Document text
B^C HELD MAN0Ai
AVIATION IN SUPPOBT
OF
flROUICD FORCES
April 9, 1942
FM 31-35
BASIC FIELD »fANUAL
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OF
Gmumwomm
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
mMmmmm i imp
WAR DEPARTMENT,
Washington. April 9, 1942.
FM 31-35, Basic Field Manual, Aviation in Support ot
Ground Forces, is published for the information and guidance
of all concerned.
(A. a. 062.11 (8-13-42).]
By order or th« Skcretary or War:
O. C. MARSHAUi,
Chief of Staff,
Official:
J. A. ULIO,
Major General,
The Adjutant General,
Distribution:
B and H (6) ; R 1, 5, 17 (4) ; Bn 1. 5. 17 (4) ; C 5 (2) ;
IC 11 (10).
(For explanation of symbols see FM 21-6.)
TABI^ OP CONTENTS
Paragraphia Page
Chapter 1. General 1-4 1
ChapteA 2. Combat aviation.
SbctionI. Organization 5-12 3
n. Intelligence 13-24 7
III. Combat operations 25-46 0
Chapter 3. Observation aviation and photography.
Section I. Organization and equipment-. 47-67 19
n. Observation operations and mis-
sions 6B-72 22
III. Photography and mapping 73-76 29
Chaptsb 4, Air transport.
Section I. General 77-79 82
n. Troops Involved 80-81 38
ni. Transportation equipment 81^-84 84
IV. Operations 85-92 86
V. Emergency supplies by air.^. 93 96 89
VI. Air ambiUances 97-99 41
VII. Target and tracking _ 100 41
Craptxr 5. Signal communication.
Section I. General 101-105 42
n. Communication nets 106^107 44*
III. Methods of operation 108-113 47
IV. Prearranged message code forms.. 114 61
iNimc 63
m
FM 31-^5
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
AVIATION IN S0PFOBT OF GBOtrND FOBCES
(This manual supersedes section in, Training Circular No. 89,
Training Circular No. 52, and air support references In Ttalnlng
Circular No. 70, War Department, 1941, and other doctrines and
training methods In conflict herewith.)
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL
PURPOSE AND SCOPE
■ 1. The purpose of this manual is to prescribe organis»tion
for combat, general functions, and employment of aviation
used in tactical support of ground forces. Only matters of
common Interest to both the air and ground forces are covered.
For basic doctrine of air force employment see FM 1-6 and
100-5.
■ 2. a. Aviation in support of ground forces is normally
constituted into air support commands which are ordinarily
Component parts of {lir forces. There is usually an air force,
including a bomber command, an interceptor command, an
air support command and an air force base command, as*
signed to each theater of operation. An air support command
is habitually attached to or supports an army in the theater.
b. Observation type aviation is organic to an air support
command; other types are assigned or attached as' the
situation requires.
■ 3. The tactics and technique as set forth in the following
War Department publications amplify and supplement this
manual:
a. Air attack.— FNL 1-10.
b. Air lighting.— rhJL 1-15.
c. Air reconnaissance and observation. — 1-310.
d. Airdrome defense, — ^PM 100-15.
e. Air signal communication, — PM 1-45.
DEFINITIONS
■ 4. a. Air alert.— That status in which aircraft Is in the air»
armed and serviced for the immediate execution of an air
mission.
1
4
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
b. Ground alert. — ^That status In which aircraft on the
ground Is fully serviced, armed and with combat crews In
readiness to take off 15 minutes after receiving orders to
perform a mission.
c. Ground readiness. — That status wherein aircraft can be
serviced and personnel alerted to leave the ground for a
mission within 2 hours.
d. Airplane status report. — A periodic report showing air-
planes available for a certain specified period. Their status
of readiness is indicated.
e. Air support command. — tactical air organization, or-
ganized, equipped, and trained to render air swport to ground
forces normally supporting an army.
/. Air support control.—The air unit at the headquarters of
the supported unit for the purpose of controlling the opera-
tions of the support aviation; advising the supported ground
commander as to the capabilities of the air unit; and main-
taining liaison with the air units.
fir. Air support officer, — ^An air officer with a ground combat
element as a representative of air support control. For func-
tions see paragraph 37.
h. Air support party.— A highly mobile group composed of
one or more air support officers and necessary personnel and
equipment to transmit air support requests to air support
control, and to operate communications with aircraft-in-
flight net. For functions sec paragraphs 37 and 109.
i. Air support mission^.— Missions assigned air support avia-
tion Include both the immediate support of ground forces
where contact with the enemy Is imminent or has already
been established, and the destruction or neutralization of
timely but more distant targets to prevent or Impede hostile
movement, Intervention or entry into combat. (See pars.
26-34.)
j. Briefing. --The act of furnishing airplme crews with the
latest essential information in the briefest possible form im-
mediately prior to the take-off.
k. Objective folder.— A compilation, in convenient folder
form, of data for planning and executing a mission in support
of ground units.
2
CHAPTER 2
COMBAT AVIATION
Section I
ORGANIZATION
GENERAL
■ 5. In addition to his duties as commander of support
aviation, the air support commander acts as adviser to the
ground commander. He normally functions under the army,
theater, or task f^rce commander.
■ 6. Aviation units may be designated in support of a major
ground force. The control is centralized in an air support
commander who assigns the attack missions as the needs of
the ground unlt(s) develop. When the operatlcm requires,
aviation units may be specifically allocated to the support
of subordlhate ground units. When this is done the combat
aviation unit receives its support missions from an stir sup-
port control established at the command post of the sup-
ported unit. However, a combat aviation unit may also
receive other support missions from the air support com-
mander. Designation of an aviation unit for support of a
subordinate ground unit does not imply subordination of that
aviation unit to the supported ground unit, nor does it remove,
the combat aviation unit from the control of the air support
commander. It does permit, however, direct cooperation and
association between the supporting aviation unit and the
supported ground unit and enables the combat aviation to
act with greater promptness in meeting requirements of a
rapidly changing situation. Aviation units may be attached
to subordinate ground units. This is exceptional and should
be resorted to only when circumstances are such that the
air support commander cannot elfectively control the combat
aviation assigned to the air support command.
■ 7. The agencies and channels of tactical control of com-
bat aviation of a typical air support command are charted
In figure 1. In this case an air support command is repre-
3
7
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
AIRCRAFT - IN" FLIOHT
OBSN
OOv
BOHB
XXXX
AIR SUPPORT
COWjflAWO
.OCT. Bom A
\ •
'OcioBSN 1$
c
8
EHia EHCB
Qround torc^w on
thla XiiM vgr b«
brlfAdM, r«gl-
Mnt« «r lomr
unlU.
(•olid Ubm) — aenHl grvoad foM* <
C* »
t !
I
brolnn lint) — air mpport oooirel ehmiiit
dottwl Um) diTMt MnAf^l alMmls
[dovUL* Um) — ooordtiMtim ohftinAt
— air Mppwi ttet%im
— air tiqVMt Mitrail
Air tupport oontrtfU wid air wpport pmtUm idU Mattel
dirMtljr thra «ir«r«rt.42».niglit ni/w •ir^nm Mt
«h«n artctloa is in npport of a p«itia«Ur p>mni «dt«
Control tMith photognqplilo* mp/ij^, aal tnniport i
not Bhowa on eliart.
FtoxnuB 1.
4
AVIATION IW SUPPORT Ot CROTOD FORCES 7-11
sented In support of a ground force consisting of an army
Agencies and channels of tactical control are^own ln ™ly
one corw. An air support control is associated with Uie
3d Division— Two with lower units.
2d Division— One with division headquarters
1st Division— One with division headquarters
For signal communication see chapter 5.
.* command post of the air support command is i
immediately adjacent to the command post of the sXrt^S
uwt-ln this case an army. A representative of the ground
arJS?n^?/ °' supported units Is always present at the
! L command post. An air support liaison officer will
always be at the command post of the supported unit.
■ 9. ^gure 1 also illustrates channels of air support control.
a. From the various air support parties and controls to the
f^J^'^T JT^^^^ « s»w>"l«J be noted
to alrdiome *° "^^""^ ^'^^
b. From the air support command post to the various alr-
*omes and to aircraft in flight either directly or through
the airdromes (dotted lines).
Hir«.rT T^""^ ^'"^^ *° control «"x» then
directly to airdromes when in support of a specific ground
unit, such as a division.
XMPLOYIOmT *
.■ 10. CooPHiATioN.-The basis of effective air support of
gwund forces is teamwork. The air and ground units In such
operations in fact form a combat team. Each member of
the team must have the technical skill and training to enable
**" ^f* *" operation and a willingness to
cooperate thoroughly.
■ 11. Factors af«ctiho employment.— The most effective
employment of support aviation requires a consideration of
many factors:
niperlorlty must be
maintained to Insure air support without excfesslve losses due
to hostile aviation.
46089S°— 43 ^3 k
11-12
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
&. Economy of force. — This does not mean economy in
numbers of airplanes applied to the objective, but economy
of force by application to the right target at the right time.
Aircraft are more vulnerable and less easily replaced than
artillery. Only those targets which cannot be effectively
and quickly reached by artillery should be assigned to sup-
porting aviation.
c. THme and space, — Consideration of time and space fac-
tors involve an appraisal of the mission, the distance from
the airdrome to the point of action, the speed and reliability
of signal communication, and the status of readiness of air-
craft assigned to the effort.
d. Flexibility.— Flexibility is the ability to concentrate' the
air effort at short notice on a particular point or distribute it
to many points within a relatively short time.
e. Limitation of aircraft—Air support cannot be guaran-
teed. It may be limited by weather, enemy action, or me-
chanical failure.
/. Field of operation.— The area of operation of support .
aviation should not be restricted but should be sufficiently
broad to permit timely attacks on enemy forces that Jeopardize
the success of operations of supported forces.
fir. Weight of attack.— freight of attack depends upon the
number of aircraft employed and the rate at which operations
can be conducted. Security and avoidance of losses in the
execution of attacks must be subordinated to the achievement
of the maximum demoraliaation and destruction of the
enemy.
h. Air cooperation. — Close cooperation and coordination
with other air force elements in the same area are necessary.
If operating outside the area of an effective Interceptor com- .
mand, the air support command should have made available
to it sufficient pursuit aviation.
■ 12. Methods op employment. — The ground force com-
mander, in collaboration with the air support conunander,
decides the air support required. The following are general
methods for employment of combat aviation:
a. All combat aviation initially assigned to support of the
major ground force with provisions for certain subordinate
unit support assignment later.
