
human fecal contamination can often hide or mimic the
presence of human wastes. To differentiate between
human and non-human sources, both fecal coliform and
fecal streptococci should be measured in the same waters.
Adequate bacterial sampling can be very expensive. Per
sample, bacteria analyses are only moderately expensive,
about $15 to $25 per analysis. However, samples must be
taken often and at many places, because bacteria
populations can vary dramatically over very short times
and distances.
Chlorophyll a and phytoplankton taxonomic
identification are useful indicators of trophic state.
However, phytoplankton populations tend to vary
dramatically over time depending on a number of factors;
thus, small numbers of samples yield useful, but limited
data. These analyses tend to be moderately expensive— $20
to $30 for each sample—and are sometimes difficult to
interpret. Like nitrogen compounds, they are essential for
an in-depth analysis by an expert in limnology, but are of
somewhat less value to the lake manager in the Held.
Suspended solids are a useful, inexpensive indicator of
algal biomass in many lakes. When measured in
DEM Lake Management field manual 16 HWH, Inc.
I
1
I
I
I
I
[
I
conjunction with indicators of algal biomass, this
parameter can be used to indicate periods of high non-
algal turbidity.
Sulfate levels can be used to monitor for heavy inputs of
acid rain. However, changes in pH and alkalinity are
more direct indicators of impacts, so this parameter
should be measured to confirm cases where alkalinity
and /or pH have fallen over time.
DEM Lake Management field manual 17 HWH, Inc.
DIAGNOSTIC STUDY METHODOLOGY
a. Useful Information
See page 3-21
through 3-22 of
coursebook.
1. Lake Management Objectives
• Existing and desired uses of the lake
• Priority of uses
• Special features which must be
considered
2. Physical Lake Features
• Map of lake shape, lake area
• Map of water depth, mean and
maximum depths, volume
• Map of soft sediment depth
3. Physical Watershed Features
• Detailed topographic maps
• Watershed delineation
• Sub-watershed delineations
• Map of land uses
• Delineation of sewered and non-
sewered areas
• Delineation of storm drainage pipelines
• Geology and soils maps
4. Historical Information on Lake and Watershed
Uses
Old accounts
Old maps
5.
Limnological Data
Flow (surface and ground waters)
Water quality (nutrients, pH, oxygen,
bacteria, etc.)
Sediment quality (organic content,
nutrients, metals)
Biological quality (algae, vascular plants,
invertebrates, fish)
OEM Lake Management field manual
18
HWH. Inc.
b. Key Indicators: Watershed
See page 3-23
of coursebook.
1. Watershed: lake area ratio
2. Erodibility of soils
3. Land use
4. Road density
5. Lake access
See page 3-23
through 3-32 of
coursebook.
c Key Indicators: Lake
1. Lake area
2. Shallowness ratio
3. Hydraulic residence time
4. Shoreline development
5. Water clarity
6. Littoral zone plant coverage
7. Bottom sediment type
8. Presence of specific biota
d. Water Quality Monitoring
1. Design considerations
parameters to be assessed
stations to be sampled
frequency of sampling
cost
laboratory turnaround time
statistical needs
sampling protocol
2. Typical parameters
water flow (velocity X area)
total phosphorus
soluble reactive phosphorus
total soluble phosphorus
ammonium nitrogen
nitrate nitrogen
total Kjeldahl nitrogen
dissolved oxygen
temperature
alkalinity
pH
DEM Lake Management field manual
19
HWH.Inc.
• conductivity
• total dissolved solids
• chlorides
• total suspended solids
• turbidity
• Secchi disk transparency
• chlorophyll a
• iron
• fecal bacteria
3. Sampling stations
• vertical levels in distinct lake basins
• inlet streams/pipes
• outlet(s)
• key upstream points
4. Sampling frequency
• daily
• weekly
• monthly
• seasonally
• annually
5. Costs
• sample collection
• sample analysis
• data analysis
6. Laboratory turnaround time
• holding time
• analysis time
• data processing time
7. Statistical needs
• precision
• accuracy
• significant differences
DEM Lake Management field manual 20 HWH, Inc.
8. Sampling protocol
sample containers
sample volumes
preservation
labelling
representative sampling
compositing
flow measures
field notes
See page 3-32
through 3-33 of
coursebook.
e. Pollutant Loadings and Budgets
1. Purpose
2. Evaluating loads
• export models
• in-lake models
• empirical data
3. Constructing budgets
DETERMINING APPROPRIATE LAKE USES
See page 3-33
through 3-35 of
coursebook.
See page 3-36
through 3-41 of
coursebook.
a. Range of Uses
1. Contact recreation
2. Passive uses /aesthetics
3. Non-power boating
4. Power boating /skiing
5. Fishing
6. Hunting
7. Consumptive supply
8. Power supply
9. Cooling supply
10. Flood control
11. Ice sports
tx Influence of Watershed Features on Lake Uses
c Influence of Lake Features on Lake Uses
d. Influence of Lake Use on Lake Features
DEM Lake Management field manual
21
HWH, Inc.
e. Influence of Lake Uses on Other Lake Uses
t Establishing Priorities
1. Lake/ watershed analysis
2. User surveys
3. Building concensus
DEM Lake Management field manual 22 HWH, Inc.
TABLE 3.1
INFORMATION USEFUL TO THE MANAGEMENT OF LAKES AND PONDS
The following list includes pieces of information which are
useful and in many cases necessary to the effective management of
an aquatic system. The level of detail required varies among
systems, and some items might even be inapplicable to certain
systems.
A. Lake Management Objectives
1. Existing and desired uses of the lake
2. Priority of uses
3. Special features which must be considered
B. Physical Lake Features
1. Map of lake shape, lake area
2. Map of water depth, mean and maximum depths, volume
3. Map of soft sediment depth
C. Physical Watershed Features
1. Detailed topographic maps of area
2. Watershed delineation
3. Sub-watershed delineations
4. Map of land uses
5. Delineation of sewered and non-sewered areas
6. Delineation of storm drainage pipelines
7. Geology and soils maps
D. Historical Information on Lake and Watershed Uses
1. Old accounts
2. Old maps
E. Limnological Data
1. Flow (surface and ground waters)
2. Water quality (nutrients, pH, oxygen, bacteria, etc.)
3. Sediment quality (organic content, nutrients, metals)
4. Biological quality (algae, large plants, invertebrates,
fish)
Source: Baystate Environmental Consultants, Longmeadow, Massachusetts.
23
TABLE 3.2
COMMONLY ASSESSED MONITORING PARAMETERS WITH NOTES ON ASSOCIATED COST AND UTILITY
PARAMETER
UNIT OF RANGE OF COST
ANALYSIS FOR ANALYSIS <*> NOTES ON PARAMETER UTILITY
on
e
e
e
e
e
e
on
on
e
on
Flow stat
Total phosphorus samp
Soluble reactive phosphorus samp
Total soluble phosphorus samp
Ammonium nitrogen samp
Nitrate/nitrite nitrogen samp
Total Ueldahl nitrogen samp
Dissolved oxygen stat
Temperature stat
Alkalinity samp
pH samp
Conductivity samp
Total dissolved solids samp
Chlorides samp
Sodium samp
Total suspended solids samp
Turbidity samp
Seech i disk transparency stat
Iron samp
Other trace metals samp
Chlorine samp
Sulfate samp
Color samp
Odor samp
Biochemical oxygen demand samp
MfiAS surfactants samp
Oil and grease samp
Total organic carbon samp
Volatile organic compounds samp
Pesticide scan samp
PCB's samp
Fecal collform samp
Fecal streptococci samp
Chlorophyll a samp
Phy top lank ton abundance samp
Zoop lank ton abundance samp
Macrcphyte abundance lake
Macro invertebrate abundance sample
Fish community structure lake
5-50
10-40
8-20
10-40
10-25
8-20
20-50
5-25
2-5
5-15
5-15
5-15
10-25
5-15
5-15
12-25
5-15
2-5
8-20
12-25
8-15
8-15
8-15
8-15
25-50
25-50
25-80
30-60
110-200
75-150
60-125
8-30
8-30
25-60
30-100
30-100
1000-5000
30-100
1000-5000
Essential for pollutant budgets and hydrology
Critical plant nutrient, all forms
Critical plant nutrient, readily available form
Critical plant nutrient, assumed bioavailable form
Critical plant nutrient, possible health risk
Critical plant nutrient, possible health risk
Ammonium plus organic nitrogen forms
Essential for most desirable forms of aquatic life
Affects many reactions, solubilities, process rates
Indicates buffering capacity for acid inputs
Indicates level of acid concentration
Indicates dissolved substances and overall fertility
Fertility indicator, substances dissolved In lake
Salt indicator, often major dissolved substance
Potential health risk, common dissolved substance
Represents all particle forms in water
Clarity Indicator, related to suspended solids
Clarity Indicator, related to suspended solids
Important and common metal, taste factor, P binder
Variety of possibly toxic metals, health risks
Result of chlorination, treatment facility marker
Substrate for anaerobic metabolism, acid Indicator
Related to dissolved substances and visual properties
Related to dissolved substances and sensory features
Level of oxygen removal through decomposition
Detergent indicator, aid in sorting P sources
Suggests organic matter level, possible toxicity
Suggests organic natter level, possible toxicity
Scan of variety of possibly toxic materials
Scan of variety of possibly toxic materials
Possible health risk, human impact indicator
Possible health risk, sewage contamination Indicator
Modifies assessment via fecal col i form
Represents algal biomass, clarity indicator
Eval. of community structure, ecological indications
Indicates grazing potential, food for small fish
Suggests nuisance potential, ecological indications
Suggests sediment quality, fish food resource
Eval. of community structure, ecological Indications
Source: Baystate Environmental Consultants, Longmeadow, Massachusetts.
24
TABLE 3.3
WATERSHED FEATURES WHICH INFLUENCE RECREATIONAL UTILITY AND
IMPACTS
1. Watershed: lake area ratio
a. Low (<10:1)
b. Medium (10-25:1)
c. High (25-50:1)
d. Very high (>50:1)
2. Erodibility of soils
a. Low (high permeability, flat slopes, high cover)
b. Medium (one of above opposite, others same)
c. High (two of above opposite, other same)
d. Very high (low permeability, steep slopes, low cover)
3. Land use
a. Dominated by forest or wetland
b. Dominated by agriculture (excluding sugarbush)
c. Dominated by urbanized uses
4. Road density
a. Low
b . Medium
c. High
d. Very high
5. Lake access
a. No formal access
b. Primitive trails or beaches
c. Developed boat ramps or beaches
Source: Baystate Environmental Consultants, Longmeadow, Massachusetts.
25
TABLE 3.4
LAKE FEATURES WHICH INFLUENCE RECREATIONAL UTILITY AND IMPACTS
1. Lake area
a. Low (<20 ac)
b. Medium (20-100 ac)
c. Large (100-300 ac)
d. Very large (>300 ac)
2. Shallowness ratio
(area <5 ft deep/total area)
a. Low (<0.10)
b. Medium (0.10-0.25)
c. High (0.25-0.50)
d. Very high (>0.50)
3. Hydraulic residence time
a. (<21 days)
b. (21-90 days)
c. (90-365 days)
d. (>365 days)
4. Shoreline development
(shoreline length/circumference
of circle with lake area)
a. Low (<1.5)
b. Medium (1.5-3.0)
c. High (>3.0)
5. Water clarity
a. Low (<4 ft)
b. Medium (4-8 ft)
c. High (8-15 ft)
d. Very high (>15 ft)
6. Littoral zone coverage by plants
a. Low (<25%)
b. Medium (25-50%)
c. High (50-75%)
d. Very high (75-100%)
7. Bottom sediment type
a . Cobble
b. Gravel or sand
c. Silt or clay
d. Organic muck
e. Boulders or stumps
8. Presence of specific biota
a. Parasites or other nuisance species
b. Rare or endangered populations
c. Fish desired by anglers
d. Waterfowl desired by hunters
Source: Baystate Environmental Consultants, Longmeadow, Massachusetts.
26
See page 1-8
through 1-21 of
coursebook for a
review of physical
factors.
LAKE SAMPLING EQUIPMENT
Determination of Physical Factors
The measurement of depth for bathymetric contours can
be simply determined with a sounding line (a calibrated
line with a weight) or a measuring rod. The recent
development of relatively inexpensive depth sounders or
fathometers provides a more convenient and rapid way of
establishing depth. The higher cost of the latter may be
somewhat compensated by the decreased manpower
requirements. These devices are hampered somewhat by
the presence of heavy macrophyte growth.
Measurement of temperature within the water column
can be accomplished through a variety of instruments,
some elaborate and designed for oceanographic work.
