Document text
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY • MARCH 1951
AGO 3167C— **eb
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL
FM 22-10
This manual supersedes TC 6, 19 July 1948 and Department of the
Army Pamphlet 22-1, 28 December 1948
United States Government Printing Office
Washington: 1951
AGO 3167C
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
Washington 25, D. C, 6 March 1951
FM 22-10 is published for the information and guidar
of all concerned.
[AG 353 (17 Jan 51) ]
b of the Secretary or
RETARY OF THE
Official:
TOWARD F. WITSELL
Major General, USA
The Adjutant General
J. LAWTON COLLINS
Chief of Staff
United States Army
x/rx
Distribution :
GSUSA (5); SSUSA (5); Adm Svc (2); Tech Svc
(2); Arm & Svc Bd (2); AFF (40); AA Comd
(5); OS Maj Comd (5); Base Comd (.5); MDW
(5); A (20); CHQ (5); D (5) ; B (5); R (5)
l (5); C (5) except 5, 19 (10), 6, 7,
3 (2); Sch (25); PMS&T (2).
vc
id
or
explanation of distribution formula
★
FOREWORD
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY OF LEADERSHIP
Today, more than ever in history, the Army is in
need of leadership of the highest caliber. With the
increase in the complexity of warfare, the science
of war is increasingly dependent upon human
guidance. No matter how complicated it may be-
come, war is always waged by men. The man wn .
leads and the men who are led win wars. Every
member of our military force must be a leader,
actually or potentially.
The purpose of this manual is to provide mili-
tary leaders, actual and prospective, with a prac-
tical guide for applying the principles of leader-
ship. In the ultimate sense, leadership is not
inherent; it depends upon traits which can be
developed, and upon the application of techniques
which can be learned. It is an art which can be
acquired, cultivated, and practiced by anyone who
possesses the mental and physical ability and the
moral and ethical integrity expected of a com-
missioned or noncommissioned officer. Developing
the art is a continuing process which involves the
recognition and practice of the basic traits of
leadership and the understanding and application
of sound leadership principles and techniques.
This manual stresses the importance of self-
improvement. The principles, character traits,
and procedures set forth are offered as an assist-
ance to the leader in the problem of controlling
others. By applying these procedures to his own
practice and by analyzing his oWn traits of char-
AGO S167C
m
acter, the leader will possess a yardstick for meas-
uring his own success or failure.
Despite this guide, it constantly must be borne
in mind that successful leaders of the past were
not all of the same pattern ; nor did they all use the
same methods of attaining success. All of them,
however, consciously or unconsciously understood
the basic concepts of leadership and successfully
practiced many of the techniques presented in this
manual.
The principles and techniques presented herein
are the result of an analysis of outstanding leader-
hip displayed by successful leaders, both military
and civilian, of this and other countries. Thorough
study of these, combined with actual practice with
troops, will develop and foster the high stands
of leadership so urgently demanded bj
today.
CONTENTS
Paragraph
CHAPTER 1. BASIC CONCEPTS _ 1-8
2. FUNDAMENTALS OF LEADERSHIP.
Section I. L eadership principles and 9-11
traits.
CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES.
Section I. Introduction 17
//. Combat zone 18-20
///. Communications zone 21-22
IV. Leadership in mobilization 23-27
training.
V. Leadership in demobilization __28-30
VI. Leadership of occupation 31-33
forces.
VII. Leadership of minority groups 34-35
VIII. Leadership of female groups _ . 36
AGO 3167C
This manual supersedes TC 6, 19 July 1948, and De-
partment o'f the Army Pamphlet 22-1, 28 December 191,8
CHAPTER 1
BASIC CONCEPTS
a. Commander. A title of an officer in charge of
a company, battery, or larger unit.
b. Leader. A military person who possesse
qualities necessary to direct others.