6
AVIATION IN STIPPORT OF GROUND FORCES
12-17
5, A part assigned to support of the major ground force
with the remainder assigned to support of subordinate
elements.
c. Assignment of ail combat aviation to support of the
major ground force with provisions for a change to specific
subordinate unit support while the aircraft are in flight.
d. All combat aviation assigned initially to support of sub*
ordinate units with provisions for control or target designa-
tion by certain units directly from an air support control or
an air support officer to aircraft in flight.
Section n
INTEXJUQENCE
GENERAL
■ 13. Hie importance of military Intelligence to the em-
ployment of support aviation is vital. Without factual knowl-
edge of hostile activities and installations the effect of air
support missions is minimized and in many cases nullified.
■ 14. High standards of ability and training are required of
intelligence personnel. Many are specialists in a particular
branch of military Intelligence. Of particular importance in
this duty are the specia]ist% in the interpretation of aerial
photographs.
■ 15. The intelligence section of the air support command
post operates in conjunction with the operations section.
Under such circumstances it is able to furnish the air sup-
port commander with timely and accurate information con-
cerning the enemy capabilities, after considering the objective
and the hostile activities, as infiuenced by weather and
terrain.
■ 16. Military Intelligence procedures and objectives arc
described in FM 1-40 and 30-5.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
■ 17. AH possible sources of information, ground and air, are
utilized to obtain air support intelligence. Important sources
may be —
a. Visual reconnaissance. ^
h. Photographic reconnaissance.
7
17-23
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
c. All air units in the locality.
d. Air warning and antiaircraft units.
e. Captured materiel, personnel, and documents.
/. Intelligence sections of ground units.
g. Air support parties and controls.
h. Intercepts.
■ 18. Intelligence officers stationed at airdromes secure much
Important data by thoroughly questioning crews as they re-
turn from air missions. In addition these airdrome intelli-
gence officers are charged with the mission of keeping the
flying personnel abreast of the situation as fully as possible,
utilizing the periods between missions to the fullest extent,
and thus shortening the time of briefing com^t crews imme-
diately prior to departure on missions.
■ 19. Ground troops should be thoroughly indoctrinated to
report all bombardment or machine gun attacks by enemy
aviation. The tendency of individuals and echelons under-
going air attack is to become engrossed In warding ofl the
attack and forgetting to make a full report of the attack
to intelligence agencies.
COLLECTION, EVALUATION, AND DISSEMINATION
■ 20. Intelligence officers of al^ echelons must be trained to
grasp the decisive elements of a situation, to evaluate the
information obtained, and to prepare It for use.
■ 21. Objective folders are prepared, in advance whenever
possible, to apply to all possible objectives in the area of
operations and in probable air theaters. In most cases the
opportunity for air activity prior to actual combat will be
limited, and the preparation of objective folders will have to
be accomplished during the conduct of operations.
■ 22. Close cooperation between all intelligence agencies,
ground and air, must be achieved to provide timely knowledge
of essential information by all concerned. Occasions arise
where vital items of military Intelligence to air units must be
routed directly between air units without resort to normal
channels. Such action must be taken when the situation
Justifies it.
■ 23. All enemy information must be evaluated so that
proper conclusions may be derived therefrom.
8
AVIATION IN Sin>PORT OF GROUND rORCKS
■ 24. Dissemination of intelligence to individuals or imits
must be made according to the urgency of the subject matter.
Immediate transmission of all intelligence data would con-
gest the communication facilities. Therefore, it is of prime
importance that matters which can be delayed be held for
periodic reports.
Section in
COMBAT OPERATIONS
condvct
il 25. Combined operations of air and ground forces must be
closely coordinated by the commander of the supported
ground force. All operations should therefore be conducted
in accordance with well-defined and practical plans. (See
PM 100-5 and 100-15.)
MISSIONS
■ 26. Combdt support aviation may be employed on the fol-
lowing types of missions:
a. Reconnaissance bombardment. — ^Bombardment aviation
may conduct combined reconnaissance bombing missions by
developing and attacking targets located by the mission.
b. Attack on defensive organizations, — ^Air attacks are exe-
cuted against field fortifications and defensive organizations
in the path of the supported ground forces, particularly mech-
anized and armored forces, when it is not practicable to em-
ploy other means of attack upon the desired objective in the
time available, or when the added fire power and moral effect
of air attacks are essential to insure the timely success of th^
ground force operation.
c. Attacks on enemy reserves and reinforcements. — ^Hostile
ground forces moving toward the operation area of the sup-
ported force normally will be a remunerative target for bom-
bardment aviation and should be subjected to air attack for
the purpose of blocking or delasing their movement and for
effecting their destruction or demoralization.
d Attacks on hostile mechanized forces. — Supporting com-
bat aviation attacks and destroys approaching mechanized
forces and antitank units before they gain contact with the
supported force. The supply and maintenance elemehts so
essential to motorized and armored formations should be
sought constantly.
9
26-29
BASIC FIELD MANTTAL
e. Attacks on hostile aviation. — ^When other air forces are
Inadequate or not available, the destruction or neutralization
of hostile aircraft or antiaircraft by support aviation may
be necessary,
/. Support of parachute and other air-borne troops, — ^In
the support of this type of operations, friendly pursuit oper-
ates to gain and maintain effective air control over the ob-
jective for the period of the operation and provides security
to air-borne troops while in air transit and during landings.
Supporting bombardment aviation conducts initial attacks
when necessary to neutralize the enemy ground defenses
at or near the objective and maintains sustained support
until the objective of the supported unit has 'been gained.
Air attacks are directed against ground targets at or near
the objective that oppose the operations of the supported
air infantry on the ground and against enemy reserves or
reinforcements that threaten the supported force.
■ 27. Unless the situation is critical, targets usually will
not be selected within the effective range of the weapons of
ground forces. (See par, 26b.) Small targets due to dis-
persion, camouflage, or concealment are not suitable targets
for support aviation. Commanders must consider the em-
ployment of combat aviation in the light of the hostile air
and ground situation and not as a weapon which can be
applied with equal value in all circumstances.
■ 28. Air support targets on the immediate front or flanks
of supported units are generally transitory targets of oppor-
tunity. These targets may Include troop concentrations or
movements, artillery in position or in motion, minor field
fortifications such as pill boxes, armored forces and tanks
in assembly or in motion, motor columns, bridges of military
value, and various field installations. The employment of
dive bombers is indicated against these targets.
■ 29. Air support targets not on the immediate front or
fianks may include command posts, lines of communication,
ammunition and bomb dumps, troop concentrations ill bivouac
or on the march, airdromes and aircraft thereon, tank
concentrations, etc.
TARGETS
10
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OF GROUND FORCES
30-^
■ 30. Rules cannot be laid down for the selection of the
type of aviation to be employed against certain types of
targets. The method of attack and equipment to be used
must be determined by the air support commander or air
support control after a consideration of all the factors
affecting the employment of available aviation In the par-
ticular operation.
■ 31. The most important target at a particular time wiH
usually be that target which constitutes the most serious
threat to the operations of the supported ground force. The
final decision as to priority of targets rests with the com-
mander of the supported unit.
■ 31 geHiiaary targets should be assigned In each attack
mission in case the primary target cannot be attacked.
■ 33. Targets may be developed by ground reconnaissance or
air reconnaissance and aerial photography.
■ 34. Targets must be accurately indicated to the attacking
aircraft. Targets may be designated by—
a. Use of maps and map substitutes with well-understood
grid systems or with a coded template.
b. Marked aerial photographs, either vertical or oblique.
c. Polar coordinates with reference to a terrain feature
which can be identified from the air.
d. "Leading in" of combat aviation by observation aircraft.
e. Visual ground signals such as—
(1) Arrow or "V" on ground pointing to target with range
indicated by proper number of crossbars or disks, each
representing a definite distance. '
(2) Vehicles in prearranged formations.
<3) Firing tracer ammunition or artillery or mortar smoke
to mark a reference point.
(4) Signal lamps and lights.
(5) Pyrotechnics. .
/. All ground units must be trained so as to assist air units
in every way possible In reaching their target.
PLANS AND ORDERS OP GROUND AND AIR COMMANDKRS
■ 36. Ground coMifANDiRS.—In addition to normal data con-
cerning reconnaissance and inlielligence missions, the field
11
35^37 BASIC FIELD MAN1TAL
orders of the supported commander should contain at leiwrt
the following Instructions to air support aviation:
I a. Mission of support aviation.
h. Method of air support,
p. Designation of units to receive direct support.
d. Area In which support aviation is to operate or be
prepared to operate.
■ 36. Air commanders,— a. The air commander must be so
trained in the tactical employment of elements of his com-
! mand that, given a specific objective, he can evolve a plan
of action to fit the situation at hand. However, the situation
may change prior to arrival at the objectiveii in which case
i the secondary plan of action will be put into effect.
b. The air support commander will issue complete orders
I when time permits, but normally the Instructions will be in
I fragmentary form or according to a prearranged form. The
I following items are necessary for lower air units to enabfe
1 them to prepare for operations:
(1) Assignment of units to support the ground force, in-
cluding priority, limiting times of attack, bomb loading, routes,
and aviation assistance.
I (2) Instructions to units detailed for support of particu-
lar subordinate units.
(3) Necessary instructions as to bomb loadings.
(4) Instructions concerning bomb safety lines with effective
J time limits.
(5) Assignment of missions to observation units.
(6) Allocation of air support control and air support
parties.
(7) Special signal communication instructions.
c. Air support to carry out both ground and air command-
ers' orders in the case where a unit Is specifically assigned to
the support of a particular ground unit, such as a division,
will be carried out in accordance with the procedure and
control as outlined in paragraph 37.
AIR SXrpPORT MISSION PROCEDURE
■ 37. INITIATION OP REQnE8TS.---a. 0«nerol.— RcQuests for air
support originate with any unit commander and follow normal
command channels until they reach a command post where
13
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OF OROtTOT FORCES
37
there is an air support party. The commander initiating the
request will include the following information:
(1) Type or designation of target.
(2) Exact location of target by best means available. <8ee
par. 34.)
(3) Direction of movement of target,
(4) All partlcularty distinguishing characteristics of target.
(6) Location of friendly troops with respect to tarjget.
(6) Time limits of requested support if necessary.
b. Transmission of request. — At the air support party the
air support officer will advise the commander of the ground
unit with which he is operating as to the practicability of exe-
cution of a mission and as to the advisability of requesting
It. If the ground commander approves the request it will be
forwarded without delay to the air support control.
c. Evaluation of request. — ^At air support control the air
support officer in collaboration with the commander of the
supported unit evaluates the request considering the following
factors:
(1) Identification of target and location.
(2) Time limits of attack.
(3) Importance of target in furtherance of ground plan.
(4) Number of airplanes required to destroy or neutralize
the target.
(6) Number of airplanes available at airdrome and their
status of readiness.