These include conventional mercury thermometers,
reversing thermometers, bathythermographs, and
thermistor electrical resistance thermometers. The last is
the most common piece of equipment used for field
determinations.
Light condition measurements can range from simple to
complex. The most simple of these is the Secchi disk
determination, previously discussed in Section 1. A
further refinement is provided by a submersible
photometer, which incorporates a photocell to measure
light intensity over a wide spectra of wavelengths. The
most accurate quantification of light is with an
underwater spectroradiometer, which provides direct
measurement of light in discrete portions of the
wavelength.
Determination of Chemical Factors
See page 1-21
through 1-29 of
coursebook for a
review of chemical
factors.
Collection of water samples for water chemistry is an
integral part of field limnology. One of the most
important collection areas is that of bottom water, so it is
very important to accurately sample water at a given
depth. A diverse collection of sampling gear has been
developed to perform this function, mostly identified by
the name of their inventor. These include the
DEM Lake Management field manual
27
HWH.Inc.
Kemmerer, Van Dorn and Scott water sampling bottles.
The principle operation of these bottles is similar—the
bottle is lowered in an open position to the desired depth
and then is closed through the use of a weight (called the
"messenger") or other manipulations of the line. A
recent trend in water bottle manufacture has been to
replace metal with PVC, or other inert materials, to
prevent possible contamination of the sample with
dissolved metals.
One of the most instructive parameters to diagnose lake
or pond conditions is the levels of dissolved oxygen.
Determination of oxygen levels is usually done by
chemical titration of collected water samples through the
Winkler method, or direct measurement taken through
the use of an oxygen electrode probe. The Winkler
method is well-established and is very accurate, if
precautions regarding the handling of the water sample
are made and special glassware is used. The oxygen probe
requires fairly frequent calibration but provides a much
quicker assessment of the oxygen profile (changes with
depth). A useful combination of a thermistor and oxygen
probe is commonly used as it allows for simultaneous
determination of the two during the same lowering. This
proves very useful in conserving sampling effort and
time.
In addition to the absolute amounts of oxygen, it is also
useful to know the amount of oxygen relative to the
maximum possible total. This is the 100 percent
saturation total. The 100% saturation total changes with
temperature to compensate for the changes in the
solubility of oxygen. The maximum amount of dissolved
oxygen in water is inversely related to temperature. The
lower the temperature the higher the dissolved oxygen
content at equilibration with the atmosphere. This is one
reason why sensitive fish, such as trout, inhabit cooler
waters in summer to seek higher oxygen levels.
Determination of percent saturation is done by consulting
standard limnological tables which give the saturated total
for a wide variety of temperatures. There are slight
additional corrections for salinity or altitude variations.
DEM Lake Management field manual 28 HWH, Inc.
Determination of Biological Factors
See page 1-29
through 1-34 of
coursebook for
a review of
biological factors.
Measurement of the biological components of a lake or
pond ecosystem involves sampling of the various trophic
levels of the food web. The simplest way of collecting
phytoplankton is analogous to the collection of water
quality samples. Phytoplankton are often collected in the
field and preserved with Lugol's solution for later
inspection and identification with the microscope. Their
relative scarcity in oligotrophic waters may be
compensated by concentrating them through various
means. A phytoplankton net can be towed through the
water sieving out the particles of a size greater than about
100 microns (the so-called "net plankton"). In addition,
large volumes of water can be filtered through a
membrane filter of known pore size and the filter retained
for microscopic inspection. Finally, preserved
phytoplankton may be concentrated by settling out the
algae by gravity under still conditions and inspection with
an inverted microscope.
Determination and identification of macrophyte
abundance is most commonly achieved with a
combination of observation from the boat, and use of a
grappling hook for collecting specimens from deeper
waters. Alternatively, direct observation of bottom
conditions may be extended over large portions of the lake
bottom through snorkeling, or the use of SCUBA divers.
Measurement of the abundance of individual species of
macrophytes are notoriously qualitative in nature, and
often referred to as "dominant", "common" or "rare"
categories. Quantification of biomass may be achieved
through collection and weighting of materials from a
known area (e.g., a weighted hula-hoop).
The collection, identification and enumeration of the
zooplankton is similar in nature to the phytoplankton net
collection. Sampling is done through repeated "casts" of
the zooplankton net and tows through the water.
Zooplankton are typically preserved in a formaldehyde-
sugar solution for later analysis. Identification is
commonly done through microscopic inspection, or the
projection of silhouetted shapes on a viewer.
DEM Lake Management field manual
29
HWH, Inc.
Sampling of the benthic community requires collection of
an appreciable portion of the physical habitat of these
animals, namely the bottom muds. Collection of these
sediments is achieved through a variety of samplers. The
most commonly employed sampler is the Ekman benthic
dredge, a steel box with jaws that open when lowered and
close upon firing to encapsulate a portion of the bottom
sediment. Variations on this theme include the Ponar
and Petersen dredges. Once the material has been
collected it is passed through a sieve to collect the benthic
animals (also known as the benthos). Insects which
inhabit or are associated with the aquatic macrophy tes can
be collected through standardized sweeps of the plant area
with a D-frame dip net. The collected insects are typically
preserved in an ethanol solution for later identification
with a dissecting microscope or hand lens.
Determinations of fish communities can be achieved with
a combination of visual observations, habitat assessments
and creel (angler) surveys. More quantifiable fish
collections can be made with a variety of nets including
gill nets, shoreline seine nets, and trap or fyke nets.
Electroshocking of shoreline areas are useful in turning
up smaller species which may not be caught by
conventional nets. Surveying by poisoning a portion of
the water with rotenone and identifying casualties was
once a common practice by fishery personnel but now
represents an outmoded methodology not acceptable to
today's environmental practices.
A list of sampling methodologies, materials and
equipment typically used for lake assessment and
monitoring follows:
DEM Lake Management field manual 30 HWH, Inc.
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REFERENCES FOR METHODOLOGY:
Unless otherwise given, Std. Method is from APHA-AWWA-WPCF 16th edition.
Unless otherwise given, EPA Method is from EPA-600/4-79-020 .
Other references:
B&W = Bordner and Winter, 1978. Microbiological Methods for Monitoring the
Environment. EPA-600/8-78-017, USEPA, Cincinnati, OH.
DEQE = Department of Environmental Quality Engineering, Division of Water
Pollution Control, 1988. Clean Lakes Program Guidelines.
Publication *15, 487-52-200-2-88-CR, DEQE, DWPC, Westborough, MA.
FR = Federal Register, 40 CFR, Part 136, Oct. 26. 1984.
LEE = Lee, 1977. A device for measuring seepage flux in lakes and
estuaries. Limnol . Oceanogr. 22:140-147.
MWA = Mitchell, Wagner and Asoury, 1988. Direct measurement of groundwater
flow and quality as a lake management tool. Lake Reserv. Manage.
4:169-178.
MWMB = Mitchell. Wagner, Monagle and Beluzo, 1989. The Littoral Interstitial
Porewater Sampler: Paying "LIP1 service to your lake. Lake Reserv.
Manage. 5: (in press).
NJL = Nielsen, Johnson and Lampton, 1983. Fisheries Techniques. AFS,
Bethesda, MD.
P = Preisendorfer, 1986. Secchi disk science: Visual optics of natural
waters. Limnol. Oceanogr. 31:909-926.
SCS = Soil Conservation Service, 1975. Engineering Field Manual for
Conservation Practices. USDA, SCS, Washington, DC.
SMDCF = Scalf, McNabb, Dunlap, Cosby and Fryberger, 1981. Manual of
Groundwater Sampling Procedures. NWWA, Worthington, OH.
W = Weber, 1973. Biological Field and Laboratory Methods.
EPA-600/4-73-001, USEPA, Cincinnati, OH.
WLB = Winter, LeBaugh and Rosenberry, 1988. The design and use of a
hydraulic potent iomanometer for direct measurement of differences
in hydraulic head between groundwater and surface water. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 33:1209-1214.
W&B = Walsh and Bemben, 1977. Disposal and Utilization of Hydraulical ly
Dredged Lake Sediments in Limited Containment Areas.
Publication 892, Water Resour. Res. Center, UMASS, Amherst, MA.
W8.L = Wetzel and Likens, 1979. Limnological Analyses. W.B. Saunders,
Philadelphia, PA.
34
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40
Saun imc <»• Hanoi ihc Rkjuuimints'
Minimum
Mmmum
Determination
Container
Sample
Size
mL
Prevention
Storage
Recommended/Regulatory'
Acidity
P.G<BI
100
Refnge ration
24 hr/14 days
Alkalinity
P.C
200
ftefnceraie
24 hr/14 days
BOD
P.G
1.000
Refrigerate
6 hr/48 hr
Boron
P
too
None required
28 days/28 <Uy .
Bromide
P.C
—
None required
28 days/28 days
- Carbon, organic . total
c
100
Analyze immediately: or refrigerate
and add H.SO. to pH < 2
7 days/28 days
Carbon dioxide
P.G
100
Analyze immediately
— 1—
COD
P.C
100
Analyze as soon as possible: or
addH.SO.topH < 2
7 days/28 days
Chlorine, residual
P.C
300
Analyze immediately
0.3 hr/2 hr
Chloride dioxide
P.C
300
Analyze immediately
0.3 hr/2 hr
Chlorophyll
P.G
300
30 days in dart: freeze
JOdays/-
Color
P.G
300
Refrigerate
48 hr/48 hr
Conductivity
P.G
300
Refrigerate
28 days/28 days
Cyanide:
Total
P.G
300
Add NaOH to pH > 12. refrigerate
in dark
24 hr/14 days
Amenable to chlorination
P.G
300
Add 100 Big NtAWL
— /—
Fluoride
P
300
None required
28 days/28 days
Grease and oil
G. wide-mouth.
calibrated
1.000
Add H,SO. lo pH < 2: refrigerate
28 days/28 days
Hardness
P.G
100
AddHNO,topH<2
6 months/6 months
Iodine
P.G
500
Analyze immediately
0.3 hr/-
Metals, general
P(A).G<A>
—
For dissolved metals filter
immediately. add HNCstopH < 2
6 months* months
Chromium VI
P»A>.G<A)
300
Refrigerate ,-
24 hr/48 hr
Copper by colorimetry •
Mercury
P<Al.G<A>
300
AddHNO,topH<2.4C
28 days*/28 days
Nitrogen:
Ammonia
P.G
300
Analyze as soon as possible or add
HtSO. to pH < 2. refrigerate
7 days/28 days
Nitrate
P.G
MO
Add H.SO, to pH < 2. refrigerate
48 hr/48 hr
o
m
z
m
>
03
o
o
c
o
o
z
g
Nitrate ♦ nitrite
P.G
200
Nitrite
P.G
100
Organic. Kjeldahl
P.G
300
Odor
G
300
Organic compounds:
Pesticides
G<S>.TFE-lined
cap
•—
Phenols
P.G
300
Furgeables by Purge
G.TFE-uned
30
and Trap
cap
Oxygen, dissolved:
G. BOD bottle
300
Electrode
Winkler
Ozone
G
1.000
pH
P.G
—
Phosphate
G(AI
100
Residue
P.G
_
Salinity
G. wax seal
240
Silica
P
_
Sludge digester gas
G. gas bottle
—
Sulfate
P.G
—
Sulfide
P.G
too
Taste
G
300
Temperature
P.C
—
Turbidity
P.G
—
Analyze as soon as possible or
refrigerate: orfrecze at -20 C
Analyze as soon as possible or
refrigerate: or freeze at — 20C
Refrigerate: add H.SO. to pH 2
Analyze as soon as possible :
refrigerate
Refrigerate: add 100 mg NaACVL
if residual chlorine present
Refrigerate: add H.SO, to pH < 2
Refrigerate: add 100 mg Na^OJL
tf residual chlorine present
Analyze immediately
Titration may be delayed after
acidification
Analyze immediately
Analyze immediately
For dissolved phosphate filler
immediately: refrigerate: freeze
at -IOC
Refrigerate
Analyze immediately or use
wax seal
Refrigerate, do not freeze
Refrigerate
Refrigerate: add 4 drops IN zinc
acetate/100 mL
Analyze as soon as possible: refrigerate
Analyze immediately
Analyze same day: store in dark
up to 24 hr
none/28 days
none/48 hr
7 days/28 days
6hr/-
7 days/7 days
*/28days
7 days/14 days
0.5 hr/l hr
8hr/8hr
0.5 hr/-
2hr/2hr
48 hr/48 hr
7 days/7- 14 days
« months/—
28 days/28 days
28 days/28 days
28 days/28 days
24 hr/-
24 hr/48 hr
CO
>
o
I—
1—
m
o-
o
z
-o
3D
m
to
m
33
*Sreten Cor additional dct»av For 4tHrmmm'mm\mnt fcsied . »>e first or auwlic cvmummcrc preferably lefrigeratc 4Wriag storage and analyze annua a* poMitilc.