Leadership. Leadership is the art of influenc-
c.
ing human behavior — the ability to handle men.
mg 1
The techniques will vary depending on the size of
the command, the types of men, the personality of
the commander, and the particular situation.
d. Leadership Principle. A leadership principle
is one of the fundamental rules, characteristics,
traits or policies which is applied by a leader to
control or guide the actions of his subordinates,
e. Leadership Technique. A leadership tech
nique is a method of applying leadership principles.
/. Leadership Trait. A leadership trait is a dis-
tinguishing personal quality that is helpful in the
exercise of leadership
a. Essential Nature of Leadership. The military
profession has no monopoly on leadership. In
every walk of life, in every industry, in every
AGO 3167C
1
government, in every phase of human endeavor,
there are leaders and there are followers. Progress
and success are dependent upon the quality and
efficacy of leadership.
b. Elements of Leadership. Leadership is the
icing human behavior — the ability to
The art of influencing behavior, the
of leadership, in turn involves under-
standing, analyzing, predicting, and controlling
's behavior. Also involved in successful leader-
ship is the will to lead, together with the character
which inspires confidence. Undoubtedly, there are
certain inherent characteristics which may aid in
the development of leadership. Yet, there are as-
suredly certain men possessing desirable leader-
ship traits who have never attained the stature of
great leaders. Likewise, there are men deficient in
certain of these traits who have attained this stat-
ure. Any theory that leadership is solely inherited
must be rejected. Leadership is intangible only to
the extent that we make it so. Any reasonably in-
telligent, morally sound, forceful man, no matter
how inexperienced, can become acquainted with
the component elements of leadership. These ele-
ments may be studied, practiced, learned, and ap-
plied, just as any other human accomplishment
may be learned and mastered.
c. The Leader and the Small Group. Every
leader, whether civilian or military, actually main-
tains close personal contact with only a small
group, regardless of the number of men ultimately
controlled by him. Inevitably, he must depend
upon that small group in order to make his will
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known and to execute his purp se. In the realm of
the military, we refer to the small group as im-
mediate subordinates and staff.
d. Military Leadership. Military leadership is
the art of influencing and directing men to an
assigned goal in such a way as to obtain their
obedience, confidence, respect, and loyal coopera-
tion. It is indispensable to success in combat. Like
all leadership, it is dependent upon personal traits
and upon the application of recognized techniques.
The personal traits can be developed, and the tech-
niques can be learned.
■
3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMAND AND
LEADERSHIP
a. Authoritarian and Persuasive Leadership
There are two kinds of leadership, authoritari
and persuasive. One who is predominantly of the
authoritarian type normally is recognized by the
dogmatic use of authority or power. The persua-
sive type of leadership takes into consideration
the human element with all its complexity an
with all its differentiation of the physical, menta
and moral capabilities and limitations of the indi-
vidual. To a great extent, the persuasive leader
bases his skill in leadership upon example and
ability, with high standards of discipline and effici-
ency for himself as well as for his followers. This
manual is concerned solely with the developmen
of the persuasive type of leadership.
b. The Exercise of Command. Command is the
authority that a member of the military profession
id
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lawfully exerts over subordinates by virtue of his
rank and assignment. Leadership can be exercised
by any one at any time irrespective of the frame-
work of command. It is recognized that in any
group some individual will emerge as the leader,
even though no command or organizational struc-
ture is present. Individuals in coordinate capaci-
ties exercise leadership in their dealing with their
equals outside the immediate command structure.
In general, however, we think of military leader-
ship as being exercised within the command
framework. Therefore, in one sense, mi
leadership is the proper exercise of comm
militan
c. Accompaniments of Command. Command in
the Army is accompanied by responsibility involv-
ing special trust and confidence. Command, with
its ramifications of administration, planning, exe-
cuting, supervising, and coordinating, is the pri-
mary reason for the military leader's existence.
The leader is responsible not only for initiating ac-
tion, but for supervising all activities within his
command. In this responsibility for the general ad-
ministration of a group, it is his duty to receive,
comply with, and execute instructions with exact-
ness and thoroughness, regardless of his personal
feelings.