(6) Weather conditions along route and at target.
(7) Type of bombs and ammunition required.
d. Decision on request. — The decision as to whether or no^
an air support mission will be ordered rests with the com-
mander of the supported unit. Such decision must compre-
hend full consideration of the air support commander's
advisement as to air means available and the ability of
aviation to perform successfully the mission ordered. (See
par. 109.)
e. Notification of decision to source. — ^When the decision
has been reached as to whether or not the mission will be
ordered, the air support control will in all cases advise the
requesting unit through the air support party as to the action
taken, stating reasons if mission is not ordered.
460896--43 8 13
37-39
BASIC FIELD MANITAL
/. Transmission of orders. — If the request is approved It
will be forwarded in attack order form directly to airdrome
of supporting unit for compliance.
fir. Air action on orders, — ^Upon receipt of an attack order,
the unit at the airdrome will take the necessary action in
conformance with its state of readiness to insure success of
the attack.
h. Air report cm execution of support mission, — ^Immedi-
ately upon return of the airplanes to the airdrome, the air
unit commander will report directly to the air support control
where the order originated, giving results of mission and all
pertinent intelligence data.
Ground report on result of attack mission, — ^After the
attack by support aviation, the commander who requested the
support will report results of attack to air support control
through the same channels that were used for the original
request.
j. Priority status of requests. — ^Requests for air support
should have priority over all other matters on the air support
control net. See paragraph 114 for suggested forms for
messages and attack orders.
ATTACKS
■ 38. The approach, formation, altitude and delivery of at-
tack are matters of technique for the supporting air units
concerned and are beyond the scope of this manual.
■ 39. TlMiNO. — a. The timing of the air attack is of primary
importance in securing the maximum effect.
b. When friendly troops might be endangered, definite time
limits for the commencement and termination of the attack
should be prescribed. Time allowances for action upon air
requests, the transmission of the attack order through chan-
nels, the aircraft to leave the ground, and for the flight to
the objective must be carefully computed in determining the
time of attack.
c. When the nature of the attack permits, the firing of pre-
arranged flares by the last element of the combat aviation
may serve to signal the end of the air attack as well as a
signal to launch the ground attack. The ground attack may
be launched on the signal from the coSSnSSt ft^^
end of the time bracket, whichever comes first.
14
AVIATION IH Sin»PORT OF GROUND FORCES
39-41
d. Tn some cases the exact time a target may be most ex-
posed or attacked to greatest advantage cannot be fixed when
the attack order is given. In such cases an attack may be
ordered when a particular condition occurs (crossing bridges
or exposed area, debouching from cover, within a defile, etc.)
rather than at a precise time.
■ 40. Types of bombs.— a. Bombs that are most generally
used by support aviation are —
(1) Fragmentation.
(2) Demolition from 50 pounds to 250 pounds.
(3) Chemical.
(4) Incendiary.
5. The most effective bomb in any instance depends on the
target against which it is used.
STATtTS OF AIR UNITS
■ 41. In support operations when targets cannot be fore-
seen and developed sufficiently in advance for normal air
operating procedure, special provision must be made to mini-
mize the Hme lag between requests for missions and their
execution. Frequently such targets will be encountered In a
fast moving ground situation wherein time will be the vital
factor in any air operations conducted.
a. Alert status, — To meet this time requirement, a suitable
portion of supporting combat aviation should be maintained
on "alert" status, either ground or air, prepared to proceed
to and attack, with the least practicable delay, any assigned
target. This will necessitate that the aircraft previously be
armed and serviced. In this connection, it is highly desirable
in support operations that the number of types of loading be
restricted to one or two except for a special operation.
(1) When aircraft are ground-alerted, the pilots station
themselves in the immediate vicinity of the unit operations
office or their aircraft, ready to receive final instructions.
Procedure should be developed to minimize the time required
to clear the airdrome after instructions and orders are issued.
(2) In fast moving situations when "ground alert" does
not permit timely attacks, it may sometimes be necessary
to "air alert" a portion of the supporting force for the attack
of targets of opportunity that constitute an immediate threat
to the operations of the supported ground force. Air alert
15
41
BASIC FIELD MANITAL
is highly uneconomical and can be maintained only for short
periods of time. When airplanes are on air alert, direct air-
ground communication with supported unit will be normal.
h. Period of operations. — The commander of the supported
unit and his air support control must be thoroughly familiar
with the Importance of conserving the supporting air units by
careful control of combat crew state of readiness. From
experience gained abroad and in this country it has been
established that» for continuous or sustained operations, an
air support unit can operate for protracted periods, if not
to exceed a ratio of about 25 percent of the combat crews
are on alert status, 25 percent readiness status, and 50 percent
released. It must also bq borne in mind that as part of the
unit is ordered out on missions other crews must replace
those ordered out, and so advance their state of readiness.
Combat crews on "alert" are seriously affected by fatigue
due to the tension and discomfort of being in full flying
gear and In immediate expectation of taking off. When an
attack order comes in, personnel must be ready instantly
to plan their attack, be briefed by intelligence, go to their
airplanes, which are usually dispersed, check their equip-
ment and take off. It should therefore be exceptional for
combat crews to be held on alert status when there is no
immediate prospect of missions being ordered. In all cases
due consideration should be given to the conservation of
combat crews as related to the immediate ground situation.
For a decisive operation limited in time, the mcwcimum num-
ber of aircraft should be placed in highest readiness status
that contemplated employment will permit.
c. Limitations, — ^In this connection, it is important to con-
sider the uncertainty of sustained strength in participating
aircraft. Only the number available for initial operations
can be definitely determined. Neither the numbers which
will return, nor the time at which those that return will be
available for future action, can be predetermined with any
reliability. In these circumstances, the number of aircraft
immediately available will, after the opening phase, fluctuate
throughout the operation. This fluctuation is an important
limiting quality of air support.
16
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OP GROX7KD PORCBS
4%M
NIGHT OPERATIONS
■ 42. High altitude bombing can be conducted at night when-
ever the conditions are such that the target can be seen and
the necessary sighting operations performed. Artificial illu-
mination of the target is frequently necessary. For such
attacks using the flight, squadron, and glide methods see
FM 1-10.
■ 43. Minimum altitude bombing, usually by airplanes oper-
ating singly, can be effected against very profitable targets,
such as motor and troop columns, which habitually operate
under the protection of darkness. For night bombing oper-
ations see FM 1-10.
SAFETY MEASURES AND GROUND IDENTIFICATIONS
■ 44, Up to the present no satisfactory method has yet been
developed that will insure immunity to troops from attacks
by its own bombardment. However, the chances of bombing
friendly troops can be held to a minimum and the chances
of error reduced by careful attention to the following:
a. Briefing of combat cretw.— Thorough and complete
briefing of combat crews by unit intelligence officers prior
to a mission, giving as accurate and up-to-the-minute picture
of friendly ground activity and location as is possible before
take-off.
h. Target designation. — Complete and detailed location and
description of target with respect to prominent Ismdmarks,
Also direction and rate of movement of target or its probable
moVement. Hctures, d rawings, and other helpful data should,
c. Timely notification of situation^ chan{fes, — ^Immediate
priority advisement by ground commander to associated air
support agency of any affecting changes in friendly troop
dispositions occurring subsequent to a specific request for
support mission.
d. Identification of enemy. — ^Thorough training and indoc-
trination of air and ground personnel in visual identification
of enemy and friendly uniforms, materiel, formations mark-
ings, and signals. Provisions must be made by responsible
commanders for combined training of air and ground troops,
leading toward the development of satisfactory mutual iden-
17
0m
44-46 BASIC nsLD manttal
tiflcation methods in order to increase the elTectlveness of
their combined operations.
■ 45. IDENTIFICATION, FRIENDLY TROOPS. — ^Among the mcthods
of identifying friendly troops and reducing chances of being
bombed by friendly aircraft tried with limited success both
In this country and abroad are —
a. Establishment of bomb safety lines readily identified
from the air.
b. Visual signals prescribed to identify ground elements to
friendly aviation. Examples of visual signals are panels, flags,
pyrotechnics, lights, smoke, marking of vehicles, and arrange-
m§|it of vehicles in certain formations.
{ c^Radio communication with aircraft in flight.
■ 46. Methods to identify friendly troops to friendly air units
must constantly be sought and tested. These methods may
be of a secret nature and should be incorporated in signal
operation instructions.
18
CHAPTER 3
OBSERVATION AVIATION AND PHOTOORAPHY
Section I
ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT
AIRPLAOTE TYPES
■ 47. As an aid to an understanding of the organization of
observation and photographic aviation, the succeeding para-
graphs are devoted to a discussion of their characteristics and
equipment.
■ 48. Observation types. — a. At present there are two basic
types of high performance airplanes used for observation pur-
poses: the high performance two-engine multiplace type; and
the high performance single-engine, single seater. Both of
these types are designed or adapted primarily for observation
missions although they may also be capable of air attack.
Hieir speed will be sufficient to permit them to avoid action
generally, but they will be sufflci^tly armed to give them
some protection from hostile aircraft and partially armored
to afford some protection against ground fire.
b. Liaison type aircraft are characterlssed by their slow
speeds, lack of armor and armament, and by their ability to
operate from relatively small areas.
c. Balloons for observation purposes have been discon-
tinued.
■ 49. Photographic types. — a. The primary function of a
photographic airplane is the transportation of a camera or
cameras in operating positions. Several types of aircraft will
meet this requirement. Tactical requirements will generally
be the determining factors in selection of actual types. These
factors will generally be —
(1) Altitudes at which photographs are to be taken.
(2) Scales desired.
(3) Security.
b. Correlating these factors with the tactical requirements
of photographic squadrons calls for aircraft of maximimi
19
4^63 BASIC FIELD MANUAL
Speed to operate at high altitudes with operations generally
assured by superiority of armament, speed, maneuverability,
or altitude. These four conditions complicated by the neces-
sity for carrying cameras cannot all be attained to maximum
degrees, therefore a compromise is reached giving the best
combination for various conditions, generally speed and
maneuverability at altitude, all of which are improved by the
lack of armament.
■ 50. Mapping. — The fundamental requirements for mapping
type airplanes are the same as those for high altitude photog-
raphy with the added requirement of longer range and ability
to carry more and larger cameras.
ORGANIZATION
■ 51. General. — Observation aviation will generally be suf-
ficiently decentralized to permit each corps and division to
plan the use of and to call direct upon its supporting observa-
tion squadron for missions.
■ 52. Unit allotment. — Based on present Tables of Organ-
ization the allotment of observation aviation is —
a. Theater headquarters — One or more mapping squadrons.