Krfnrrravr - •lorafe »• 4 C. "> «V dar* P * atoxic tpntyeihylnw or famlMI: C • |U" GiAior Piai • im^wnk I • I HNO, CtBl » glav*. «orosAc»ic
C(S) » rfarss. rm%ed with org*** tolvems.
IbnimMmil Protection Agency Proposed Koics. trimd Krr«"r 44 No. 244. Ore It \<m
to
41
WATER SAMPLING METHODOLOGY
Preparing a Temperature Profile
1. The thermistor (temperature probe) is lowered into the water until it is
just immersed. After the probe equilibrates for a short period (5-10
seconds), read the scale and record the reading in degrees centigrade.
The surface reading corresponds to a depth (z) of zero.
2. Lower the probe slowly into the water column, stopping to make
temperature readings at 0.5 meter intervals. Record these readings on
the lake data sheet.
3. If there is a thermocline, it will be noticeable as the region of rapid
temperature changes with depth.
4. Continue readings until the probe hits the bottom, usually detected
when then probe line becomes slack (i.e., does not hang straight down).
5. Retrieve the line and thermistor probe and wind up the line.
6. The thermal profile can be graphed by plotting temperature on the X-
axis and depth on the negative Y-axis. Plot the data on the back of the
lake data sheet and indicate possible limits of the epilimnion,
hypolimnion and metalimnion.
Taking a Secchi Disk Transparency Reading
1. These readings are best made when the sun is at a high angle, so avoid
early morning and late afternoon when sun angle is low.
2. A 20 cm (8") Secchi disk secured by measured line is lowered into the
water on the shady side of the boat.
3. The disk is lowered until it is lost to view from the observer, and the
depth of this disappearance is noted.
4. The observer retrieves the line until the disk is once again visible, and
the corresponding depth recorded.
DEM Lake Management field manual 42 HWH. Inc.
5. The Secchi disk transparency (SDT) depth is the average of the two
measurements. The SDT value can be entered in the lake data sheet,
making sure to denote whether the measurement is in feet or the
preferred meters.
6. Estimate the limits of the photic zone in Long Pond, knowing that it is
between 2 to 3 x the SDT.
Collection of Water
1. Water for chemical analysis is often collected at several depths at any
one lake station. If the lake is stratified, this should include a sample
from the epilimnion, hypolimnion, and metalimnion layers.
2. Water from the upper layers can be simply collected by holding a bottle
several inches under the surface. The other samples will require use of
a Scott or Van Dorn water sampler.
3. When sampling from the bottom waters, try not to actually hit the
bottom with the sampler. This stirs up a lot of sediments which can
contaminate the sample and bias the results. Position the water
sampler about 0.5 meters from the bottom to get a good sample.
4. Collection of the metalimnetic sample will require examination of the
temperature profile to determine which is the most appropriate depth.
Preparing an Oxygen Profile
1. The oxygen electrode probe must be calibrated before the sampling.
This is done by adjusting the oxygen reading to 100% saturation for the
ambient air temperature. The 100% saturation level can be determined
by consulting standard limnological tables.
2. The oxygen probe is lowered into the water in an analogous manner to
the temperature probe. Measurements are made every 0.5 meters and
recorded in units of milligrams dissolved oxygen per liter (mg/1).
Allow the probe to come to an equilibrium after each depth change.
Particularly in the hypolimnion, the oxygen reading may continue to
drift downwards for some time before stabilizing.
3. Continue readings until the probe hits bottom. If the bottom is soft this
may be somewhat difficult to detect. The probe may go into the top
DEM Lake Management field manual 43 HWH, Inc.
layer of the anaerobic bottom muds and give a false low oxygen
reading. Pull probe back until there is tension on the line, allow the
reading to stabilize and record.
4. Plot the data on the back of the lake data sheet using the same depth
increments as on the thermal profile. On the same graph plot the
dissolved oxygen percent saturation as a function of depth.
Sampling of the Plankton
1. Sampling of the plankton involves collection, concentration,
preservation and identification. As an example a Wisconsin style tow
net will be used to concentrate and collect zooplankton from Long
Pond.
2. The zooplankton net is thrown out or "cast" and rapidly towed
through a known distance of water determined by the length of the
casting line. The water passes through the net leaving the macroscopic
animals. Zooplankters may be preserved in a formalin solution, with
sugar added to help maintain the body shape.
3. The aperture of the net (sq. ft or m) x the distance of the tow (ft or m) =
the volume of water sampled (cu. ft or m). Thus a concentrated sample
can be back-calculated to estimate the number of zooplankters per
volume of lake water.
Sampling of the Benthos
1. The animals living in the bottom muds are most easily captured with
an Ekman benthic dredge.
2. The dredge is lowered with jaws open (be careful in setting this
powerful device) and allowed to sink by its own weight into the
sediments. A brass "messenger" weight goes down the line to snap the
jaws shut.
3. The dredge is retrieved and the overlying water drained off. The
sediments are placed in a pail or similar container.
4. The sediments are passed through a standard 500 micron sieve to
isolate the macrobenthos component. These animals are collected by
forceps and preserved in an ethanolic solution for later identification.
DEM Lake Management field manual 44 HWH, Inc.
CALCULATING A DISCHARGE (FLOW) MEASUREMENT
1. At the selected stream stretch, measure the width of the stream or
distance perpendicular to the flow between the banks or applicable
water margins. This should be done at three locations (transects)
within 100m of each other.
2. At regular intervals (e.g., 1-2 meters) within each of the three transects,
measure the depth of the stream. From the information gathered in
Steps #1 and #2, compute the cross-sectional area of the three stream
transects.
3. Determine the current velocity for each of the transects. At several
locations within the transect (minimum of three) determine velocity
with the float method, that is, measure the time needed for the
downstream passage of a floating object over a known distance (e.g., 10
meters). Repeat the measurements several times and calculate velocity
(e.g., meters/second).
4. Alternatively, velocity can be determined with a current meter (e.g.,
pygmy-type current meter from Teledyne-Gurley). This is a hydraulic
analogue of a wind anemometer, where the rate of revolution of
spinning cups translates, in this case, to water velocity. As with the
float method it is important to take several replicated measurements at
various locations across the transect to factor out the influence from
individual currents and backeddies.
5. Multiply the cross-sectional area calculated in Step #2 by the velocity
determined in Step #3 or #4 to arrive at the corresponding discharge or
flow measurement (i.e., area (sq. m) *velocity (m/sec) = flow (cu.
m/sec). There should be general agreement with the flow
measurements calculated for the three adjoining transects, and an
average of the three can be considered representative for the stream at
this location.
DEM Lake Management field manual 45 HWH, Inc.
ESTIMATION OF LAKE VOLUME
1 Determine the surface area (Ao) of the lake or pond through tracing the
outline of the lake with a planimeter. The lake shape is generally
recorded from a USGS topographic map or a recent aerial photograph.
Basin volume is approximated through measuring the area of lake
contours at the smallest depth interval possible.
2. Using depth measurements, plot depth contours for the lake or pond.
3. Determine the surface area of each depth contour (Az).
4 Determine the lake volume for each depth interval i.e. surface area of
contour x depth interval = volume of depth interval.
5. Add up the volume of each depth interval.
♦See Worksheet 2 from the coursebook (enclosed in field manual) for an
example of a lake volume calculation.
46
WORKSHEET 2 - EXAMPLE OF LAKE VOLUME CALCULATION
JALDEN PCND, UDLOW, *A - VOUM: OOCOLATICNS
DEPTH SURFACE AREA PERCENT AREA AT LAYER VOLUME
(ft) Art (flT) A^ DEPTH A (ft) (ft"5)
o o z
0-3
162, 914
0.85
138,477
3
415,431
3-6
162, 914
0.58
94,490
3
283,470
6-9
162, 914
0.24
39, 099
3
117,298
9-11.5
162, 914
0.03
4,887
2.5
12,219
824,418
824,418 ft3 = 19.02 acre- ft.
WORKSHEET 2 - EXAMPLE OF FLUSHING RATE AND DETENTION TIME CALCULATION
NASHAWANNUOC PCND, EASTHAMTCN, ML - FLUSHING RATE
Assume that annual inflow equals flow through the system = 23.4 cu.m/min.
since 1 cfs = 1.7 cu.m/min this is equivalent to 23.4/1.7 or 13.8 cfs
Mean annual inflow = 23.4 cu.m/min X 60 min/hr x 24 hr/day x 365 day/yr
or 12,299,040 cu.m/yr
Assume lake volume equals 234,890 cu.m
Flushing rate = inflow total = 12,299,040 cu.m/yr = 52.4 flushings per year
Volume 234,890 cu.m
NASHATONNCOC POO, EASTHAMPT0N, M& - RESIDENCE GR DETENTION TB£
Assume that outflow equals flow through the system = 23.4 cu.m/min.
Assume lake volume equals 234,890 cu.m
Mean annual output = 12,299,040 cu.m/yr
234,890 cu.m = 0.019 yr x 365 day/yr = 7 days
12,299,040 cu.m/yr
47
ESTIMATION OF ANNUAL INFLOW CALCULATIONS
There are several methods available to approximate annual inflow to a lake.
The following is a description of two simple methods which may be used:
Unit Watershed Method
1. Calculate area of the lake or pond and its watershed. This is typically
done through the use of a planimeter.
2. Estimate annual inflow for the lake. Inflow estimate = (k) x watershed
and lake area (sq. mi.). Yield coefficients (k) may be found in the
following document:
Weiss, L.A., 1983. Evaluation and Design of a Streamflow— Data
Network for Connecticut. USGS and CT. DEP. Connecticut Water
Resources Bulletin #36.
The typical yield coefficient for Massachusetts is 1.5. However, this will
vary depending upon watershed characteristics.
Runoff Estimate Method
1. Determine the average yearly precipitation through contacting the local
Soil Conservation Service.
2. Estimate the degree of runoff. Runoff estimates may be found l*i:
Higgins and Colonell, 1971. Hydrologic Factors in the Determination of
Water Yields. Water Resources Research Center. Amherst, MA.
3. Estimate direct precipitation on the lake or pond
= precipitation (ft/yr) x lake area (ft) = ft^/yr.
4. Estimate evaporative losses for the lake or pond. Approximately 50%
of the precipitation rate falling on a lake surface would be lost through
evapotranspiration
5. Calculate flow estimate
= (runoff) + (direct precipitation) - (evaporat ■-.).
*See Worksheet 1 for an example of annual inflow calculations.
48
ESTIMATION OF FLUSHING RATE AND DETENTION TIME
1. Determine annual inflow (Q) from feeder streams to a lake to
determine the degree of circulation which will occur. See Worksheet
#1 of coursebook.
2. Calculate total mean annual inflow from feeder streams.
3. Determine lake volume (see "Estimation of Lake Volume" in Field
Manual).
4. Flushing Rate = inflow total
volume.
5. Calculate mean annual output. Assume that outflow equals flow
through the system.
6. Calculate mean annual output.
7. Residence or flushing time = lake volume
mean annual output.
8. Typical flushing rates in Massachusetts are 3-6 months.
*See Worksheet #2 for an example of flushing rate and detention time
calculation.
49
WORKSHEET 1 - EXAMPLE OF ANNUAL INFLOW CALCULATIONS
HXDROXOGIC C3VLC0LATIONS FOR MAMANASCO LAKE, RHX3FIELD, CT
1.) Unit Watershed Area Method.
a.) Watershed Area + Lake: 537 ac + 96 ac = 0.99 sq. mi.
b.) Use yield coefficients (Weiss, 1983) with watershed area.
Yield estimate = 1.58 cfs/sq. mi. x watershed areas (sq. mi.)
Mamanasco estimate = 1.58 cfs/sq. mi. x 0.99 sq. mi. = 1.56 cfs
2.) Runoff Estimate Method.
a.) Assume that certain portion of the precipitation is runoff that
flows into surface tributaries. Add direct precipitation to lake
and subtract evaporative loss. The runoff estimates used are from
Higgins and Colonell (1971) , and the average yearly precipitation
is 47.1" or 3.93 ft/yr; as measured at Danbury, CT (SCS, 1981) .
7 3
b.) High runoff range = 2.61 ft/yr x 537 ac = 5.450 10 ft /yr.