OBJECTI RSHIP
The objective of military leadership is the crea-
tion and maintenance of an organization which
will loyally and willingly accomplish any reason-
able task assigned or indicated, and will initiate
4
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i
suitable action in the absence of orders. The
proper application of the principles of leadership
to a command can create an efficient well-disci-
plined organization possessing high morale and
esprit de corps.
5. RESPONSIBIUTI
a. General. The responsibilities of the leader
are twofold — accomplishment of his mission, and
the fulfillment of his responsibilities to his men.
Man is the fundamental instrument of war. Other
instruments may change, new weapons may be
created and new modes of defense may be devised,
but man, the fundamental instrument, remains
constant. The leader must be concerned with the
desires, needs, and mental state of his men. If tl
leader knows and understands certain basic prin-
ciples of human behavior; if he appreciates that
most men react in fixed and definite ways under a
given stimulus or influence ; if he recognizes, de-
velops, and applies those traits of character which
will produce the correct reactions in his men, he
will possess the basic tools for managing men — he
will be a leader. Since effective leadership in
battle is the ultimate goal of military leadership,
it is obvious that, regardless of the leader's ability
to dominate or persuade, his success inevitably
depends upon his skill in the tactical control of his
study and by practice.
b. Accomplishment of the Mission. The pri-
mary duty of the leader is the accomplishment of
AGO 3167C
5
his assigned mission. Everything else, even the
welfare of his men, is subordinate.
c. Duties to the Men. The next responsibility of
the leader lies in his duty to his men. It is rarely
possible to accomplish any mission without atten-
tion to the morale and esprit of the men. In the
military service, the follower is peculiarly depend-
ent upon his leader ; he can do little to improve his
lot if his leader neglects him.
NS OF MILITARY LEADERSHIP
There are four characteristics of a command
that are accurate indications of success or fail
in the exercise of leadership. These quali
discipline, morale, esprit de corps, and d
efficiency.
a. Discipline. Military discipline is a state of
order and obedience existing within a command.
It involves the ready subordination of the will of
the individual for the good of the group. Military
discipline is an extension and a specialized applica-
tion of the discipline of any organized society,
discipline demands habitual but reasoned
nee to command, an obedience that pre-
serves initiative and functions unfalteringly even
in the absence of the commander. Discipline is
created within a command by training, by judi-
cious use of punishment and reward, and by in-
stilling a sense of confidence and responsibility in
each individual. Discipline demands correct per-
formance of duty. The need for discipline is best
inculcated in an individual by appealing to his
i
6
AGO 3167C
sense of reason. In the few instances where ap-
peal to reason fails, the use of punishment is effec-
tive in causing the recalcitrant individual to con-
form and perhaps to appreciate the need for dis-
cipline. Commendation and earned praise from
the senior to his subordinate, either individually
or collectively, for a task well done, serve to
strengthen the disciplinary bonds which bind to-
gether the smooth-functioning team.
b. Morale. Morale is a mental and emotional
state. The importance of morale cannot be over-
estimated since it is a great contributing factor to
: efficiency of a unit. Good morale is indicated
Zeal, or the voluntary effort which men
give to their tasks over and beyond the
perfunctory obedience to commands and
regulations.
A basic sense of personal worth founded
on confidence in leaders, training, weap-
ons, and equipment.
Satisfaction, or the pride of the individ-
ual in the accomplishment of the assigned
mission.
c. Esprit de corps. Esprit de corps is the mental
and emotional state of the unit. It is distinguished
m morale, which is described as the mental and
tional state of the individual. Esprit de corps
is not a simple summation of the morale of the
individuals in the unit. Rather, it results from the
total interaction of the personnel of the unit
toward one another and with the circumstances in
f 1*0X1
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7
which the unit is placed. When unit esprit is high,
the collective goals of the unit overshadow those of
the individual members. In such instances, the
personal dissatisfactions of some individuals are
overshadowed by the prevailing group spirit. Unit
achievement, both past and present, is a strong
force in raising esprit de corps. A unit with a high
esprit de corps can accomplish its mission in spite
of seemingly insurmountable odds. Esprit de corps
is enhanced when the group identification is in-
creased and, conversely, is lowered when it is de-
eased. It has been proved that pride in the unit
was the outstanding manifestation of good morale
World War II; this was accompanied by gooc
in
officer-enlisted personnel relationships.