5. Each army — ^An observation group, consisting of two
medium observation squadrons and a photo squadron.
c. Each army corps — ^An observation group consisting of
one medium observation squadron and one light observation
squadron per division.
d. Each armored and cavalry corps — One observation
squadron (M) and a medium observation group consisting of
one medium observation squadron per division.
c. Force Headquarters, Armored Force — One photo
squadron.
/. Each separate armored or cavalry division— One medium
observation squadron.
■ 53. While generally each echelon depends upon the allotted
observation Indicated above, higher echelons, where the situ-
ation warrants, use their aviation to carry out missions for
lower units, normally retaining centralization of control.
Armored and cavalry divisions, due to the character of their
20
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OF GROUND FORCES 53-57
role and missions, have medium squadrons Instead of the light
squadrons allotted for the support of infantry divisions.
■ 54. Number of airplanes.— a. Observation, — ^Each obser-
vation squadron has as its basic equipment 18 airplanes of
suitable type. These types will vary according to the mis-
sions which each type squadron will be expected to perform.
(1) At the present time light observation squadrons have
6 high performance single-engine, single-seater type, and 12
liaison type.
(2) Medium squadrons have 6 high performance bimotor,
multiplace type, 6 high performance single engine, single
seater, and 6 liaison type.
b. Photo. — 'Photo squadrons are at present equipped with
6 blmotor, multiplace type, and 12 single-engine, single-seater
type.
c. Mapping. — Mapping squadrons will be equipped with 18
long range extreme altitude airplanes as indicated in para-
graph 50. Twelve of these are of the bimotor, multiplace
type, and 6 single seaters.
functions
■ 55. Observation. — ^It is the function of observation avia-
tion to support the ground units by the execution of recon-
naissance, artillery, and liaison missions.
■ 56. Photo, — ^The primary function of photo squadrons is
to accomplish all aerial photography required by the army,
or armored force to which assigned, except the reconnaissance
photography performed by observation squadrons. They will
be able to perform a limited amount of mapping, but such
functions are not normal and will seriously curtail their
normal useful functions.
■ 67. Mapping. — Mapping squadrons are constituted for the
use of theater headquarters to perform mapping in any area
which is likely to become of military interest. The services
of mapping squadrons will not generally be required by or
available to lower echelons as that work will have been pre-
viously accomplished. It should be normal to have a mapping
squadron assigned to each oversea theater.
460896*'— 42 4 21
58-59 BASIC FIELD MANUAL
Section II
OBSERVATION OPERATIONS AND MISSIONS
OPERATIONS
■ 58. liiAisoN. — ^While the general value of observation avia-
tion is widely recognized, the potentialities and limitations
of equipment available, and the standard of training, Indoc-
trination, and morale of personnel must be fully realized
by the supported commander in order to exploit his obser-
vation aviation to the maximum without excessive losses.
This calls for very close liaison between the suplwrted com-
mander and the observation aviation available to him. Such
liaison Is of sufficient Importance that the observation unit
commander will be designated as air adviser to the com-
mander of the supported unit. He should take advantage of
his position, particularly in the Initial phases of operation,
personally to advise the supported commander on these
points. Thereafter he will generally desire to be represented
by one of his most experienced officers who will have a
very thorough personal knowledge of his particular unit,
the commander continuing to act as air adviser to the com-
mander of the supported unit making whatever personal
contacts are deemed necessary.
■ 69. Intelligence. — a. Oeneral plan, — In order to Insure
intelligent execution of all observation missions, It Is of the
utmost importance that every pilot and observer be familiar
with the general scheme of maneuver of the supported unit
and with the details of every operation In which he may
be called upon to participate. The plan of employment of
other , friendly operations both ground and air should be
known to planning personnel to Insure coordination. Close
contact should be maintained with adjacent air units to per-
mit rapid exchange of Information vital to their operations.
b. Enemy situation, — It is Important that pilots and ob-
servers keep posted on the enemy situation, both ground and
air, not only for the intelligent execution of their mission but
for their own safety. This knowledge enables them to deter-
mine more thoroughly the requirements of their mission than
would be possible without It. Their safety is dependent upon
their knowledge of the locations of ground Installations which
22
AVIATION IN StTPPORT OF GROUND FORCES 59-61
might oppose the execution of their mission and enemy air
activity which they might desire to avoid.
c. Intelligence officer, — In order to disseminate this infor-
mation to pilots and observers, the Intelligence section of the
observation squadron must maintain information which is
thorough, accurate, and up to the minute. In order to main-
tain this condition, it is necessary that the intelligence ofBcer
not only thoroughly understand the organization and opera-
tion of the supported ground elements, but that he have a
general knowledge of the opposing ground forces. He must
maintain very close liaison with the supported unit to get
all Information concerning friendly plans and situations and
to keep himself posted at all times on the situations of both
friendly and enemy ground forces. He must maintain con-
tact with other air elements and any other sources available
for Information concerning both friendly and enemy air
activity. He must keep all pilots and observers constantly
informed of the general plans and situations, and upon re-
quest for a mission he must himself analysse it and brief his
observation crews immediately prior to dispatching the mis-
sion. Upon completion of the mission he must receive all
reports and Interrogate the crews involved in order to trans-
mit proper intelligence to the supported unit. He must have
sufficient relief within his section to maintain constant oper-
ations and at the same time permit personal visits to the
supported unit.
■ 60. Orientation.—- It is particularly important that pilots
and observers in observation squadrons be thoroughly familiar
with the terrain over which they operate in order that they .
will know at all times where they are, and be able to find their
objectives by reference to landmarks while flying at low alti-
tudes with the minimum reference to maps in flight. Ori-
entation is Important in locating and reporting observations.
They should make a thorough study of the area beforehand
to permit constant orientation without reference to maps
particularly during darkness when the minlmiun number of
landmarks are visible.
■ 61. Altitudes. — Only general rules can be stated regarding
the altitudes at which observation missions can be performed.
The most suitable altitude depends upon such factors as:
23
61-63
BASIC FIELD MANtTAL
mission, perjformance and characteristics of the aircraft em-
ployed, armor and armament carried, range and effectiveness
of hostile small arms fire from ground weapons, amount of
effectiveness of antiaircraft fire, hostile air activity, camou-
flage of the airplane, and weather conditions such as the
ceiling, visibility, and clouds. Considering terrestrial combat
interference, operations of observation aviation over friendly
territory Is restricted only by the range depth of fire from
hostile weapons on or close to visual front-lines. The weapons
available to the hostile ground arms, then, will determine
dangerous altitudes. Small caliber weapons are generally
effective up to 5,000 feet elevation and larger calibers, includ-
ing heavy antiaircraft weapons, to varyingly high altitudes
up to 21,000 feet. Hence, the safest altitudes, considering
only ground Are, are those above the largest caliber hostile
weapons or below the altitude at which smaller ones may
be used effectively. Similarly, while Immunity from hostile
air attack cannot be assured, safest altitudes are those over-
topping the ceilings of hostile aircraft or 2sero altitudes which
prevent hostile diving attacks.
■ 62. Sortie.— While it would be possible under conditions
of absolute air superiority for aircraft to exist above the
range of hostile ground fire, such conditions of air superiority
would be considered exceptional and of short duration. This
imposes the restriction on the ground commander of requir-
ing that he select definite objectives to permit observation
airplanes to fly in at minimum altitude and maximum speed
for a hasty observation and quick return. Hie mission of
aerial surveillance in the face of even minor opposition
should be exceptional.
OBSERVATION MISSIONS
■ 63. General. — Observation aviation operating in support
of ground forces does not replace any of the intelligence
agencies available to the commander of those forces, but
supplements them and can provide the commander with
Information which he cannot secure by other means. Corps
and division observation units will be trained and equipped
for reconnaissance, artillery support, and liaison missions,
and for such photographic work as may be required by the
supported tmit, particularly reconnaissance idiotography.
24
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OF GROUND FORCES 63-65
The army observation group because of its photo squadron
Will In addition be equipped and trained to furnish artillery
Dre control photographs and limited mapping photography.
■ 64. Reconnaissance. — a. Day. — Complete control of the air
may permit a detailed and deliberate visual reconnaissance
of hostile territory by methods similar to those previously
employed. However, it must be realized by all concerned
that the nature and effectiveness of hostile air action are the
controlling factors, and when operating against an enemy of
approximately equal air strength, complete control of the air
will seldom, if ever, exist. Ground fire and hostile aviation
may require the performance of daylight reconnaissance mis-
sions in hostile territory at maximum speed either at mini-
mum altitude or at relatively high altitudes. This will limit
the effectiveness of visual reconnaissance and necessitate
reliance upon photographic and night reconnaissance with a
minimum time spent over hostile territory and will also
require a careful selection of reconnaissance objectives. Mis-
sions will generally be carried out by making a series of brief
sorties into enemy territory taking full advantage of high
speed using clouds or irregularities of the terrain for cover.
b. Night — ^Nlght reconnaissance is habitual and is pro-
ductive of a great deal of valuable information, particularly
to the experienced observer who is familiar with the terrain.
Normal conditions will sometimes permit, without artificial
illumination, the observation of activities which rely for
their success upon the cover of darkness, such as troop and
supply movements. Artificial illumination may permit closer
examination when necessary. Even though Information ob-
tained by night reconnaissance may be meager, the moral
effect on the enemy is considerable as he will be uncertain
as to whether his movements have been discovered. (See
PM 1-20.)
■ 65. Missions for Infantry.— Missions performed for In-
fantry Include the location of the opposing front lines,
observation of the progress of combat, location of hostile
resistance or enemy penetrations into our positions, and
assembly of hostile troops for attack or counterattack. Com-
manders of all echelons of ground forces are Interested in
the progress of battle. It is the primary responsibility of
the lower units of the ground forces themselves to furnish
25
BASIC FIELD MANirAL
this Information to their commanders. When these agencies
prove Inadequate, observation aviation may be called upon
to assist in obtaining this information. Before directing mis-
sions of this type, commanders should take into considera-
tion the high casualty rate to be expected, and should balance
this factor against the value of the information desired. Fre-
quently a single sortie may be able to determine the desired
information, in which case the mission should not be bur-
dened with requests for additional reconnaissance.
■ 66. Liaison missions. — Liaison missions are performed to
provide the superior commander with information required
in special situations and not obtainable through routine chan-
nels, or to transmit information or orders when such trans-
mission can be more effectively accomplished by air messen-
gers than by other means of communication. Where the
situation permits, this mission may be performed by the
liaison type airplane. However, all concerned must realize
that this type airplane is extremely vulnerable to hostile
ground and air fire; that normally it must be employed only
over friendly territory; and that conditions of modern war-
fare may not provide a definite line of demarcation between
hostile and friendly territory behind which such airplanes
can operate. Additionally, while this airplane is designed to
operate from small, unprepared fields, the latter may not be
available.