7 3
Low runoff range =1.67 ft/yr x 537 ac = 3.906 10 ft /yr.
c.) Direct precipitation on Mamanasco Lake:
3.93 ft/yr x 96 ac = 1.643 107 ft3/yr.
d.) Evaporation losses from Mamanasco Lake:
2.33 ft/yr x 96 ac = 0.974 107 ft3/yr.
e.) Calculations :
54,500,000 + 16,430,000 - 9,740,000 = 61,190,000 ft3/yr.
39,060,000 + 16,430,000 - 9,740,000 = 45,750,200 ft3/yr.
f.) Range of flow estimates = 1.45 - 1.94 cfs
REFERENCES
Higgins G.R. and J.M. Colonell. 1971. Hydrologic Factors in the Determination,
of Water Yields. Water Resources Research Center. Amherst, MA.
Soil Conservation Service. 1981. Soil Survey of Fairfield County, Connecticut.
USDA and the Connecticut Agricultural Experimental Station, Storrs, CI.
Weiss, L.A. 1983. Evaluation and Design of a Streamflow - Data Network for
• Connecticut. USGS and CT DEP. Connecticut Water Resources Bulletin #36.
50
VEGETATIVE ASSESSMENT
Vegetative assessment is typically conducted to describe the types and
concentrations of in-lake vegetation and bordering wetlands. In-lake
vegetation typically includes algae and macrophyte species. Further
description of wetland vegetation, and an aquatic plant key is enclosed
BORDERING VEGETATED WETLANDS DEFINED
The freshwater inland wetland areas that the Massachusetts Wetlands
Protection Act protects include banks, land subject to flooding, land under
water bodies and waterways, and vegetated wetlands that border water bodies
(bordering vegetated wetlands and marshes) and specifies typical indicator
plant species for each. The following definitions excerpted from the Act and
the regulations should be used to apply the law to field observation.
Freshwater wetlands: (MGL C. 131, s.40)
"The term 'freshwater wetlands', as used in this section; shall mean
wet meadows, marshes, swamps, bogs, areas where groundwater,
flowing or standing surface water or ice provides a significant part of
the supporting substrate for a plant community for at least five months
of the year; emergent and submergent plant communities in inland
waters; that portion of any bank which touches any inland waters."
Bordering Vegetated Wetlands: [310 CMR 10.55(2) (a)]
"Bordering Vegetated Wetlands are freshwater wetlands which border
on creeks, rivers, streams, ponds and lakes. The types of freshwater
wetlands are wet meadows, marshes, swamps and bogs. They are areas
where topography is low and flat, and where the soils are annually
saturated. The ground and surface water regime and the vegetational
community which occur in each type of freshwater wetland are
specified in the Act."
• Bogs: (C. 131, s.40)
". . . areas where standing or slowly running water is near or at
the surface during a normal growing season and where a
vegetational community has a significant portion of the ground
or water surface covered with sphagnum moss (Sphagnum) . . ."
DEM Lake Management field manual 51 HWH, Inc.
Swamps: (C. 131, s.40)
". . . areas where ground water is at or near the surface of the
ground for a significant part of the growing season or where
runoff water from surface drainage frequently collects above the
soil surface . . ."
Wet Meadows: (C.131, s.40)
". . . where ground water is at the surface for a significant part of
the growing season and near the surface throughout the year
and where a significant part of the vegetated community is
composed of various grasses, sedges and rushes; . . ."
Marshes: (031,5.40)
". . . areas where a vegetational community exists in standing or
running water during the growing season . . ."
DEM Lake Management field manual 52 HWH, Inc.
Fig. 5. Distinguishing features and examples of habitats in the Lacustrine System.
Lacustrine System
Definition. The Lacustrine System (Fig. 5) includes wet-
lands and deepwater habitats with all .of the following
characteristics: (l),situated in a topographic depression
or a dammed river channel; '2) Jacking trees, shrubs, per-
sistent emergents, emergent mosses or lichens with
greater than 30% area! coverage; and (3) -total area ex-
ceeds 8 ha (20 acres). Similar wetland and deepwater
habitats totaling less than 8 ha are also included in the
Lacustrine System if an active wave-formed or bedrock
shoreline feature makes up all or part of the boundary,
or if the water depth in the deepest part of the basin ex-
ceeds 2 m (6.6 feet) at low water. Lacustrine waters may
bt uaal or nontidal, but ocean-derived salinity is always
less than 0.5°/oo.
Limits. The Lacustrine System is bounded by upland
or by wetland dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent
emergents, emergent mosses, or lichens. Lacustrine
Systems formed by damming a river channel are bounded
by a contour approximating the normal spillway elevation
or normal pool elevation, except where Palustrine wet-
lands extend lakeward of that boundary. Where a river
enters a lake, the extension of the Lacustrine shoreline
forms the Riverine-Lacustrine boundary.
Description. The Lacustrine System includes perma-
nently flooded lakes and reservoirs (e.g., Lake SuDerior),
intermittent lakes (e.g., playa lakes), and tidal lakes with
ocean-derived salinities below 0.5%» (e.g., Grand Lake,
Louisiana). Typically, there are extensive areas of deep
water and there is considerable wave action. Islands of
Palustrine wetland may lie within the boundaries of the
Lacustrine System.
Subsystems.
-Limnetic.— All deepwater habitats within the Lacus-
trine System; many small Lacustrine Systems have no
Limnetic Subsystem.
-Littoral.— All wetland habitats in the Lacustrine
System. Extends from the shoreward boundary of the
Cowardin, Lewis Mv Virginia Carter, Francis Golet
and Edward LaRoe, 1979, Classification of
Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the
United States, U. S. Department of the Interior,
Fish and Wildlife Service
53
system to a depth of 2 m (6.6 feet) below low water or
to the maximum extent of nonpersistent emergents, if
these grow at depths greater than 2 m.
Classes. Rock Bottom, Unconsolidated Bottom, Aquatic
Bed, Rocky Shore, Unconsolidated Shore, and Emergent
Wetland (nonpersistent).
Nontidal River
Upland
Reservoir
LEGEND
Tidal Wetland
• — Boundary Between
Tidal and Nontidal
Waters
Tidal River wetland classes
^3 Intertidal Beach
□ Tidal Flat
Aquatic Bed
FT! Emergent Wetland
Forested Wetland
Figure i . General locations of tidal and nontidal wetlands in relation to
deepwatcr habitats and upland. (Source: adapted from Wetlands of Del-
aware. Tiner 198s)
54
System
Subsystem
i — Marine
— Estuarine
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Subtidal
Intertidal
Subtidal
Intertidal
— Riverine
Tidal
Lower Perennial
Upper Perennial
Intermittent
— Lacustrine
Limnetic
Littoral-
— Palustrine
Class
— Rock Bottom
— Unconsolidated Bottom
— Aquatic Bed
1 — Reef
— Aquatic Bed
— Reef
— Rocky Shore
' — Unconsolidated Shore
— Rock Bottom
— Unconsolidated Bottom
— Aquatic Bed
1 — Reef
— Aquatic Bed
— Reef
— Streambed
— Rocky Shore
— Unconsolidated Shore
— Emergent Wetland
— Scrub-Shrub Wetland
' — Forested Wetland
Rock Bottom
Unconsolidated Bottom
Aquatic Bed
Streambed
Rocky Shore
Unconsolidated Shore
Emergent Wetland
- Rock Bottom
- Unconsolidated Bottom
- Aquatic Bed
- Rocky Shore
- Unconsolidated Shore
- Emergent Wetland
- Rock Bottom
- Unconsolidated Bottom
- Aquatic Bed
- Rocky Shore
- Unconsolidated Shore
- Streambed
- Rock Bottom
- Unconsolidated Bottom
- Aquatic Bed
- Rock Bottom
- Unconsolidated Bottom
- Aquatic Bed
- Rocky Shore
- Unconsolidated Shore
- Emergent Wetland
- Rock Bottom
- Unconsolidated Bottom
- Aquatic Bed
- Unconsolidated Shore
- Moss-Lichen Wetland
- Emergent Wetland
- Scrub-Shrub Wetland
- Forested Wetland
Fig. 1. Classification hierarchy of wetlands and deepwater habitats, showing Systems, Subsystems, and Classes. The Palustrine
System does not include deepwater habitats.
SZ™?* L?Sf Mv VvP™ £***> Fra*cis Golet and Edward LaRoe, 1979, Classification of
WUd1iftSS^k?PWater HabltatS °f ** ^^ StateS' U S' ^P**1™*4 of *e Interior- Fi*h ™d
55
GRASSES
Habi
Hollow Round
Stem
lcaf-1
■ligule
open
" leaf
sheath
swollen
node
Generalized
Spikclet
Examples of Inflorescences
palca v ^^^.stigma
lemma /\\f/jr\ — anther
glume
pedicel
Flowering Seed
Spikclet (grain)
SEDGES
Habit y^
Solid Triangular
1 nangul
Stern
'-leaf
closed
- leaf
sheath
Examples of Inflorescences
stigma
is style
anther
-filament
Generalized
Spikelet
Flower
Scale
Nutlet
(achene)
RUSHES
Habit
Solid Round
Stem
open or
closed
- leaf
sheath
Examples of Inflorescences
_ -stigma
capsule
Generalized
Spikelets
sepal
stamen*
petal'
Generalized Flower
Fruit Gapsule
Seed
Figure 4. Distinguishing characteristics of grasses, sedges, and rushes. (Source: modified from A Field
C.uidc to Coastal Wetland Plants of the Northeastern United Slates. Tincr 1987J Grasses have hollow
round stems with swollen nodes, open leaf sheaths, and grainlikc seeds covered by two papery scales.
Sedges usually have solid triangular stems lacking nodes, closed leaf sheaths, and nutlets covered by one
papery scale. Rushes have solid round stems lacking nodes, true flowers with six "petals," and fruit cap-
sules bearing numerous small seeds.
56
KEY TO SOME COMMON AQUATIC PLANTS
(modified from Mackenthum et al., 1964)
A simplified key to aid in the identification of common
plant groups. To use the key, select the proper habit grouping
and read the description in the first couplet- The description
that best fits the unknown specimen will indicate either the
plant group or genus to which the specimen belongs or an
additional couplet, in which case the process is repeated until
the description for a particular plant or genus which best fits
the unknown specimen is reached.
Habit Groupings:
A. Plants floating on the water surface
B. Plants submerged beneath water surface
C. Plants erect and emergent; rooted to the substratum and
extending upward out of the water.
KEY
A. PLANTS FLOATING ON THE WATER SURFACE.
la. A lobed or regularly forked plant body, usually small in
size, roots usually suspended free in the water, with no
connection to the lake bottom; capable of drifting 2
lb. Floating-leafed plants with leaves attached to the bottom
by. a bare unbranched stem of varying length 6
2a. Plants consisting of forked, or cross-shaped, long^stalked
segments, floating below the surface, often many entangle
to form clumps Star Duckweed, Lemna trisulca
2b. Plants rounded, not stalked 3
3a . Plants with roots 4
3b. Plants without roots 5"
4a. Plants red on the lower surface, each joint with two or
more roots Big Duckweed, Spirodela polyrhiza
4b. Plants green on the lower surface, each joint with one root
Duckweed, Lemna
5a. Plants globular, pea green, the size of a pinhead
Watermeal , Wolf fia
5b. Plants thin, sickle-shaped or elongated (rare in NE)
Mud-midget , Wolfiella
6a . Stem attached to middle of leaf 7
6b. Stem attached at the summit of deep notch in the leaf — 8
7a. Leaves oval, not more than 3 inches wide, with supple stem
attached to middle of the leaf
Watershield, Brasenia schreberi
7b. Circular leaf with a long, fairly rigid stem attached to
the middle of the leaf, leaves 6 inches or more wide
sometimes supported by the stem above the water level
American lotus , Nelumbo
8a. Circular or heart-shaped leaf with the veins radiating from
the mid-rib to nearly the margin without forking, ; floating
yellow flowers Yellow Pond Lily, Nuphar
8b. Circular leaf with much-forked veins radiating to the
margin, white or pink floating flowers
White Water Lily, Nymph ae a
B. PLANTS SUBMERGED BENEATH THE WATER SURFACE.
la. Plant body made up of stems bearing whorled, brittle
branches, easily snapped with a slight pressure; plants
with a musky odor, no roots, often with a limy encrustation
. mmm Green Algae, Muskgrass, Chara
lb. Plant structure similar to la., but with supple branches,
no musky odor, and no limy encrustation
Green Algae , Nitella
lc. Plant body not brittle and structure otherwise 2
2a. Submerged leaves bearing small bladders, leaves irregularly
forked Bladderwort, Utricularia
2b. Submerged leaves not bearing bladders 3
3a. Submerged leaves compound, made up of narrow segments or
leaflets 4
3b. Submerged leaves simple, composed of single narrow blade .7
4a. Submerged leaves with one central axis, leaves feather-
like, branched in whorls about the stem, stems usually very
lax Watermilfoil, Myriophyllum
4b. Submerged leaves irregularly forking 5
5a. Submerged leaves singly and alternately or irregularly
borne; leaves manly branched, irregularly forked and
appearing as tufts of numerous thread-like projections
attached to the center stem . . . Water Buttercup, Ranunculus
5b. Submerged leaves borne opposite each other on stem or
whorled
6a. Leaves stalked, fan-like, extending from opposite sides of
the stem; leaflets not toothed Fanwort, Cabomba
6b. Stems with whorls of stiff, forked leaves; leaflets with
toothed or serrated margins (small barbs) on one side;
plant without true roots Coontail, Ceratophyllum
7a. Submerged leaves long and ribbon-like; at least 1/10 inch
wide 8
7b. Submerged leaves not ribbon-like, often thread like but if
wider than 1/10 inch, less than 1 inch long 18
8a . Leaves scattered along the stem 9
8b. Leaves all borne from one point 18
9a. Leaves with mid-ribs evident when held against bright
light; many species with great diversity in leaf forms
m mmm Pondweed, Potamogeton
9b. Leaves without mid-ribs evident when held against bright
light Water Star Grass, Zosterella
10a. Plants with both floating and submerged leaves, the
floating leaves with expanded blades and differing from
those submerged H
10b. Plants with all leaves similar and submerged .-. . 14.