d. Efficiency. Efficiency is the ability to accorr
plish successfully an assigned task in the short-
est possible time, with the minimum expenditure
of means, and with the least possible confusion
Efficiency in a command is built by sound tr;
ing and by effective administration. It is en
hanced by good discipline, high morale, and esprit
de corps
7. ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGY
sprit
Leadership is closely linked with psychology,
tudy of human behavior. Proved principles of
leadership include proved principles of psychol-
It is known that human beings tend to react
similarly under a given set of conditions. From a
leadership standpoint, some of these reactions are
favorable, some unfavorable. With a knowledge
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AGO 3167C
of how human beings tend to respond to a particu-
lar set of circumstances and with a comprehension
of the basic factors that control human behavior,
the leader can capitalize on favorable reactions
and minimize tendencies toward unfavorable ones.
It is evident therefore that a knowledge of psychol-
ogj
science of moral duty, is clo
with the art of leadership. In order to set the ex-
ample for his men and to win their confidence and
respect, the leader must be capable of deciding
whether a given course of action is morally right
or wrong. A knowledge of ethics will materially
assist the leader in making such a decision. It will
insure against his losing stature in the eyes of his
command by embarking upon a course of action
t is contrary to moral principles. Temporizing
with principles and moral standards may secure a
temporary advantage, or fleeting popularity
the end, only strict adherence to high standar
will prove of value to
AGO 31MC
9
CHAPTER 2
Know yoi
i principle
mands. These are —
a. Principle I. Know your job.
b. Principle II. Know yourself and seek self-
improvement.
c. Principle III.
for their welfare.
d. Principle IV. Keep your men informed
e. Principle V. Set the example
/. Principle VI. Insure that the tasl
stood, supervised, and accomplished.
g. Principle VII. Train your men as a team.
h. Principle VIII. Make sound and timely de-
cisions.
i. Principle IX. Seek responsibility and develop
a sense of responsibility among subordinates.
j. Principle X. Employ your command in ac-
cordance with its capabilities.
k. Principle XI. Take responsibility for your
actions.
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10. DISCUSSION OF PRINCIPLES OF MILITARY
LEADERSHIP
The principles of leadership discussed below are
equally applicable to all levels of command from
the squad to the army group.
a. Principle I — Knoiv Your Job. To know his
job thoroughly, the leader must possess a wide
field of knowledge. He must understand the tech-
nical aspects of the operation of his command and
the methods and procedures of organization, ad-
ministration, instruction, and personnel manage-
ment. The leader also should possess a sound un-
erstanding of human relations. Further, he
dd have a working knowledge of the duties,
responsibilities, and problems of his subordinates,
he commands a service unit, he should have
lowledge of combat operations.
b. Principle II — Know Yourself and See
improvement. It is the duty of every leader to
evaluate himself and to recognize his strengths
weaknesses. An individual who does not
know his own capabilities and limitations is not
master of himself and can never hope to be a
leader. Likewise, an individual who realizes his
deficiencies but makes no effort to correct them
will fail as a leader. Study of leadership principles
and practice of sound leadership techniques will
develop leadership ability.
c. Principle III — Know Your Men and Look out
for Their Welfare. By making a conscientious
effort to observe the members of his command as
often as possible, to become personally acquainted
1 have a
?efc Self-
AGO 3167C
11
with them, to recognize their individual differ-
ences, and to share in their joys and sorrows, the
leader will have a better understanding of how his
subordinates react and function under various
conditions. He then will be able to employ them
more effectively. By assuring himself that the
members of his command are as comfortable, well
cared for, and contented as circumstances will per-
mit, the leader wins their confidence, respect, and
cooperation. By neglecting their welfare, the
leader indicates indifference and, as a consequence,
forfeits the trust and confidence of his mi
d. Principle IV — Keep Your Men Informed.