■ 67. Artillbry missions. — ^Due to the inability in many
cases of ground observers to locate targets and observe artil-
lery fire, aerial observation is necessary. The liaison type
airplanes may operate over friendly territory for the adjust-
ment of artillery. Due to its extreme vulnerability, even to
ground fire near the front lines, this type airplane must be
looked upon more as an elevated observation post rather
than an observation airplane for the adjustment of artillery.
Enemy air activity will more readily curtail the use of this
type airplane than the high performance observation type.
With the realization of these factors, observation and artil-
lery units must depend upon the normal high performance
observation airplane to some degree for adjustment of fire.
Long range artillery fire, defilade, and poor visibility may
require that such adjustment be carried out over hostile
territory. Proper planning and prearrangement must be
26
AVIATION IN StTPPORT or GROUND FORCES 67-71
thoroughly considered for rapidity of adjustment to reduce
to a minimum the time which the airplane spends over hos-
tile territory. The use of suitable fire control photographs
aids in such planning. For details concerning tactics and
technique employed in artillery missions see FM 1-20.
■ 68. Coo>ERATioN WITH CAVALRY, — Observation aviation does
not replace or supplant Cavalry as a reconnaissance agency,
but by proper cooperation increases the effectiveness of that
arm by extending its radius of action and by directing atten-
tion to known or suspected hostile forces, thereby obviating
useless marching and conserving men, horses, and materiel.
Observation for Cavalry is particularly important tn the
initial phases of a strategic or tactical movement. During
combat the observation aviation mission with Cavalry is
essentially the same as that with Infantry.
■ 69. Cooperation with armored and motorized forces.— The
rapid movement of armored and motorized units calls for the
use of observation aviation for distant and route reconnais-
sance, march liaison, observation for artillery, and normal
liaison. Observation aviation is of vital importance in the
operation of armored forces.
■ 70. Cooperation with seacoast artillery.— In the organi-
zation of air support commands no observation aviation is
specifically provided to serve seacoast artillery but occa-
sions may arise wherein such may be required, in which case
it will be provided by the appropriate air support commander
as directed by the theater or army commander. Long range
reconnaissance at sea for the discovery of targets is beyond
the realm of the function of observation aviation operating
on such missions, but it may be used for short range recon-
naissance and for the adjustment of fire on targets. (See
PM 1-20.)
■ 71. Cooperation with combat support aviation. — On oc-
casion, certain specified observation missions may be au-
thorized to call directly to air support control, to airdromes,
pr to combat support aviation on air alert, for the purpose
of reporting targets for combat support aviation. Observa-
tion missions may be dispatched primarily for the purpose
of locating such targets. It should be noted that an observa-
tion mission authorized to make such requests for combat
27
\
71-72 BASIC FIELD MANUAL
air support is in the same status as a ground air support
party. After it flies a request and receives an approval it
will, if desired, remain in surveillance until the arrival of
the combat aviation which it then "leads in" to the target.
■ 72. Communication methods. — a. Success of communi-
cation in observation aviation depends to a Ifilrge degree
upon constant use of the communication system involved by
all personnel concerned. It is not sufficient that individuals
be able to use the system but it is vitally important that all
pairties who are to communicate with one another constantly
train and practice as a team. It must be recognized by
commanders that responsibility for each complete commu-
nication system must be centralized rather than divided.
Methods which necessitate cooperation between aircraft in
flight and troops on the ground require constant practice
and coordination to give any expectation of the success which
will be necessary in operations.
b. There are a variety of methods of communication avail-
able to the observation team and ground units with which
it is operating. Radio, while it is the most widely used,
cannot always be considered reliable and must be supple-
mented by other means.
(1) Radio. — ^Radio is the normal means of communication
for observation missions with artillery, armored forces, and
combat support aviation and is relied upon generally In
operations with other forces, particularly in higher echelons.
(2) Dropped messages. — ^The dropped message is an im-
portant and reliable means of communication which is par-
ticularly useful to deliver marked maps, photographs, or
sketches, none of which can be transmitted by radio. This
means may be used frequently on reconnaissance missions
with more satisfactory results than radio ; for communication
with ground troops who have no other means available; to
supplement radio on many missions; and as a satisfactory
emergency means on others.
(3) Panels. — Simple prearranged codes may at times per-
mit the use of panels as a valuable means of communication
when others would not be practicable. Their use should be
limited to single indicators as even moderately long messages
are too time-consuming to be considered. They may be of
28
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OF GROUND FORCES 72-74
particular value in special operations such ajs those under-
taken by parachute troops or detached raiding parties.
(4) Pyrotechnics. — ^These may sometimes be used for com-
munication or Identllication.
(B) Airplane maneuver signals. — Simple signals may some-
times be transmitted by maneuvering the airplane in accord-
ance with a prearranged code. Their primary use is for
artUlery missions but may be adapted to other uses.
(6) Pick-up messages, — ^Messages may be picked up by
liaison tjrpe airplanes but such Is not generally practicable
with high performan<!^ type aircraft.
(7) Miscellaneous. — ^Frequently the most satisfactory and
rapid procedure for reconnaissance missions will be to require
that the observation team land at the end of a sortie to deliver
photos for processing and to be interrogated by intelligence
officers.
Section m
PHOTOGRAPHY AND MAPPING
PHOTOGRAPHY
■ 73. General. (See PM 1-35, 21-27. and 30-20).— a. Aerial
photography cannot of itself win tactical advantages, but
the failure to xise aerial photography properly may result
in the loss not only of battles but of a war. Aerial photog-
raphy forms the basis for a large part of all intelligence.
It is therefore essential that air and ground commanders
have a dear idea of the capabilities and limitations of aerial
photbgi^phy.
5. A major US6 of aerial photography in an active theater
is to secure information for the purpose of intelligence. It
shduld be the normal custom for these same photographs
td be used for terrain studies and map correction. However,
tlife vital function is to provide information, either positive
61" negative, concerning the location and extent of enemy
ihiitaillAtioxis* supplies, vehicles, and troops.
■ 74. iDiSTRiBUTioN OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS. — ^All Intelligence
d^ta, and particularly those obtained from aerial photographs,
are of maximum value to the supreme commander and of
diminishing value to his subordinates. However, to insure
460895"— 42 6 29
74-75
BASIC HELD MANUAL
proper distribution in the minimum time, photographic units
must distribute the Information gained by aerial photographs
to all interested headquarters simultaneously and not through
the normal chain of command. The bulk of the photography
will be primarily for Intelligence purposes and the photo-
graphs themselves will not receive wide distribution. Fur-
thermore the speed of production of aerial photographs is
directly proportional to the number of prints made from
each negative. If qualified liaison ofBcers from the sup-
ported units are stationed with the photographic squadron
of the command or with the G-2 with which that squadron
operates, they may indicate the need for distribution of
specific photographs to their units. It is the duty of these
liaison oflBcers to determine which of existing aerial photo-
graphs should be distributed to their units. It wUl usually
be far more desirable to authorize the liaison officers to
indicate the distribution desited in each particular Instance,
rather than set up hard and fast distribution. These liaison
officers, being familiar with the immediate needs of their
units, may also serve as a channel for the request for aerial
photography.
■ 75. Operations. — a. Day, — ^The performance of required
aerial photography during periods when there is friendly con-
trol of the air presents no particular problem other than
that presented by the weather. However, it must be con-
stantly borne in mind by supported units that, in the face
of active enemy aerial opposition, it is suicidal to attempt to
photograph a specific objective at regular intervals. Photo-
graphic aviation will depend upon speed,. altitude, and the
element of surprise in order to secure desired photography in
the face of strong opposition. The office in charge of photo-
graphic operations must employ a great deal of ingenuity in
avoiding any pattern in photographic flight over specific
areas. It is quite practical to secure a strip of photographs
of enemy area, utilizing surprise, speed, and extreme altitudes.
It is thus possible, by careful planning of successive photo-
graphic flights undertaken primarDy for intelligence photog-
raphy, to secure overlapping coverages of wide areas.
Night, — A general exposition of night aerial photography
is found in PM 1-35. Excellent results are produced with
30
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OF GROUND FORCES 75-76
artificial illumination under good visibility conditions al-
though only a small area is covered with success, dependent
upon the degree of accuracy in locating the desired area.
c. General. — Orders for photographic missions must be
specific. At the altitudes at which missions are generally
conducted in the face of active opposition, the photographic
pilot cannot observe troops or Installations upon the ground
and then secure photographs. Instead, photography must
be obtained pn a specific strip of terrain without regard to the
pilot's ability to see enemy installations, troops, etc. Photog-
raphy secured in this fashion is capable of giving negative
information as well as positive. While it is possible for a
clever and ingenious enemy to camouflage and conceal his
actions from visual observation, the camera cannot be fooled,
particularly when a resultant photograph is studied by highly
trained photographic interpreters.
MAPPING
■ 76. Mapping squadrons. — Special mapping squadrons are
constituted for the use of theater headquarters. (See pars.
47-57.) They normally perform the mapping of large areas.
Their operations should be planned to cover all areas of pos-
sible military action to permit the production of accurate
maps as far in advance of the needs of the troops as practi-
cable. In order to provide for maps or for map revision a
mapping squadron will normally be provided for each over-
sea theater. Proper anticipation of mapping requirements
will generally permit greater coverage with more satisfactory
results without enemy opposition than is possible under con-
ditions of actual hostilities.
81
CHAPTER 4
AIR TRANSPORT
Section I
GENERAL
■ 77. Limitations. — ^The movement of troops and their
equipment and the movement of emergency supplies by air
transportation are entirely practicable within the limita-
tions of aircraft in genered and the available types of air-
planes and gliders in particular. The principal factors lim-
iting the use of aircraft in air transport operations are —
a. Availability of suitable and sufficient aircraft and crews
within the time limit allowed by the situation.
b. Performance characteristics, that is, speed, range, car-
rying capacity,
c. Ground facilities at points of departure, intermediate
landing points, and points of destination.
d. Weather.
e. Enemy activities.