11a. Floating leaves, heart-shaped at the base, 1 to 4 inches
long, waxy in appearance •
Floating-leafed Pondweed, Potamogeton natans
lib. Floating leaves rounded at the base 12
12a. Floating leaves with 30 to 50 nerves; submerged leaves
about three times long as broad
Large-leafed Pondweed, Potamogeton amplifolius
12b. Floating leaves with less than 30 nerves 13
13a. Upper submerged leaves with long stalks
Pondweed, Potamogeton nodosus
13b. Submerged leaves not as above, but with an abrupt awlshaped
tip Pondweed, Potamogeton illinoensis
14a. Margins of the thin leaves crimpled and toothed, the
marginal serrations visible to the naked eye
Curly-leafed Pondweed, Potamogeton crispus
14b. Margins of leaves not visibly toothed 15
15a. Leaves minute toothed on the margins, visible when
magnified; leaves extending stiffly in opposite directions
so that whole plant appears flat; only midvein prominent
Robbins Pondweed, Potamogeton robbinsii
15b . Not as above 16
16a. Stems much flattened and winged, about as wide as the
leaves, leaves 1/12 to 1/5 inched wide
Flat-stemmed Pondweed, Potamogeton zosteriformis
16b. Leaves threadlike, long, rounded, and slender, rarely
exceeding 1/10 inch wide, oriented into a lax, diffuse,
branched spray. The bunched appearance of the the
threadlike rounded leaves as they float in the water is
characteristic Sago Pondweed, Potamogeton pectinatus
17a. Leaves very long and ribbonlike; when examined with hand
lens; showing a central dense zone and a peripheral less
dense zone; flowers borne on a long stem which forms a
spiral after fertilization Wild Celery, Vallisneria
17b. Leaves when examined with hand lens, not showing zones as
above Water Plantains Alismataceae
18a. Leaves opposite, all leaves elongated and narrow, many
times longer than broad, and enlarged or dilated at base.
Bunches of smaller leaves near the leaf base
Bushy Pondweed, Na jas
18b. Leaves whorled, usually 3 in each whorl (sometimes 4)
Waterweed, Elodea (= Anacharis)
C. PLANTS ERECT AND EMERGENT; ROOTED TO THE SUBSTRATUM AND
EXTENDING OUT OF THE WATER.
la. Leaves more than 10 times as long as broad 2
lb. Leaves less than 10 times as long as broad 9
2a. Base of stem triangular in cross-section, the three angles
in some cases so rounded as to make stem appear
round* ............ 3
2b . Base of stem not triangular 5
3a. Three cornered seeds, usually straw colored, enclosed
within a loose elongated sac; a low-growing grass-like
plant Sedge, Carex
3b. Seeds not enclosed within a loose, elongated sac 4
4a. A single flow or seed-bearing structure on the tip of the
stem Spike Rush, Eleocharis
4b. Stem with one or more leaves extending beyond the spike or
seed-bearing structure Bulrush, Scirpus
5a. Leaf with a collarlike appendage, membranous or composed of
hairs at the junction of the leaf blade and that part of
the leaf that is wrapped around the stem 6
5b. Leaf without collarlike appendage mentioned above 8
6a. Seed or flowering-bearing structure composed of scales with
fringed margins and overlapping in a single row
Cut Grass , Leersia
6b. Flowering-bearing structure not as above 7
"7a. Flowering-heads composed of small seeds with long silky
hairs, appearing as a silky mass. The rootstocks are
stout, and plants' are 6 to 12 feet tall
Reed Grass, Phragmites
7b. Flowering part of plant much branched, but not as closely
packed as Phragmites . Seeds much larger, about 3/4 inch
long. Plants with short roots, easily pulled up
Wild Rice, Zizania
8a. Flowers borne in closely packed cylindrical spikes, seeds
very small Cattail , Typha
8b. Flowers in spherical heads, seeds larger, up to size of
corn kernel; leaves shallowly and broadly triangular in
cross-section Burreed, Sparganium
9a . Leaves arising at intervals along stem 10
9b. Leaves arising at base of plant 11
10a. Plants with jointed stems, swollen at the joints, or with
creeping rootstocks; stems with alternate, simple leaves
Smartweed, Polygonum
10b. Stems prostrate or creeping, branched, and often jointed
and rooted at the joints; leaves opposite; spreading plant,
often forming floating mats over extensive water areas
Alligatorweed, Alternanthera
11a. Fleshy or tuber-bearing rootstocks and rosettes of
sheathing basal leaves; leaves variable; some kinds
arrowhead shaped Duck Potato, Sagittaria
lib. Not as above, floating plants 12
12a. Plants floating with fibrous, branched roots and rosettes
of stalked leaves, the leaf stalks often inflated and
bladder-like Waterhyacinth, Eichhornia
12b. Plants with floating rosettes of stalked leaves, commonly
several rosettes produced on branches of the same plant at
the end of flexible, cardlike, sparsely-branched submerged
stems; plant thrives at the depths of 2 to 5 feet and
favors muddy bottoms with high organic content
Waterchesnut , Trapa
MMi— Mptajuito-Cpinro»-»Ba«ic Cteannj. Ll1*
Minium* Mawuue-Ca««r»i Etevaoor
LECENO
1 Wtods
2 Coppice
3 leafy Etvci
4 Flexuous
5 Naked Erect
6 Carpet
7 Floatmq Mat
8 Floattnt) Leaf
9 Submerged
10 Pleuiten
Figure . Generalized contour distribution of basic plant types on the
shore line of a main-river reservoir.
SOURCE: Mackenthum et al., 1964
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table 4.1 IN-LAKE MANAGEMENT DECISION SELECTOR
PREPARED BY LEE LYMAN LYCOTT ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH. INC
This lorai u uwdod u ud ra l
rnluuiw of • puncshr n
CATAGORY
DREDGE
G S
DRAWDOWN
FLUSHING
G S
AERATION
G S
HERBICIDE
G S
ALGAECTOE
G S
HARVEST
G S
HYDRO-
RAKE
G S
SEDIMENT
TILLING
G S
HYPO-UM
WTTHDRAWEL
G S
BENTHIC
SCREEN
G S
SEDIMENT
OXIDATION
G S
BIOLOGICAL
G S
ALUM
G S
DYE
0. s
DILUTION
G S
ARTTFICIAL
CIRCULATION
G S
FOOD CHAIN
MANIPULATION
G S
OUTLET STRUCTURE ADEQUATE
PRIVATE WELLS
ASSOCIATED WETLANDS
IMPACTS TO FISHERIES
AMPHIBIANS
MUSSELS
CRAWFISH
BENTHICS
WATERFOWL
PUBLIC DRINKING WATER SUPPLES
HYDROLOGY BUDGET
EXPOSURE OF MOST AQUATIC PLANTS
DISRUPTION OF RECREATIONAL ACnvmES
IMPACTS TO NON-TARGET ORGANISMS
SELECTTVTTY FOR SPECIFIC AREAS OF POND
SPECIES SPECIFIC
LONGTERM EFFECTTVENESS
TYPE OF POND BOTTOM
DOWN STREAM EFFECTS
AGRICULTURAL USE
PERMTmKG
CONSERVATION COMMISSION
DEP
LAKES PERMIT/LICENSE
DIV WATERWAYS
WATER QUALITY CERTIFICATE
WETLANDS
PESTICIDE BOARD LICENSE
ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS
FISHERIES * WILDLIFE
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KEY TO PLANT ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE
#
COMMON NAME
1
Duckweed
2
Big Duckweed
3
Mud-midget
4
Watermeal
5
Watershield
6
American Lotus
7
Yellow Water Lily
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White Water Lily
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Muskgrass
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Purple Bladderwort
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Water Buttercup
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Nitella
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Eurasian watermilfoil
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Fanwort
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Coontail
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Water Star Grass
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Long-leafed Pondweed
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Pondweed
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Floating-leafed Pondweed
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Curly-leafed Pondweed
21
Pondweed
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Robbins Pond
23
Flat-stemmed Pondweed
24
Sago Pondweed
25
Wild Celery
26
Northern Water Plantain
27
Bushy Pondweed
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Waterweed
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Tussock sedge
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Common Spike-rush
31
River Bulrush
32
Rice Cutgrass
33
Common Reedgrass
34
Wild Rice
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Broad-leaved Cattail
36
Narrow-leaved Cattail
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Giant Bur-reed
38
Water Smartweed
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Alligatorweed
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Duck Potato
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Waterchesnut
SPECIES NAME
Lemna minor
Spirodela polyrhiza
Wolffiella floridana
Wolffia columbiana
Brasenia schreberi
Nelumbo lutea
Nuphar luteum
Nymphaea odor at a
Chara vulgaris
Utricularia purpurea
Ranunculus trichophyllus
Nitella flexilis
Myriophyllum spicatum
Cabomba caroliniana
Ceratophyllum demersum
Zosterella dubia
Potamogeton amplifolius
Potamogeton nodusus
Potamogeton natans
Potamogeton crispus
Potamogeton illinoensis
Potamogeton robbins ii
Potamogeton zosteriformis
Potamogeton pectinatus
Vallisneria americana
Alisma plantago-aquatica
Najas guadalupensis
Elodea canadensis
Carex stricta
Eleocharis palustris
Scirpus fluviatilis
Leersia oryzoides
Phragmites australis
Zizania aquatica
Typha latifolia
Typha angustifolia
Sparganium eurycarpum
Polygonum punctatum
Alternanthera philoxeroides w
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CODE TO PLANT TAXONOMIC IDENTIFICATION KEYS
F - Fassett, N.C. 1957, A Manual of Aquatic Plants. University
of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wl.
H = Hellquist C.B. and G.E. Crow. 1980-1985 (Series) . Aquatic
Vascular Plants of New England: Parts 1-8. New Hampshire
Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin Numbers 515, 517,
518, 520, 523, 524, 527, 528. Durham, NH.
Mackenthum, K.M., Ingram, W.M. and R. Porges. 1964.
Limnological Aspects of Recreational Lakes. United States
Public Health Service. Division of Water Supply and
Pollution Control, Cincinnati, OH.
T = Tiner, R.W. 1987. A Field Guide to Coastal Wetland Plants
of the Northeastern United States. University of
Massachusetts Press. Amherst, MA.
W * Westerdahl, H.E. and K.D. Getsinger (editors). 1988. Aquatic
Plant Identification and Herbicide Use Guide. Tech. Rept. A-
88-9, Aquatic Plant Control Research Program, USACOE,
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MI.