The soldier who is well informed about the mis-
sion and situation and about the purpose of his
particular task is considerably more effective than
the one who is not so informed. The better he is
informed, the better he can perform his tasks with
maximum initiative. The commander who fails to
make essential information available to his men
will soon find that they are performing blindly
without purpose. At the same time, commanders
at all levels must realize that security require-
ments impose limitations on information which
may be imparted to the men.
e. Principle V — Set the Example. Men instinc-
tively look to their leaders for patterns of conduct
which they may either emulate or use as an excuse
for their own shortcomings. The classic example
of the military leader is that of an individual
whose appearance and conduct evoke from his sub-
ordinates, praise, pride, and the desire to emulate
12
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him. By his outstanding performance of duty, the
leader must set the standard for the entire com-
mand. The commander who appears in an un-
favorable light before his men destroys the respect
that must exist mutually between him and his men
before leadership can be exercised.
/. Principle VI — Insure That the Task is Under-
stood, Supervised, and Accomplished. The leader
must give clear, concise orders that cannot be mis-
understood; then, by close supervision, he must
insure that those orders are properly executed.
The issuance of an order is the initial and rela
tively small part of the commander's responsibil
ity. His principal responsibility lies in supervi-
sion to make sure that the order is properly exe-
ed. It is this responsibility that is most diffi-
cult to carry out. The able leader will make wise
of his subordinates to carry out his super-
on effectively. Any commander of a large unit
who fails to make proper and adequate use of his
staff and subordinates demonstrates a fundamen
tal weakness in leadership ability.
g. Principle VII — Train Your Men as a Team.
The duty of every leader includes the development
of teamwork through the thorough training of
his command, whether it be a -squad or an army
group. Modern armies are complex organizations
involving many different arms and services, all
working together as a team toward a common end.
Each part of the team must understand where it
fits into the common effort. The commander who
fails to foster teamwork while training his com-
AGO 3167C
13
mand will not obtain the desired degree of unit
efficiency.
h. Principle VIII — Make Sound and Timely De-
cisions. The ability to make a rapid estimate of
the situation and arrive at a sound decision is es-
sential to a leader. He must be able to reason
logically under the most trying conditions. He
must decide quickly what action is necessary in
order to take advantage of opportunities as they
occur. The vacillating commander not only will
be unable to employ his command effectively but
will create vacillation, lack of confidence, hesi-
tancy, and indecision, within the command itself.
The ability to make sound and timely decisions
can be acquired by constant study and by training
in making estimates. On the other hand, when
circumstances dictate a change in plans, the able
eader will act promptly without fear that the
imand may consider such action as a vac:
i. Principle IX — Seek Responsibility and De-
velop a Sense of Responsibility Among Subordin-
ates. The leader must be quick to seize the initia-
tive in the absence of instructions from his supe-
rior. By seeking responsibility, the leader develops
himself professionally and increases his potential
ability. Proper delegation of authority is a sound
attribute of leadership. The commander then holds
his subordinate strictly responsible for results,
and rarely for methods of procedure. Such action
by the commander engenders trust, faith, and con-
fidence. It develops initiative and wholehearted
the
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AGO 3167C
cooperation. Reluctance to delegate authority
often is a mark of retarded growth in leadership.
j. Principle X — Employ Your Command in Ac-
cordance With its Capabilities. To employ his
command properly, the leader must have a thor-
ough knowledge of the tactical and administrative
capabilities and limitations of his command. He
must assign objectives that are possible of attain-
ment, properly evaluate time and space factors,
and employ his command with sound judgment.