■ 78. Practicability. — a. In the consideration of the use of
air transportation, the importance and urgency of the opera-
tion must be weighed against the fact that this is the most
expensive form of transportation available. It is expensive
not only in money, but also in terms of fuel consumed, wear
and tear on and possible destruction of the aircraft involved,
and in the interruption in the performance of the normal
missions of these aircraft for the time required. It is alsb
expensive in terms of equipment and supplies for the trans-
ported troops. The amounts of these items accompanying
the troops have to be held to a minimum and the troops
are deprived of the use of the remainder until it can be
brought to them at later times.
b. Air transportation is usually thought of in terms of its
rapidity. However, it is faster than other methods only
after the airplanes are under way. The coordinating and
planning, movements to points of departure, and loading
require fully as long as the older methods. The difficulty
32
AVIATION IN 5TJPPORT OF GKOTJlfD FORCES
78-89
of reaching an objective due to its geographical location
and/or enemy activity, rather than the time element, will
be the chief factor calling for the transportation of large
detachments by air.
e. Various factors at present render it inexpedient to hold
large concentrations of airplanes together for such move-
ments. Thus any troop movement will have to be foreseen
or delayed a suflScient time to permit the required aircraft
to be assembled. At present, large troop movements by air.
except to relatively inaccessible destinations, require an over-
all time interval comparable to or even longer than that for
other means more immediately available.
■ 79. Planning. — ^The necessity for planning for air trans-
portation operations in greatest detail and with thorough-
ness must be recognized if confusion, delay, and even disor-
ganization are to be avoided. 8uch operations are more
delicate than are similar ones by more conventional means.
Efficient liaison between transporting and transported units
is a prerequisite, and opportunities for rehearsal and practice
should not be neglected.
o. Protection for the troop movements is a primary con-
sideration for all concerned. Two major factors which con-
tribute to such protection are secrecy of projected operations
and friendly aviation.
b. Steps to maintain secrecy regarding large troop move-
ments must begin with the inception of the plan so that
reports of unusual concentration or activities involving trans-
port airi^anes, even those occurring in interior zones, will
not reach the enemy. Actual flights should avoid thickly
populated areas and preferably should be made at a very low
altitude or at night.
c. Adequate pursuit protection must be arranged for. It
is axiomatic that air superiority is a prerequisite to suc-
cessful aerial troop movements.
Section II
TEICX)PS INVOLVED
■ 80. PAEACRxncE troofsj — a. Parachute troops are specially
organized for and trained In moving by air. Their equip-
ment is such that no difficulty is experienced in carrying it
33
80-82
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
by airplane except that a certain number of the airplanes
must have large "cargo" doors through which equipment
bundles may be dropped in tactical operations. All airplanes
carrying parachute troops must be equipped with a suitable
longitudinal steel cable for the attaching of parachute
"static" lines. Parachute troops provide their own para-
chutes. Strategical movements of parachute troops may or
may not be made by air; tactical missions always involve
air transportation.
b. Air transport operations Involving parachute troops
consist In carrying them to a Jumping point over or near
their objective, protecting them en route, and supplying their
essential needs by air thereafter for as long as the sltuatloi^
demands or permits. Not Infrequently bombardment support
at the objective will be Indicated.
■ 81. Ant-BORNE TROOPS. — a. Air-borne troops, other than
parachute troops, will consist of the combat elements of
ground units plus a minimum of essential service troops.
In small scale operations, these troops will generally be from
Infantry units. Large scale operations will usually Include
combat elements of other arms and services. Parachutes
for these troops will be supplied by transporting units.
b. Air operations Involving air-borne troops other than
parachute troops may be undertaken Independently but
usually will be made in conjunction with the parachute
troops. Such operations will consist of transporting these
troops to and landing them at their destination, protecting
them en route, and providing a supply and evacuation serv-
ice for as long as the situation demands or permits. Because
of the necessity for landing the troops at their points of
destination, both gliders and airplanes may be used.
Section in
TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT
■ 82. General^ — ^Transportation equipment primarily con-
sists of transport airplanes and gliders. Other types of
airplanes such as medium and keavy bombardment may be
used, but transport airplanes will usually be made available.
AVIATION nv SUPPORT OP GKOUNO PORCES
a. Present transport airplanes have seats for from 12
to 28 passengers, depending upon design. However, the
number of passengers who may be carried depends upon the
wetght of engine fuel, baggage, equipment, and supplies which
have to be carried In each airplane. Thus particularly in
aircraft with large seating capacity, the number of soldiers
carried may not equal the number of seats because of the
essential accompanying Items. The determination of the
carrying capacity of the airplanes and consequently the num-
ber of airplanes for each particular operation Is a technical
task for the air staffs concerned. Aircraft are not standard-
ized to the extent of other forms of transportation, and small
variations in weight and size are important.
b. Present transport airplanes have medium cruising speeds
ranging from 140 to 175 miles per hour depending upon design,
can carry up to about 6*000 pounds, and can land in about
1 ,800 feet over a 50-foot obstacle. Capabilities of the aircraft
will be reduced when gliders are being towed. Present
transport airplanes carry no armament.
■ 83. Qlioers. — ^Troop-carrying gliders have been con-
structed in the 8, 15, and 25 place sizes. Several of the
smaller sizes may be pulled by one towing airplane. They
are Intended to be towed to and cast loose In the vicinity
of their destination, and to glide to a landing. They carry
no armament. Among the advantages possessed by gliders
are their cheapness, rapidity of construction from materials
readily obtainable, ease of maintenance and repair, silent ap-
proach, and slow landing speeds which enable them to land
in small fields. Most of the problems Involved in air trans-
portation are common to the use of both airplanes and
gliders.
■ 84. Maintenance. — The air transport units must be accom-
panied by adequate maintenance, communication, and ad-
ministrative personnel, and facilities. Aircraft for tactical
troop movements must be in flying condition at the desig-
nated time and place, and in the, designated number. Failure
tp achieve thls^ wHl, place the success of the maneuver in
j^opi^ildy from itsi beginning.
S5
85-88
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
Section IV
OPERATIONS
■ 85. General.— Air transportation may be either of a
strategical or tactical nature. In either case the basic prob-
lems of securing the airplanes and coordinating, organizing,
planning, protecting, and conducting the movement are
largely the same.
■ 86. Command.— In most strategical and tactical move-
ments, command of transporting uniU will usually be vested
in the air support commander of the supported force with
direct communication authorized between transporting and
transported units. For operations of an independent aiid
continuous nature, ground troops to be transported and the
air transport units may be organized into an air-borne task
force with the operational control of all components vested
in the task force commander.
■ 87. Feasibility.— When the necessity or desirability for air
transportation arises, preliminary steps must be taken to
determine if the operation is within the capabilities of air-
craft and If aircraft of the desired types and in the desired
number can be made available for the operation. In small
operations where the use of airplanes of supporting aviation
units is contemplated, these facts are readily ascertalnabW.
However, large air transport operations will necessitate se-
curing numerous airplanes from several sources.
■ 88. Transport assembly.— Whenever practicable, airplanes
for large troop movements should be concentrated far enough
ahead of time to allow for preparatory organization and
training for the movement. While permanently organized
and well- trained air transport units should be provided inso-
far as is possible, aome provisional organizations may have to
be constituted. Transport airplanes on their normal cargd
runs fly singly whereas troop movem«its twlre precision in
take-offs, formation flying, and landings for efflclency and
protection. In addition, parachute troop operations require
that airplanes fly in fecial formations wMoh may vary with
each operation. Time spent in pre-operation training will do
much toward insuring the success of tii««»wation itself.
36
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OF GROUND FORCES
89
■ 89. Coordination'. — a. As soon as possible after an air
transport movement has been decided upon, qualified liaison
officers should be exchanged between the transported and
transporting units for the duration of the operation, and a
conference between the commanders should be held. At
this time a clear delineation of the activities and responsibil-
ities of each should be understood.
b. The delineation of activities and responsibilities between
transported and transporting units will include these points:
The transporting unit will be responsible for the preparation
of all plans pertaining to the use and allocation of the air
force equipment and personnel in a manner as favorable to
the desires of the transported units as technical and tactical
conditions permit; the transported unit will be responsible
for proper loading and unloading of personnel and supplies
in accordance with plans provided by the transporting unit.
The movement will be under the command of the transport
unit commander during time of actual flight except that,
when parachute troops are being carried, direction of indi-
vidual airplanes may be temporarily relinquished to the
jumpmasters on the final approach to the objective.
c. The commander of the troops to be transported should
furnish the following information for each of his units to the
air transport commander at their conference:
(1) Point or points of departure.
(2) Time of departure or arrival.
(3) Intermediate stops.
(4) IDestinations.
(5) Method of movement, such as by one flight or by
shuttling.
(6) Number of men to be carried and average weight of
each including personal equipment. In movements likely to
culminate in combat this information may be given in terms
of numbers of combatant units, each composed of personnel,
combat equipment, and supplies. These combat units should
be standardized into a minimum of types. For example, a
rifle battalion can be organized for the movement into two
types of small units, one being similar to a rifle squad and
the other being similar to an antitank squad. The composi-
tion of such units will be furnished. Each airplane will then
carry whole multiples of these small units with remaining
capacity devoted to other items.
37
89-91 BASIC FIELD ICAmrAZ.
<7) Weight of equipment and supplies to be carried.
(8) Information relative to equipment and supplies of un-
usual weight or bulk such as antitank weapons, reconnais-
sance, or other vehicles. Any object too large to be carried
through an airplane passenger -size door is in this category.
(9) Information relative to type of formation to be flown.
(10) Information relative to the transportation of subse-
quent supplies to the troops during the course of operation,
if such is contemplated.
(11) Information relative to practices or reheiEirsals desired.
■ 90. Planning, general. — After, or concurrently with, the
foregoing conference, the air transport commander and his
staff should proceed to plan the operation in great detail,
This planning will include among other things the following:
a. The assembling of equipment, supplies, and ground per-
sonnel, and the assembly points therefor.
b. Signal communication.
c. Pre-operation training for the movement
d. Movements of transport units to advanced bases.
€. Each troop-carrying phase of the operation as discussed
in paragraph 91.
/. The movement of supplies as discussed in paragraph 94.
■ 91. Planning, detailed. — Troop movements must be planned
in great detail and the information disseminated to those
concerned early enough to be of use. The points covered
should include the following:
a. A parking and loading plan at the point of departure.
This plan should show the parking location of each airplane,
its designated number for the particular operation, the pilot's
name, and load to be carried, imposed upon a sketch or
photograph of the field. Distribution of this plan should
be made to air personnel and to the troops to be transported
so that the latter will be able to locate and load the airplanes
without confusion, or will be able to spot their personnel and
equipment for loading prior to the arrival of the airplanes.
b. Plan of take-off and assembly Into formations, distri-
bution to include each pilot.
c. Plight formation plan showing the location of each
airplane by number and pilot's name in each formation.
Distribution of this should include the transported troops.
38
AVIATION m SUPPORT OF GROUND FORCES 91-03
d. Flight plan giving routes, times, altitudes, speeds, and
check-points for the flight, distribution to include each pilot
e. Landing and unloading plan at destination. This should
show the location of each airplane when stopped and ready
for unloading at the destination, imposed upon a sketch or
photograph of the landing area. Distribution should include
the transported troops.