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LAKE ASSESSMENT
WORKSHEETS
I
I WORKSHEET: LAKE SHAPE AND SIZE
Lake /Pond Name:
(Region:
Investigator:
Date:
Sketch or insert map of lake shape and size:
57
WORKSHEET: LAKE BATHYMETRY
Lake /Pond Name:
Region:
Investigator:
Date:
Describe technique used to determine lake/pond bathymetry (depth):
Sketch or insert map of lake /pond bathymetry:
58
WORKSHEET: SAMPLING LOCATIONS
Lake /Pond Name:
Region:
Investigator:
Date:
Time:
Describe sampling locations/stations:
Prepare sketch of sampling locations /stations:
59
LAKE/POND SAMPLING DATA SHEET
LAKE/POND NAME
DATE
RIVER BASIN
PERSONNEL
WEATHER
CONDITIONS
SDT'
Observation
Number
Lake
Station
Depth
On)
Temp,
(degrees C)
Dissolved
Oxygen(mg/l)
1
2
3
A
5
6
7
8
9
10
(units)
1
STATIONS
2 3
PARAMETERS
4 5
pH (SU)
Total Alk. (mg/1)
Spec. Cond. (umhos/cm)
Tot. Susp. Sol. (mg/1)
Turbidity (NTU)
Chloride (mg/1)
Iron (mg/1)
Ammonia— N (mg/1)
Nitrate-N (mg/1)
Kjeldahl-N (mg/1)
Soluble Phos. (ug/1)
Total Phos. (ug/1)
Fecal Coliform/ 100 ml
Total Coliform/ 100 ml
60
TEMPERATURE AND OXYGEN DEPTH PROFILES
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DIAGRAMMATICAL SKETCH OF LAKE OR POND WITH
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ADDITIONAL NOTES:
60a
WATER QUALITY PARAMETER GRAPH
Lake/Pond Name:
Region:
Investigator:
Parameter:
PARAMETER
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WORKSHEET: VEGETATION
Lake /Pond Name:
Region:
Investigator:
Date:
Describe the types and locations of macrophytes and algae in the lake/pond:
Prepare sketch of macrophyte species and algal blooms in lake /pond:
63
SECTION 2.
WATERSHED ASSESSMENT
WATERSHED ASSESSMENT
WATER AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
See page 2-8 a. Hydrologic cycle
through 2-11
of coursebook. - T n
; 1. Inflows:
• precipitation: snow, rain, hail,tributary flow:
feeder stream flow,
• overland flow: rain-induced surface flow
(runoff),
• ground water flow: from upgradient
recharge areas.
2. Outflows:
• evaporation from open water surfaces. Ground
water outflow: infiltration into downgradient
soils or bedrock,
• stream flow from draining streams,
• transpiration: uptake and respiration by plants.
b. Watersheds and Drainage Basins
Watershed is the land area from which water drains to
a lake (or stream). It consists of two components:
1. Surface Drainage Basin is the land area from
which all surface water drains to a lake or stream
at a lower elevation.
2. Ground Water Drainage Basin is the land area
and associated subsurface through which ground
water drains to a lake or stream at a lower
elevation.
c. Hydrologic Budget quantifies the inputs and outputs
of the hydrologic cycle for lake system over a suitable
time period. A hydrologic budget is necessary before
evaluating nutrient pollutant loadings to a lake
system.
DEM Lake Management field manual 64 HWH, Inc.
the coursebook.
SURFACE DRAINAGE BASIN
a. Characteristics
See page 2-11 1. Area: Size in square miles, kilometers or similar
through 2-u of units categorized as open water or land.
2. Soil types and erodibility: critical for
determining appropriate land uses and erosion
control.
3. Types and extent of vegetative cover: input to
estimating runoff and evapo-transpiration.
4. Types and extent of developed areas: categorization
as agricultural, industrial, conservation, and
residential uses critical to assessing potential water
quality impact problems.
5. Average and maximum slope: input to estimating
time of concentration and erosion potential.
6. Time of concentration: the time for a rain or water
drop to travel from the furthest end of the
watershed to the lake.
b. Delineation of surface drainage basins
Draw watershed divide boundaries on appropriate
scale topographic map using two simple rules:
1. Draw divide boundaries perpendicular to contour
lines.
2. Draw divide boundaries through the center of
contour saddles and closed contour loops.
GROUND WATER DRAINAGE BASINS
a. Ground Water
See page 2-U Water which saturates pore spaces between gravel, silt,
through 2-26 of sand, or clay particles or in bedrock fractures in the
subsurface environment.
the coursebook.
1. Key terms and Considerations
• unsaturated (aerated) zone
• saturated zone
DEM Lake Management field manual 65 HWH, Inc.
Water table = upper elevation of saturated zone.
Derived primarily from precipitation which has
infiltrated into the subsurface environment.
Ground water quality may be influenced by the
types of geologic deposits.
Porosity describes the void volume of a geologic
material, i.e., the amount of air or water-filled
voids within a unit volume of material.
Permeability is a measure of a geologic material's
ability to transmit water.
High porosity materials, like clays, may be very
impermeable because the voids are not
interconnected.
Aquifers hold and transmit sufficient quantities of
ground water to permit economic development.
Confined aquifers have impermeable confining
layers above and below the aquifer materials; the
water table elevation may rise above ground
level if the upper confining layer is penetrated
by a well.
Perched water table: a layer of saturated soil
formed on a low permeability layer located above
the main water table.
Ground water moves from higher water table
elevations to lower water table elevations;
Flow is a function of elevation and pressure
differences and properties of the soil or bedrock
matrix (hydraulic conductivity);
Ground water flow is three dimensional:
downwelling usually occurs at the higher
elevations of a recharge area while upwelling
usually occurs at the lower elevations of a
recharge area.
Ground water velocities are slower than surface
water velocities, typically varying between several
feet per day to several feet per year.
Baseflow: ground water discharge into lakes and
streams.
Interflow: horizontal ground water movement
through the unsaturated zone.
DEM Lake Management field manual 66 HWH, Inc.
b. Ground Water Drainage Basins
1. Characteristics
• Soils: Types and extent (SCS soil maps);
• Geology: unconsolidated sediment versus
bedrock types; fractures and faults; history of
glacial, wind or stream action; depth to bedrock;
• Hydraulic conductivity: location and extent of
high, low and non-permeable geologic
formations;
• Presence of "losing" or "gaining" surface water
bodies;
• Aquifers: volume and areal extent of each type:
confined, unconfined and perched;
• Time of travel-
2. Tools and Methodologies
• Unconsolidated Sediments versus Bedrock
• Hydrogeologic Investigations: USGS atlases &
geologic quadrangle maps
• Drilling
• Wells and Piezometers
• Water Table Elevation Maps
• Geophysical Investigations
• Delineation
DEM Lake Management field manual 67 HWH, Inc.
WATERSHED -LAKE INTER-RELATIONSHIPS
WATERSHED DELINEATION
Objective:
To delineate a lake or pond watershed, which is comprised of surface water
and ground water drainage basins.
Procedure:
1. Review USGS topographic quadrant base map (or other map
showing sufficient topographic detail) of the study area.
2. Identify the highest elevation points surrounding the lake
which appear to contribute surface runoff to the lake. Think
about whether water, if released in sufficient quantity, would
flow to the lake from those high points.
3. Using a pencil and beginning with the lake outlet(s), delineate
the surface water drainage basin boundaries using the following
two rules :
a. Draw divide boundaries perpendicular to contour lines.
b. Draw divide boundaries through the center of contour
saddles and closed contour loops.
REMEMBER:
Water flows perpendicular to the contour lines.
Water flows down the V-shaped valley contours from the narrowest part of
the V to the widest part.
4. If the drainage basin is very large or if it contains a number of
different lakes, sub-divide it into sub-drainage basins by
delineating divide boundaries for each major tributary and /or
lake. Each sub-drainage basin must possess all the characteristics
of a normal watershed; each has a collecting surface water body
DEM Lake Management field manual 68 HWH, Inc.
(stream, pond, lake) which then drains directly or indirectly into
the lake of concern.
5. Before drawing in the divide boundaries using a pen, review
your delineation by mentally following imaginary surface flow
from the boundary down to the receiving body. Examine the
boundary perimeter and ensure that all rainfall falling outside
the boundary will not move towards and eventually reach the
study area.
6. Using a planimeter or some other method, estimate the area of
the surface water drainage basin and its component sub-drainage
basins in acres or square miles or square kilometers.
7. Determine the different land uses (agricultural, residential,
industrial, commercial, conservation, etc.) present within the
drainage basin using zoning or land use planning maps, if
available. If possible, estimate the acreages (or square
miles /kilometers) of each land use type. This information will
be useful in assessing sources of water quality degradation (i.e.
agricultural practices contribute fertilizers and pesticides, urban
development contributes road runoff and lawn care products).
8. While the ground water drainage basin for a lake often coincides
with its surface water drainage basin, it may not have the same
boundaries. Parts may extend beyond the surface water drainage
basin or, because of bedrock outcrops (ledge), the ground water
drainage basin may coincide with only part of the surface water
drainage basin. Proper delineation of the ground water drainage
basin requires an examination of the surficial and bedrock
geology by an experienced professional. However, assuming that
the surface water drainage basin encompasses the ground water
drainage basin may suffice for a "first-cut" approximation.
DEM Lake Management field manual 69 HWH, Inc.
HYDROLOGIC BUDGET ESTIMATION
Objective:
To estimate the magnitude of the lake system's (that is, the lake and its
watershed) annual hydrologic inputs and outputs.
Procedure:
1. Identify all hydrologic inputs: precipitation, tributary inflow, overland
flow, ground water inflow.
2. Collect information from federal, state and local offices to attempt
estimation of the annual inflow (typically in million gallons per year)
for each input. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), the National Weather Bureau, and local
officials may have long term precipitation records. Stream flows may
have been gauged by the US Geological Survey, the Army Corps of
Engineers, state offices, or local universities. Overland flow and
ground water inflow depend on more site-specific factors such as soil
types, vegetative cover, surficial geology, etc. and may require
evaluation by an experienced professional.
3. Identify all hydrologic outputs: stream flow, ground water infiltration
to soils and bedrock, evapo-transpiration, and industrial, commercial,
agricultural, and public/private water supply withdrawals. USGS
hydrologic atlases may provide estimates of annual evapo-
transpiration and potential evapo-transpiration for the area of concern.
State and local agencies may provide estimates of human ground and
surface water withdrawals through well log permits and withdrawal
permits. Stream flow data may be available from the sources
mentioned above. Estimation of ground water infiltration to soils and
bedrock and evapo-transpiration may require evaluation by an
experienced professional.
4. Total up inputs and outputs. A usable hydrologic budget requires that
the inputs and outputs balance out.
DEM Lake Management field manual 70 HWH, Inc.
MONITORING WELL INSTALLATION AND SAMPLING
Objective:
To install monitoring wells as a means of obtaining ground water elevation,
flow and water quality information.
Procedure:
1. Conduct a desk study of available hydrogeologic information of the
study, area and its locale by reviewing USGS, Soil Conservation Service
(SCS), state, and consultants' reports. Other sources of data include
water supply and monitoring well boring logs and deep test pit logs.
2. Obtain a good topographic map of the study area and delineate its
surface water drainage basin.
3. Determine the investigation's objective(s): water table elevations,
direction of ground water flow, existing ground water quality,
installation of a monitoring program, etc. Well siting and soil
sampling protocol will depend upon the investigation's objective(s),
the level of detail needed to resolve the issue of concern and
resource/time constraints. Sampling protocol depends on the types of
samples desired (soil, water, disturbed, undisturbed), the sampling
frequency necessary and the need to prevent cross-contamination.
Typically, selecting well sites and devising a soil sampling protocol will
require input from an experienced professional.
4. Select the most appropriate boring method: hand auger, hollow stem,
solid stem, etc. This choice will depend on budget, sampling protocol,
type of well to be installed, subsurface materials (bedrock, till, glacial
outwash, etc), maximum drilling depth, and other factors.
5. Conduct the drilling program. Each boring must be 'logged" (recorded)
by an experienced geologist or hydrogeologist. Many drilling
companies will provide you with boring logs made by their drillers.
However, most drillers do not have geological training and these logs
may not be adequately rigorous for the investigation. The logs should
describe the characteristics of each sample collected: colors; type,
coarseness and quantity of each geologic material (sand, silt, gravel,
etc.); layering, odor, presence of contaminants, etc. The logger must
also record the presence and location of perched water tables, confining
DEM Lake Management field manual 71 HWH. Inc.
layers, ground water table, refusal, and any other information which
may aid in establishing the hydrogeologic situation.
6. Well installation should follow completion of each boring. As above,
experienced technical input is usually required in selecting the type and
diameter of well material (PVC, stainless steel, Teflon, etc.), well screen
slot size, well screen length and placement, type and location of sealing
materials, and the method of well development. For the "simplest"
case in which the investigation should determine ground water
elevation, horizontal flow direction and where there is no threat of
contaminant presence1, two inch diameter PVC risers with 0.010 slot
size well screens and conical well points are often selected because of
economy and ease of installation.
Determination of Ground Water Table Elevations and Flow Direction
1. The wells must be surveyed to determine the elevation of the well top
with regard to some reference datum, usually mean sea level.
2. After allowing at least 24 hours for the ground water level to
equilibrate, ground water elevation measurements can be taken using a
variety of methods. The most commonly used methods include
"plunking" and chalk-the-tape. One can estimate ground water
elevation within the well through attaching a fitting (which makes a
loud sound or "plunk" when first coming into contact with the water
surface) to an accurate measuring tape. A more accurate method is to
chalk a fiberglass or steel surveyors tape and lower it into the well. The
ground water elevation within the well is calculated by subtracting the
length of wetted chalk from the top of the well measure.
3. A ground water elevation map can be produced from a set of same-day
measurements for a site plotted on an accurate topographic plan
showing well locations. However, care must be taken in interpreting
the water table elevation measurements and constructing the elevation
contours. It is very important that an experienced professional carry
out and/or review the work.
4. Ground water flow direction can be read from the ground water
elevation map in the same manner as one determines surface runoff
1 Some volatile organic compounds present in the ground water or soil water as contaminants
can react with the PVC to weaken the well material and produce other organic compounds.
DEM Lake Management field manual 72 HWH, Inc.
from the elevation contours shown on a topographic map. Water
flows perpendicular to the contour lines.
Water Quality Analyses
1. Water quality analyses are typically done to determine the presence and
quantity of the following compounds: iron, manganese, sodium or
chloride (salt), total and ortho-phosphate, Kjeldahl, nitrite, nitrate, and
ammonia nitrogen, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), metals (lead,
cadmium, arsenic, copper, etc.) pesticides and herbicides, pH, alkalinity,
hardness, fecal and total conforms, and specific conductivity. The
methodology usually includes the following steps:
a. Purge the well of five to ten well volumes to establish a good
connection between the aquifer and the well. A bailer, pump or,
less accurately, air injection may be used.
b. Collect samples using a clean sampling bailer and carefully fill
the sample bottles.
c Transport the sample bottles to an analytical laboratory as
quickly as possible.
DEM Lake Management field manual 73 HWH, Inc.
BUILD-OUT ANALYSIS
Objective:
To determine the existing and saturation levels of development allowed in
an area as programmed by zoning or land use regulations.
Procedure:
1. Collect zoning (or land use planning) maps for the study area and list
all relevant zoning classifications.
2. Determine the minimum lot size and frontage for each zoning
classification using the relevant rules and regulations for minimum
lot sizes, frontage requirements, etc..
3. Measure the total area in acres (sq. miles /kilometers) for each zoning
classification within the study area.
4. Using assessor's maps (or some other source), determine the total
number of existing developed and undeveloped lots. Sum up the
developed lot acreage for each zoning classification
5. A parcel-by-parcel review is necessary to obtain an accurate estimation
of buildout potential. For each parcel, determine the number of lots
which may be created through land subdivision based upon zoning
requirements and environmental constraints. Where time constraints
preclude the possibility of conducting a parcel-by-parcel buildout
analysis, a rough buildout estimation is achieved through subtracting
the total developed lot acreage from the total acreage for each zoning
classification. The acreage of undeveloped land within each zoning
district is then divided by the minimum lot size to yield a rough
estimate of the maximum possible number of additional lots which
could be developed.
6. Construct a table which summarizes, for each zoning classification, the
number (and total acreage) of existing developed lots and the
maximum number of additional lots possible given zoning. Total the
number and acreages of developed and developable lots. Calculate the
relative percentage of developed lots and developed acreage for each
zoning classification.
DEM Lake Management field manual 74 HWH, Inc.
7. In cases where the buildout analysis will be used to estimate nutrient
loading to ground waters, one should also differentiate between the
number of existing and future lots which would be publicly sewered,
rather than served by on-site septic systems.
DEM Lake Management field manual 75 HWH, Inc.
NUTRIENT LOADING ANALYSIS
Objective:
To estimate existing and future nutrient loadings associated with current and
saturation levels of development. This section focuses on estimation of
phosphorus loading because this nutrient is most directly related to lake and
pond productivity.
Procedure:
1. Carefully select appropriate unit loading rates for all relevant land uses
within the study area. Land uses which should be considered include
crop and livestock agriculture; lawns and turfgrass; unsewered
residences, businesses, institutions, and factories; roads, driveways and
parking lots; building roof areas; among others. This information may
be obtained through literature review and through local
conservation /environmental agencies such as the Soil Conservation
Service and U.S. Department of Agriculture.
2. Determine an appropriate unit loading rate for atmospheric deposition.
Determine the type, extent and efficiency of storm water management
systems within the study area. If most of the study area is serviced by
an operating storm water management system, the runoff-borne
phosphorus is usually not included the lake loading calculations
unless the infiltration structures lie within 100 meters upgradient of
the lake or its tributaries.
3. Determine the number of existing and potential unsewered residences,
businesses, institutions, and factories within a 100 meter zone around
the lake from the build-out analysis results.
4. Determine acreages of each land use type identified above (step # 1)
within the study area.
5. Estimate the phosphorus contribution for each land use type by
multiplying acreages by the unit phosphorus loading rates.
6. Sum up all phosphorus contributions to determine the total annual
phosphorus loading to the system under the existing and saturation
development scenarios.
DEM Lake Management field manual 76 HWH. Inc.
7. Take the hydrologic budget estimate of total inflow to the lake and
divide it into the total annual phosphorus loading to give an average
annual phosphorus concentration flowing to the lake for saturation
and development conditions.
8. The analysis results for the existing development scenario should be
compared with observed ground and lake water measurements to
determine whether the model requires calibration. Potential
adjustments include seasonality factors, accounting for in-lake
sediment re-suspension, low (or high) precipitation years, etc.
DEM Lake Management field manual 77 HWH, Inc.
WATERSHED ASSESSMENT
WORKSHEETS
WORKSHEET: WATERSHED DELINEATION
Lake /Pond Name:
Region:
Investigator:
Date:
Insert U.S. Geological Survey topographic map of lake/ pond and its delineated
watershed:
78
WORKSHEET: MONITORING WELL LOCATIONS
Lake /Pond Name:
Region:
Investigator:
Date:
Describe well installation:
Prepare sketch of well locations:
79
WORKSHEET: BUILDOUT ANALYSIS
Lake /Pond Name:
Region:
Investigator:
Date:
Describe methodology and assumptions used to conduct a buildout analysis for the
watershed of the lake/pond:
80
WORKSHEET: BUILDOUT COMPUTATIONS
Lake /Pond Name:
Region:
Investigator:
Date:
81
WORKSHEET: NUTRIENT LOADING
Lake /Pond Name:
Region:
Investigator:
Date:
Describe methodology and assumptions used to estimate nutrient loading for the
watershed of the lake/pond:
82
WORKSHEET: NUTRIENT LOADING COMPUTATIONS
Lake /Pond Name:
Region:
Investigator:
Date:
83
SECTION 3.
CAUSES OF LAKE PROBLEMS AND
THEIR IDENTIFICATION
CAUSES OF LAKE PROBLEMS
AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION
COMMON AQUATIC PROBLEMS
a. Weed Infestation
See page 3-11 1. Causes
through 3-12 of # overfertilization
coursebook.
• suitable sediment
• sufficient light
• absence of toxic materials
• insufficient grazing
• appropriate water level
• lack of physical disturbance
2. Ecological implications
• exotic invasion
• habitat alteration
• fluctuating oxygen
• algal inhibition
• food resource
3. Use impairment
• potable supply
• contact recreation
• fishing
• boating
• aesthetics
b. Algal Bloom
See page 3-13 1. Causes
of coursebook. . overfertilization
•
sufficient light
lack of toxic substances
insufficient grazing
DEM Lake Management field manual 84 HWH, Inc.
2. Ecological implications
• food resource
• fluctuating oxygen
• taste and odor
• toxicity to animals/humans
• inhibition of rooted plants
3. Use impairment
• potable supply
• contact recreation
• fishing
• aesthetics
c Fish Stunting
See page 3-13 1. Causes
of coursebook. • insufficient predation
• excessive refuges
• food shortages
• fishing practices
2. Ecological implications
• increased food for predators
• decreased zooplankton
• increased algae
3. Use impairment
• fishing
• aesthetics
• contact recreation
d. Fish Kill
1. Causes
• natural mortality
• fishing pressure
• temperature change
• insufficient oxygen
• toxic substances
DEM Lake Management field manual
85 HWH.Inc.
See page 3-15
of coursebook.
See page 3-15
of coursebook.
2. Ecological implications
• loss of trophic level
• nutrient recycling
• food resource loss
3. Use impairment
• fishing
• potable supply
e. Swimmers Itch
1. Causes
• suitable habitat with hosts for schistosomes
2. Ecological implications
• parasitism
3. Use impairment
• contact recreation
f. Leeches
1. Causes
• suitable habitat with hosts for leeches
See page 3-16
of coursebook.
2. Ecological implications
• parasitism
3. Use impairment
• contact recreation
g. Aggressive Waterfowl
1. Causes
• desirable habitat
• overabundant birds
2. Ecological implications
• fertilization
• predation /grazing
• fecal bacteria loading
DEM Lake Management field manual
86
HWH.Inc.
See page 3-16
of coursebook.
See page 3-16
of coursebook.
3. Use impairment
• contact recreation
• potable supply
h. Shallowness
1. Causes
• natural morphometry
• erosion /sedimentation
• accumulated organic matter
2. Ecological implications
• plant growth
• habitat change
• sediment resuspension
3. Use impairment
• contact recreation
• boating
• fishing
• flood control
• water supply
L Inhospitable Lake Bottom
1. Causes
• type of sediment
• obstructions
2. Ecological implications
• habitat structure
• oxygen demand
• taste and odor
3. Use impairment
• contact recreation
• boating
• potable supply
DEM Lake Management field manual
87
HWH. Inc.
See page 3-16
of coursebook.
See page 3-17
of coursebook.
j. Taste and Odor
1. Causes
• algal blooms
• weed infestations
• low oxygen chemistry
• fish kill
• watershed inputs
2. Ecological implications
• sensory impacts on fauna
3. Use impairment
• potable supply
• contact recreation
• aesthetics
• boating
• fishing
• hunting
k. Color and Turbidity
1. Causes
• watershed inputs
• sediment-water interaction
• algae
2. Ecological implications
• predation
• plant growth
• fertilization
3. Use impairment
• potable supply
• contact recreation
• aesthetics
• fishing
DEM Lake Management field manual
88
HWH, Inc.
See page 3-17
through 3-19 of
coursebook.
1. User Conflicts
1. Causes
• incompatible uses
• insufficient space
• inadequate user management
2. Ecological implications
• direct interference
• habitat destruction
3. Use Impairment
• Any or all, depending on conflict
CAUSES OF LAKE CHANGE
See page 3-20 a.
of coursebook.
See page 3-21
of coursebook.
See page 3-21
of coursebook.
Watershed Alteration
1. Natural changes
• sediment build-up
• fertilization
• species replacement
• catastrophic events
2. Urbanization impacts
• runoff
• erosion
• waste disposal
3. Agricultural impacts
• runoff
• erosion
• waste disposal
b. Exotic Species Invasion
1. Nuisance plants
2. Nuisance animals
c Lake Use/Management
1. User impacts
2. Management impacts
DEM Lake Management field manual
89
HWH.Inc.
DETERMINING APPROPRIATE LAKE USES
Range of Uses
In a general sense, there are eleven possible uses of lake water:
1.
Contact recreation
2.
Passive uses /aesthetics
3.
Non-power boating
4.
Power boating/skiing
5.
Fishing
6.
Hunting
7.
Consumptive supply
8.
Power supply
9.
Cooling supply
10.
Flood control
11.
Ice sports
Establishing Priorities
Three steps are necessary in this process:
1. Assessing the reasonable/practicable uses of the lake, based on
lake and watershed features
2. Assessing the needs and desires of the user populations,
including non-human elements
3. Building concensus toward an acceptable priority of uses and
management framework
As mentioned previously, this is best accomplished from a regional
perspective. It would seem foolish to attempt to establish power boating and
waterskiing in a shallow lake loaded with stumps when there is a large, deep
lake nearby. It is not logical to turn a heavily used pond within the flyway of
major waterfowl migrations into a potable water supply facility. On the other
hand, it is important to consider the demand for various uses within an area,
and to try to satisfy that demand in a rational manner.
The tough part is building a concensus; fish and waterfowl do not vote in
most towns, laws that protect wetlands and water quality rarely consider
recreational use demand, and lake users frequently fall into tightly defined
special interest groups (i.e., user categories like swimmers, boaters, or anglers).
DEM Lake Management field manual 90 HWH, Inc.
The Delphi process (Delbecq et al. 1975) is an iterative process for achieving
concensus within a group selected to represent a cross section of users and
managers, and is often more successful than large scale user surveys or
town/regional meetings. In any process, it is critical to supply accurate,
unbiased information to all concerned parties and to listen carefully to their
perspective on the relevant issues.