/. Signal communication instructions including visual air-
ground signals at desUnation. distribution to include each
pilot.
g. Enemy activities and installations.
h. Coordination of the air movement with friendly forces.
Pursuit protection must be secured in sufficient strength to
insure air superiority en route to and from the destination.
The mbvement must also be coordinated with other friendly
aviation assisting the operation and with antiaircraft units
in the flight path.
t Means for regulating the movement. Positive means
must be provided for insuring adherence to the flight plan
and for maintaining flight discipline during the air movement.
j. Special instructions applicable to the situation such as
action to be taken in case of enemy attack, unexpected
enemy resistance at the objective, alternate friendly air-
dromes, and Instruction in regard to alternate objectives or
crash landings at destinations.
■ 92. In view of the hazardous nature of even the initial
phase of an operation of this kind, every effort should be
made by all concerned to avoid last minute changes in plans.
Such changes usually result in much additional work for
the air units involved and may easily lead to delay and con-
fusion, if not jeopardy. Some last minute changes are prob-
ably inevitable in fleld operations, but they should not be
due to lack of study or foresight.
Section V
EMBROENCY SUPPLIES BY AIR
■ 93. In general, the same limitations and fundamentals of
procedure and planning that govern the movement of per-
sonnel also govern the emergency movement of supplies by
air, except where obviously inapplicable. (See pars. 89-92.)
39
94-95
BASIC FIELD MANTTAL
■ 94. Mkthods akb practice. — ^Emergency supplies may be
delivered at their destinations by dropping, In gliders, or
by airplanes landing.
a. The delivery of supplies by dropping may be the most
practicable means in the situation to be met but is in every
way a laborious procedure. Supplies to be dropped have to
be strongly and carefully packed in bundles of limited size,
dropping equipment Is required for most articles, a portion
of the supplies dropped will probably be damaged or irre-
coverable by the recipients, and facilities available will usually
limit the quantities which can be delivered in this manner.
I!>. Certain items may be dropped free without damage.
Other supplies may be dropped free with the expectation of
and allowance for some loss and damage. Such supplies
should be packed in several layers of canvas, in several sacks,
or in strong crates so that the contents will not be scattered
when the bundles land.
c. Supplies to be dropped by parachute should be packed
in bundles weighing approximately 200 pounds. Special
equipment parachutes and containers have been developed
but if these are unavailable, personnel parachutes with an
arrangment for pulling the rip cords can be used.
d. When possible, prearranged visual signals should be
used to identify the ground troops, to indicate the dropping
field, to signify an intention to drop supplies, an affirmative,
and a negative signal. When such communication has been
arranged, supplies will not be dropped until an affirmative
signal has been received from the ground.
e. The dropping field preferably should be flat with mini-
mum dimensions of 30 by 100 yards and free of obstructions.
To insure greater accuracy, bundles will be dropped at the
minimum altitude from which the parachute will operate and
with the airplane at slow speed,
/. Recipients must take precautions to avoid injury to per-
sonnel and equipment by falling bundles. Parachutes,
containers, and other dropping equipment shall be taken care
of properly and returned to the transporting unit.
■ 95. By glider. — Gliders may be used for delivering emer-
gency supplies with all the advantages peculiar to that type
aircraft. Particularly are they valuable because of their
40
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OP GROUND FORCES 95-100
comparatively large carrying capacity and their ability to
land in comparatively small areas. Signal arrangements
similar to that described in paragraph 94d are desirable.
■ 96. By airplane.— Where landing areas are available and
enemy activity permits, airplanes may deliver emergency sup-
Plies in normal manner and the problem is correspondingly
simplined.
Section VI
AIR AMBULANCES
■ 97. Evacuation of sick and wounded personnel by air will
often be necessary. If specially designed air ambulances
are not available, ordinary transport airplanes with neces-
sary improvisations may be used. In the latter case the
number of litter, in contrast to the number of ambulant
patients, must be included in the information furnished the
transport commander.
■ 98. In movements of this kind, close coordination and
cooperation should be effected with the medical units
Involved.
■ 99. Airplanes used exclusively for carrying sick and
wounded personnel will be marked in accordance with inter-
national law.
Section VII
TARGET AND TRACKINa
■ 100. Tow target detachments may be assigned to air sup-
port commands. The mission of these detachments is to
provide aerial targets for the antiaircraft training of ground
troops. They accomplish this by providing airplanes for antl-
aircraft artillery tracking missions, by towing targets for
antiaircraft firing practice, and by the use of radio controlled
targets.
41
CHAPTER 5
SIGNAL COMMUNICATION
Section I
GENERAL
■ 101. Purpose. — ^This chapter prescribes the responsibility
for the establishment of signal communication between the
several echelons of combat aviation comprising an air support
command. It also describes the communication nets tcLbe
established, the allotment of radio sets to the various eche-
lons, and methods to be employed in communication within
an air support command.
■ 102. Troops. — a. Signal Corps troops are responsible for
the establishment of communication at an air support com-
mand headquarters and to attached, auxiliary, and immedi-
ately subordinate units, Including the headquarters of a
supported ground unit. They are responsible for the estab-
lishment of communication with adjacent units as directed by
the common superior headquarters. They are also respon-
sible for the installation and maintenance of long trunk wire
circuits, but not the terminal equipment attached thereto,
between combat aviation groups and squadrons of an air
support command, and subordinate* attached, adjacent and
auxiliary units, as well as supported ground units, of such
groups and squadrons, when the respective conmiand posts
are not adjacent or located in the same airdrome.
b. Army Air Force troops of the communication sections of
combat aviation groups are responsible for the establishment
of all communication at a group headquarters, including all
echelons thereof, and to attached, adjacent, auxiliary, and
immediately subordinate units, including communication
with the headquarters of a supported ground unit, except
as modified with respect to the installation and maintenance
of long trunk wire circuits by the provisions of a above.
c. Army Air Force troops of an air support communication
squadron are responsible for the operations of air support
controls and air support parties, all having to da with ini-
42
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OF GROUND FORCES 102-104
fciatlng requests for air support, the evaluation of such re-
quests, and the transmission of orders directing air support
attack missions from an air support control to a bombard-
ment aviation airdrome. Air support communication squad-
rons are separate units, one of which is attached to a bom-
bardment group when the latter is engaged in air support
operations.
d.Axmy Air Force troops of the communication sections of
combat aviation squadrons are responsible for the establish-
ment of all communication at a squadron headquarters, in-
cluding all echelons thereof, and to aU surrounding squadron
installations, including communication with the headquarters
of a supported ground unit, except as modified with respect to
the installation and maintenance of long wire circuits by
the provisions of a above. Army Air Force troops of the com-
munication unit of a squadron are also responsible for the
operations of an air support control when a squadron is in
support of a ground unit.
■ 103. Signal means and agencies.— Wire communication
Telephone.
Teletype.
Tone telegraph.
b. Radio communication.
Telephone.
Telegraph.
Radio intelligence.
c. Visual communication.
Pyrotechnics.
Panels.
Airplanes.
d. Sound communication,
c. Pigeon communication,
tl Message centers.
g. Messenger communication.
Dismounted messenger (local runner).
Motor messenger.
Airplane messenger.
■ 104. Signal cobimunication policies.— «. Wire communl-
cation will be the primary means of communication between
ground stations, except between air support parties and an
43
104-106
BASIC nELD MANUAL
air support control, when radio will be used exclusively.
Among the several types of wire communication, teletype
will take precedence.
b. Of necessity, radio will be the primary means of com-
munication between aircraft in flight and between aircraft
and ground stations. For communication between ground
stations, radio will be a secondary means of communication
except as noted in a above.
■ 105. References. — ^Reference is made to FM 1-45 for a
detailed discussion of the tactics and technique of signal
communication employed in air support operations.
Section II ^
COMMUNICATION NETS
■ 106. Wire nets.— a. The establishment of wire communi-
cation will be normal —
(1) Between an air support command headquarters and
immediate subordinate combat aviation units.
(2) Between an air support command headquarters and
the headquarters of attached, auxiliary, and adjacent units.
(3) Between an air support command headquarters and
the headquarters of a supported ground unit.
(4) Between a combat aviation group headquarters and ^
immediate subordinate combat aviation units.
(5) Between a combat aviation group headquarters and
the headquarters of attached, auxiliary, and adjacent units.
(6) Between a combat aviation group headquarters and
the headquarters of a supported ground unit.
(7) Between a combat aviation squadron headquarters and
the headquarters of a supported ground unit.
(8) Between an air support control and bombardment avi-
ation airdromes.
b. Over these wire nets, telephone communication will be
possible over varying distances up to 20 miles. For more
distant communication reliance must be placed upon tele-
type communication. Tone telegraph will be substituted for
telegraph in the event of equipment failure on the part of
the latter or of the existence of line conditions rendering
teletype inoperative.
44
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OP GROUND PORCES
107
• 107. Radio w«Tg.--fl. The following radio stations to woi*
in radio nets as designated may be established by an air
support command headquarters, and equipment to the extent
of four radio sets is provided for the same with a fifth set
as a reserve:
(1) A bombardment group net.
(2) An attached pursuit aviation net.
(3) An observation group net.
(4) A supported ground unit and higher air unit head-
quarters net.
(5) An air support control net.
(6) An air transport net.
It is highly improbable that all of these nets would be in
operation at one time.
b. The following radio stations to work in radio nets as
designated may be established by a combat aviation group
headquarters when engaged in air support operations:
(1) A subordinate squadron net.
(2) A supported ground unit net.
(3) A superior air headquarters net.
(4) An air support control — air parties net.
(5) An air support control— bombardment airdrome net.
(6) An air control—bombardment aircraft in flight net.
(7) An air support party— bombardment aircraft in flight
net.
These nets would not all be in operation at one time, and
the employment of extra radio receivers which are made
available with each radio set would serve to limit the num-
ber of radio transmitters required. There Is available to a
bombardment group when engaged in air support operations,
and an air support communication squadron is attached to
the group, a total of 10 radio sets, which are deemed sufficient
to equip a maximum of four air support parties with 1 set
each and one air support control with 2 sets, leaving 4 sets
for purposes of working in other nets designated and to
provide a limited reserve,
c. A combat aviation squadron is provided with a radio
set to work In the net of its immediately superior unit's
headquarters, and with another set to establish an air support
45
107
BASIC FIELD MAIHTAL
control in the event it is immediately supporting a ground
unit.
d. Bomhardment aviation net. — (1) Alter bombardment
aviation takes off from its airdrome under orders received
from an air support control, air-ground communication is
normally maintained between the bombardment aviation in
flight and the air support control. Usually a separate radio
set, complete as to transmitter and receivers, is required,
consequently the air support control is provided with two
sets.
(2) At times it may be desired to turn over to an air sup-
port party control of the bombardment aircraft injlight for
the purpose of guiding the latter to their target objective.
In such event the one radio set with the air support party
will suffice for these operations in addition to others that
are normal. However, should it be foreseen that an extra
radio set is required by an air support party, for the par-
ticular purpase described, one of the reserve sets of the
bombardment group can be so employed.
e. Observation aviation net, — ^The attachment of the ob-
servation aviation of an air support command to units of the
supported ground force is normal. However, the nei^essity
will arise at times to establish an air-ground observation net
at the air support command or subordinate combat aviation
unit headquarters. It will be possible under any circum-
stances to maintain a listening station at any of the combat
aviation unit headquarters to copy essential traffic of the
normal air-ground net of the observation aviation and the
ground unit headquarters to which the observation aviation
is attached. The information thus to be gained will prove
helpful to the several staff sections of a combat aviation unit
headquarters.
/. Air transport net, — ^In the event transport aircraft Is
assembled as part of an air-borne force, the control of such
aircraft in flight while transporting troops or supplies in
accordance with the plan or orders of a directing groimd
unit devolves upon the air support commander. It will
usually be necessary to establish a separate radio liaison net
for this purpose which net will include, In addition to the
command ship of the air transports and the air support
command post, any or all of the following headquarters and
46
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OF GROUND FORCES 107-109
establishments, necessitated in part by the communication
requirements of the air transports:
(1) The transport airdrome.
(2) Any intermediate landing fields between the transport
airdrome and the final air-borne mission objective.
(3) The combat area (after first echelon of troops has been
landed) .
(4) The airdrome of accompanying fighter pursuit.
Section III
METHODS OP OPERATION
■ 108. Wire communication.— Telephone communication
should be limited to command purposes and employed only
between commanders directly and the operation sections of
staffs. Reliance will be placed upon the teletype as the
primary means of wire communication.
■ 109. Air support partt— air support control operations.—
o. Air support parties and air support controls are com-
ponents of an air support communication squadron, which is
attached to a bombardment group when the latter is engaged
in air support operations.
b. An air support party is an air organization comprising
an air support officer together with radio equipment and
personnel detailed from a combat aviation iinit, usually a
group, to the headquarters of a supported ground unit for
the purpose of transmitting to an air support control ap-
proved air support requests. Within an army corps an air
support party is rarely detailed to a subordinate ground unit
headquarters below that of an infantry division. Within the
armored forces, air support parties will frequently be detafied
to the headquarters of any subordinate unit of an armored
division. The same is true with respect to the assignment
of air support parties to a cavalry division. An air support
party transmits to an air support control only such air sup-
port requests as have been approved by the commander of
the unit at the headquarters of which the air support party
is detailed. Communication between an air support party
and an air support control is always direct. Radiotelegrartiy
is the means of communication employed.
47
109
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
c. An air support control is an air organization comprising
the commander of the supporting combat aviation together
with signal equipment and personnel, set up at the head-
jS* jS* jS*
(3S> (HD ® ® CS)
1^ 'Eig
BOMBER
ArROROME
BOMBER
AIRDROME
BOMBER
AMOROMC
1 1, mtM nmnmon «n*Ticii wkks opt rmm
M AtftOKWT. ON *1f AIR SltPPORT ttSSJOH, IT
UN mS BRCUOHT TOR ODirTHOt WW09W IWO
tlTMEU M AIR SPPPOBT COHTHOl OB «Ht 9Uf-
mn MW RADIO WIT.
OMfWATiotr An»noii wt wrTiATt f
HOR AIR SUPPORT DIRECT TO A» AIR SI
OOHTROL OR A IB SUPPORT PARTT, OR BAT Cl'TtW
MBARnfCNT AVlAnOR TO lAROCTS, JM WHICH
mifT IT WOCLD M BRPtWMT IKTO A* AtR SCT*
PORT WTSOL OR AIR SUPPORT PARTI RtT »«
RBQUIRa.
(SE) AM tUR^ORT RARTV
|a»c1 air tu wrt control
y RADIO •TATWW
^ « ■- RADIO OMANWf L
~ RADIO OR WIRE OHANNKI.
FicnnuB 3.
quarters of a supported ground unit for the purpose of evalu-
ating air support requests received from air support parties
with which it is working and making decisions on requested
48
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OF GROUND FORCES 109
air support missions in consonance with the directive of the
supported ground unit commander. Within the army corps,
an air support control is normally established at the corps
headquarters. Within an armored corps or cavalry corps, an
air support control may be established at the corps head-
quarters, or at armored or cavalry division headquarters ac-
cording to the plan of operation and assignment of air sup-
port parties. The establishment of one air support control
only within a ground unit directly supported by a combat
aviation unit will be normal. Communication between an
air support control and bombardment aviation airdromes to
which orders for the flying of bombardment missions are
directed by an air support control will be either by radio-
telegraphy or teletype according to circumstances.
d. Figure 2 presents a type operations plan for the air
support controls and support parties of different major units
of the ground forces. On the left side of the diagram are
shown two army corps at the headquarters of which an
air support control is operated. Air support parties are de-
tailed to each infantry division headquarters. On the right
side is shown an armored corps, at the headquarters of which
an air support control is operating with two air support
parties, one each at the headquarters of a motorized and
armored division, respectively. At the headquarters of the
third division, an armored division of the same armored
corps, an air support control is operating with air support
parties at each of two armored regimental headquarters. It
is to be noted that in this latter instance, the air support
control operates directly to a separate bombardment aviation
airdrome indicating support of this division directly by a
combat aviation unit.
e. As indicated in paragraph lOld, an air-ground net be-
tween bombardment aircraft in flight and either the air
support control or an air support party may be established
for the purpose of controlling the bombardment mission and
assisting in guiding the aircraft to their target. Observa-
tion aviation may also be used in guiding bombardment air-
craft to their target when the former would also come into,
this net.
49
110^113
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
■ lib. Air alert status. — When for a particular operation,
bombardment aircraft may be put on air alert in support of
a designated groimd unit, requests for air support would
then pass directly from the ground unit to the supporting
bombardment aircraft in flight. Observation aviation may
also be used in such an operation when it could be arranged
that requests for air support pass directly from the observa-
tion aviation to the bombardment aviation in flight over an
air-air net.
■ ill. Radio equipment characteristics. — ^Each radio set
Issued to units of an air support command includes three
separate receivers which permit the guarding of several radio
channels simultaneously at any one radio station, tn addi-
tion the radio transmitters permit of rapid and precise shift-
ing from one frequency channel to another which results in
a high degree of flexibility in radio communication.
■ 112. Visual communication. — ^There are many uses for
visual signals in an; air support command, especially between
the ground troops and aircraft in flight. Insofar as the
ground troops can assist in directing friendly bombardment
aviation to hostile targets, and as a measure to assure their
own protection from bombardment by our own aviation, the
use of panels or other visual signals must be resorted to.
Consequently it is most Important that all interested person-
nel of both the ground and air forces working together be
thoroughly trained in the use of the several means of visual
communication.
■ 113. Signal operation instructions (SOI). — These are
technical Instructions for the coordination of the operation
of the several means and agencies of signal communication.
Tlieir preparation and coordination with the signal operation
instructions of the supported ground unit is a responsibility
of the signal ofilcer of the air support command, but it is
incumbent upon all oflBcers as well as interested enlisted
personnel to be familiar with their purpose and use. No
communication system can function eflSciently without an
intelligent understanding and use of signal operation in-
structions, and training in their employment.
50
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OF GROUND FORCES
114
Section IV
PREARRANGED MESSAGE CODE FORMS
■ 114. Prearranged message code forms, — a. The use of such
forms has particular application with respect to communl-
cation between air support parties and air support control
and between the latter and the airdromes of the bombard-
ment aviation. Speed in the transmission of such messages
is of primary importance, whereas, due to the comparative
brevity of elapsed time between initiation and completion of •
any one air support operation, extensive cryptographic secu-
rity is of secondary consideration. Every effort, however,
will be undertaken to assure such security consistent with
requirements for speed.
5. Due to the diversity of situations to be found In air
support command operations, much latitude Is permissible
In the preparation of prearranged message code forms. Hie
examples set forth herein as applicable to operations Involv-
ing air support parties and air support control units, and
bombardment aviation airdromes, are Intended for guidance
only.
(1) Air support request form (flg. 3).— This form is In-
tended for use by air support parties in the transmission of
requests for air support to an air support control unit.
(2) Acknowledgment report form (fig. 4).— This form Is
used by the air support control to acknowledge receipt of
messages from the air support parties, and to designate
whether or not particular requests for air support will be
granted or denied.
(3) Attack order form (flg. 5).— This form is used by air
support control in issuing orders to the bombardment avia-
tion for air support missions.
(4) Departure and return message forms (flg. 6) .—These
forms are used by bombardment aviation units In reporting
to the air support control departure from the airdrome on
assigned missions, and return to the airdrome therefrom.
Similar or modified forms can be used to report such de-
parture and return of bombardment units to the interceptor
command as required. In such Instances prior coordination
with interceptor command is necessary.
51
114
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
(5) Notification of attack by enemy aviation form (fig.
7) .—This form is used by airdromes in reporting attacks by
enemy aviation to the air support control or other head-
quarters concerned,
(6) In the use of prearranged message code forms of the
type shown, It is contemplated that geographic codes and
map coordinate codes or the coded template will be employed
in designating the location of targets or other terrain points.
As a further security measure, the letter symbol designating
the several items of information transmitted, and the se-
quence of the Information items themselves in the body of
the message, should be changed at Irregular and not infre-
quent intervals, and new forms published accordingly fo all
elements concerned.
c. Aircraft status reports, — ^Due to the variety of specific
information required by these reports as between various
commands, no example of the same is shown herein. A form
for such reports can, however, easily be prepared using the
same fundamentals as those that are contained in the forms
exhibited.
d. Prearranged message code forms are properly a part
of the signal operation instructions and their use and dis-
tribution, and all changes therein, will be coordinated through
this agency.
AVIATION IN SUPPORT OF GROX7ND FORCKS 1 14
AIR SUPPORT REQUEST
Time flted
How spent
RNO From
(Request No.) (Gall letter ASC) (Call letter ASP)
Numh«r support anits
required.
Description of target
T-
Location of target
Probable movement or
P—
change In target.
Time limits of attack
H—
Other Information or
X—
special Instructions.
Signature
R~
Signature
NOTK.— Tmnsmlt information contained within solid lines,
FlOURK 3.
53
114
Time filed '
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
ACKNOWLEDOMRNT REPORT
How sent
Signatare
Note.— Transmit all within solid lines.
FiGVRI 4.
54