DEM Lake Management field manual 91 HWH, Inc.
TABLE 3.7
EFFECTS OF LAKE AND WATERSHED FEATURES ON LAIE USES
<♦♦ = Direct positive relation. ♦ = Indirect positive relation, — « Direct negative relation.
- ■ Indirect negative relation, 0 = no clear relation, « = complex relation; e.g. bell curve)
LAIE USE
LAIE FEATURES
Consumptive
Supply
Contact
Recreation
Passive Uses
4 Aesthetics
Non -power
Boating
Power
Boating
Fishing
Ice Skating
and Boating
Water clarity
44
44
44
44
44
-
0
Dissolved oxygen
♦
4
4
0 ..
0
44
0
Temperature
0
44
0
44
44
ft
-
PB
•
1
ft
0
0
ft
0
Fertility
-
-
1
-
-
4
0
Toxic substances
—
—
-
-
-
—
0
Fecal bacteria
--
~
0
-
-
0
0
Hacrophyte cover
-
—
«
—
—
t
0
Plankton abundance
—
—
—
-
-
4
0
Pan fish abundance
-
-
«
0
0
44
0
Came fish abundance
♦
4
4
0
0
44
0
Waterfowl
-
-
ft
0
0
0
0
Lake area
4
44
0
44
44
44
44
Mean depth
4
-
0
0
44
0
-"
Maximum depth
4
0
0
0
0
4
0
Lake volume
44
0
0
0
0
4
0
Fetch
-
-
0
ft
44
0
4
Shoreline development
0
4
+4
4
-
0
ft
Detention time
—
ft
ft
0
0
0
4
Organic hydrosolis
-
-
0
0
0
0
0
WATERSHED FEATURES
Watershed: lake area ratio •
-
-
0
0
0
0
Access to lake
-
44
ft
ft
ft
ft
44
Shoreline dwellings
-
-
—
0
-
0
0
Soil permeability
1
4
4
0
0
0
0
Land slopes
<
•-
0
0
0
0
0
Urbanization
-
-
—
0
0
-
-
Agriculture
-
-
—
0
0
ft
0
Logging
«
-
—
0
0
0
0
Hardwood: softwood ratio
•
0
0
0
0
0
0
Source: Baystate Environmental Consultants, Longmeadow, Massachusetts.
92
TABLE 3.8
EFFECTS OF LATE USES ON LAIE FEATURES
(♦•♦ = Direct positive relation. 4 e Indirect positive relation. — « Direct negative relation.
- = Indirect negative relation, 0 = no clear relation, « = conplex relation; e.g. bell curve)
LAIE USE
LACE FEATURES
Consumptive
Supply
Contact
Recreation
Passive Uses
♦ Aesthetics
Non-power
Boating
Power
Boating
Fishing
Ice Skating
and Boating
Vater clarity
0
—
0
0
—
0
0
Dissolved oxygen
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Temperature
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
PH
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Fertility
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Toxic substances
0
0
0
0
♦+
0
0
Fecal bacteria
0
♦
0
0
0
0
0
Macrophyte cover
0
—
0
0
#
0
0
Plankton abundance
0
0
0
0
0
•
0
Pan fish abundance
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
Game fish abundance
0
0
0
0
0
~
0
Waterfowl
0
0
0
0
—
0
0
Lake area
—
0
0
0
0
0
0
Mean depth
—
0
0
0
0
0
0
Maxima depth
—
0
0
0
0
0
0
Lake vol use
~
0
0
0
0
0
0
Fetch
—
0
0
0
0
0
0
Shoreline development
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Detention time
—
0
0
0
0
0
0
Organic hydrosoils
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Source: Baystate Environmental Consultants, Longmeadow, Massachusetts.
93
TABLE 3.9
EFFECTS OF IAIE USES ON OTHER IAIE OSES
(♦♦ = Direct positive relation. ♦ = Indirect positive relation, — « Direct negative relation,
- * Indirect negative relation, 0 = no clear relation, * = complex relation; e.g. bell curve)
(All effects are read as the effect of the vertically listed (Y-axis) use on the horizontally listed (X-axis) use)
LIKE USE
IAIE USE
Consumptive Contact Passive Uses Non-power Power Ice Skating
Supply Recreation ♦ Aesthetics Boating Boating fishing and Boating
Consumptive
Supply
Contact
Recreation
Passive Uses
♦ Aesthetics
Hon -power
Boating
Power
Boating
0
X
0
0
0
0
Fishing
Ice Skating
and Boating
Source: Baystate Environmental Consultants, Longmeadow, Massachusetts.
94
LAKE PROBLEMS AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION
WORKSHEETS
WORKSHEET: IDENTIFICATION OF AQUATIC PROBLEMS
Lake /Pond Name:
Region:
Investigator:
Date:
What management problems exist: (please check)
Excessive algal growth
Excessive weed growth
Turbidity
Fish kills
User conflicts
Poor water quality
Poor Fishing
Leeches
Lack of control over watershed activities
Anaerobic summer conditions
Closed swimming areas
Other?
Describe existing and anticipated aquatic management problems:
95
SECTION 4.
DEVELOPMENT OF A LAKE MANAGEMENT PLAN
DEVELOPMENT OF A LAKE MANAGEMENT
PLAN
Lake management methods may be divided into in-lake
and watershed controls. For the purposes of this section,
the term watershed will include the surface watershed
See Section 4 of anc^ ground-water recharge areas. Choice of a method
the coursebook for depends upon the site-specific characteristics of each lake,
a discussion of lake as well as its cost and availability, aesthetics, and personal
management plans, preferences. Each control method is appropriate to a
particular set of circumstances. Therefore, the particular
characteristics of each site must be considered when
selecting a remediation method.
Typically a combination of both in-lake and watershed
measures provides the most effective strategy. Treating
the in-lake symptoms does not necessarily rid a lake of its
problems, since the cause of the problem may be in the
watershed. Likewise, treating the cause of the problem in
the watershed may eliminate the in-lake symptoms. For
example, nutrient fluxes from sediments within the lake
may be sufficient to maintain eutrophic conditions, even
after minimizing nutrient loading from the watershed.
IN-LAKE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Physical Techniques
I. Benthic Screening
Z Lake Level Drawdown
3. Dredging
4. Harvesting
See page 4-7 5. Hydroraking
through 4-20 6 Aeration
of coursebook. _ __ .. .
; 7. Hypokmneuc Aeration
8. Hypolimnetic Withdrawal
9. Sediment Oxidation
10. Dilution and Flushing
II. Artificial Circulation
DEM Lake Management field manual 96 HWH, Inc.
Biological Techniques
See page 4-20
through 4-23
of coursebook.
See page 4-23
through 4-28 of
coursebook.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Grass Carp
Pathogens
Insect Pests
Food-Chain Manipulation
Chemical Techniques
1. Herbicides and Algicides
2. Alum
3. Dye
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Historically, communities throughout Massachusetts
have relied upon local bylaws and regulations to protect
water resources from both point source (direct discharge
such as sewage outfall pipes) and non-point source
(stormwater discharge from catch basins or septic systems)
contamination. Although these regulatory tools are
typically adopted and implemented on the community
level, many of these tools are directly applicable to the
DEM. Some may also be adopted as park regulations (such
as phosphorus detergent bands).
In cases where the DEM only controls land activities in a
portion of a lake's watershed, the greatest means of
watershed protection may be at the community level. In
this case, DEM staff may assist local communities in
adopting these controls. Many of the subdivision
regulations, health regulations and wetland regulations
affect activities at the site level (i.e. waterways buffers,
underground fuel tanks, septic system placement etc.).
These controls are intended to minimize water
degradation resulting from improper site design. These
site design controls are as applicable to the DEM as to
private land developers, and should be followed when
designing and managing parks. Figure 4.1 presents the
lake and pond watershed management techniques
discussed in this section. The following is a list of the
DEM Lake Management field manual
97
HWH.Inc.
various tools available to communities for lake
protection.
See page 4-29
through 4-36 of
coursebook.
See page 4-36
and 4-37 of
coursebook.
See page 4-37
through 4-39 of
coursebook.
See page 4-39
through 4-41 of
coursebook.
Regulatory
Zoning
1. Overlay Ground and Surface Water Protection Districts
2. Prohibition of Various Land Uses
3. Special Permitting
4. Large Lot Zoning
5. Site Plan Review
6. Waterway Buffers
7. Performance Standards
8. Transfer of Development Rights
9. Cluster Design
Subdivision Control Rules and Regulations
1. Drainage Requirements
2. Performance Standards /Nitrogen Loading
Health Regulations
1. Underground Fuel Storage Systems.
2. Privately-Owned Wastewater Treatment Plants (Small
Sewage Treatment Plants).
3. Phosphorus Buffer Zone.
4. Septic Cleaner Ban.
5. Septic System Maintenance.
6. Sewage System Upgrades
Wetland Bylaws
1. Natural Vegetated Buffers
2. Surface Water Discharges
3. Erosion and Sedimentation Control
4. Restrictions on Pesticides and Fertilizers
DEM Lake Management field manual
98
HWH. Inc.
See page 4-42
tkrough 4-44 of
coursebook.
See page 4-44
through 4-46 of
coursebook.
Non-Regulatory Techniques
Although many non-regulatory water resource programs
are available to cities and towns in New England, they
have traditionally focused on four categories:
1. Donations
Z Taxation Deferments
3. Conservation Easements
4. Outright Sale of Land
Legislative Techniques
Legislative growth management strategies include those
created by individual state legislative bodies. As local
governments do not possess inherent sovereign power,
their jurisdiction rests almost exclusively with state
constitutional provisions, charters, statutes, ordinances
and regulations. Legislative growth management
strategies focus on approaches that states deem
appropriate for state-wide or regional land management.
Park Watershed Management Techniques
1. Site Design
a.
Roads and Parking Lots
• Detention and Retention Pon^s
See page 4-46
• Infiltration Basin
through 4-74 of
• Infiltration Trench
coursebook for a
review of park
management
• Porous Pavement
• Grassed Swales
options.
• Constructed Wetlands
b.
Wastewater
c
Shoreline Protection
d.
Lawn Areas
e.
Construction Controls
A summary of the pollution reduction benefits of various runoff control
structures is provided in Chapter 2 of the book, "Controlling Urban Run-oii:
A Practical Manual for Planning and Designing Urban BMPs" by Thomas
Schueler, Department of Environmental Programs, Metropolitan
DEM Lake Management field manual
99
HWH.Inc.
Washington Council of Governments. A copy of this section is included in
this course manual.
DEM Lake Management field manual 100 HWH, Inc.
60
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101
IN-LAKE RESTORATION TECHNIQUES
Termof
Technique
Advantages
Drawbacks
Cost
Effectiveness
1. PHYSICAL CONTROL
Aeration (PA,H,F)
Increased oxygen
Only lakes with
C=$$$
Delayed;
Restores cold-water
large hypolimnion
o=$$s
Duration unknown
Fisheries
nutrient diffusion
Improved taste/odor
from bottom to top
■
Reduced nutrient
release
Artificial
Reduced internal
Increased
c=$$
Slightly delayed;
Circulation (PAH)
N,P,Fc,Mn cycling
Increased oxygen
Change from blue-
green to green
algae
particulate
nutrients
Decreased clarity
Temperature
increase in
hypolimnion
o=$
Duration unknown
Bottom Barriers (P)
Very effective
Difficult
c=$$$
Immediate;
Environmentally safe
installation for
o=$$
Long-term with
Easy installation
large/steep area
proper control
for small areas
Degradable
materials
Rcgrowth thru/on
top
Difficult to
move/secure
Dilution/Flushing (A)
Algae washout
Large quantity of
c=$
Immediate;
Reduced nutrients
low nutrient water
o=$
Continuous use
needed for
dilution
necessary
Diver Dredging (P,T)
Removes whole
Very slow
c=$
Immediate; -
plant/nutrients
Disturbs sediment
o=$$$
Repeated
Selective
and clarity
continuously
No waiting period
Hypolimnetic
Reduced lake P,N
Degradation of
c=$$
Slightly delayed;
Withdrawal (PA,H)
Increased bottom
receiving waters
o=$
Potentially
oxygen levels
Destratification
long-term
Increased clarity
Mechanical
Easily controlled
Not selective
c=$$$
Immediate;
Harvesting (P)
Low impact on
Slow
o=$$
Repeated up to
ecosystem
Limited area of
several limes per
No post-treatment
treatment or
year
waiting
effectiveness
Some P,N removal
Fragmentation
Rotovating (P)
Easily controlled
Depth limits
c=$$$
Immediate;
No waiting period
S
…[truncated]