To do less than this may spell failure in accom-
plishing the mission. Recurrent failure brings
about collapse of morale, esprit de corps, and effi-
ciency. However, on occasion, when the situatic
demands, men must be pushed without hesitatic
beyond their considered capabilities in order to
hieve a quick and cheap victory or to avoid
stly defeat.
k. Principle XI — Take Responsibility for
Actions. The commander of a unit is responsible
for all his unit does, or fails to do. The leader
recognizes and acknowledges this responsibility
on all occasions. Any effort to evade this responsi-
bility destroys the bond of loyalty and respect that
must exist between the commander and his sut
ordinates.
readership traits are human qualities that are
of great value to the leader. Possession of these
traits simplifies the task of applying leadership
principles and assists greatly in winning confi-
AGO 3167C
15
dence, respect, and cooperation. An individual can
benefit by studying the traits considered important
to the leader. By careful self-analysis and applica-
tion, he can develop those traits in which he is de-
ficient and further strengthen those in which he is
strong. A study of our Nation's great military
leaders reveals that none possessed all the leader-
ship traits to the maximum degree, but that a
weakness in some traits was more than compen-
sated for by strength in others. Critical self-
analysis will enable an individual to realize the
traits in which he is strong and to capitalize upon
them. At the same time, he must endeavor to im-
prove those traits in which he is weak. The follow-
ing list of leadership traits is by no means all-
inclusive but does contain those of paramount
portance to the leader :
rtness is vigilance, promptness, an
ss.
b. Bearing denotes desirable physica
ance, dress, and deportment.
c. Courage must be both physical and moral.
d. Decisiveness is the ability to make decisions
promptly when indicated and announce them au-
thoritatively, concisely, and clearly.
e. Dependab
f. Endurance both mental and physical, is nec-
essary to continue and complete any reasonable
task.
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6
i
g. Enthusiasm is the positive zeal or interest in
the task at hand. It is easily communicated to
subordinates.
h. Force is the ability to impose one's will upon
another.
i. Humility is freedom from arrogance and un-
justifiable pride.
j. Humor is the capacity to appreciate the many
amusing or whimsical happenings of our every-
day life, especially those which pertain to
leader himself.
A;. Initiative is the willingness to act in
sence of orders and to offer well-considered recom-
mendations for the improvement of the command.
I. Integrity is the honesty and moral character
of the leader that must be unquestioned.
m. Intelligence is the intellect of the leader
which must be adequate to master the problems
presented by his level of command.
n. Judgment is the power of the mind to weigh
various factors and arrive at a wise decision.
o. Justice is being equitable and impartial in
bestowing favors and punishment.
p. Loyalty must extend both up and down. A
leader cannot expect loyalty from his subordinates
unless he is conspicuously loyal to them and to his
superiors.
q. Sympathy
ings of those with whom one is associated.
r. Tact is the ability to deal with subordinates
and superiors in an appropriate manner without
giving offense.
AGO 3167C
17
s. Unselfishness is the studied avoidance of car-
ing for or providing for one's own comfort or ad-
vantage at the expense of others.
Section II. LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES
a. It is important to note that in small units the
leader can influence and direct his men throi
close personal contact, whereas in large units
must rely in great measure upon his staff and sub-
ordinate commanders to assist him in makir
leadership effective. The larger the unit, the
complex become the problems of leadership,
the greater become the means available to the com-
mander to assist him in the exercise of leadership.
The larger unit commander must consider care-
fully the leadership aspect of all basic policie
which he prescribes or tolerates.
b. Obviously, it is not feasible to cite all possit
leadership techniques pertinent to a particular
leadership principle, since techniques vary with
size of the command, the personality of the
mander, and the situation. In the following
paragraphs, some of the more common techniques
are listed under each principle. These techniques
are methods of applying a principle that are effec-
tive Under most circumstances. Over a period of
time, the leader will develop techniques of his own
which will be better suited to his own personality
and which he himself will be able to employ effec-
tively.
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AGO 3167C
13. LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES WHICH ARE
APPLICABLE TO ALL LEADERS
a. Principle I — Know Your Job.
(1) Seek a well-rounded military education
through attendance at service schools
and through independent reading, re-
search, and study.
Keep abreast of latest techniques in the
field of communication in order to facili-
tate control of your unit and to dissemi
ate information.
Seek out and foster association w
capable leaders. Observe and study their
actions and application of leadership
techniques.
oaden your field of
association with officers
arms and services
ihcation of leadership
d of knowledge through
fficers and men of other
pledge
R
Seek opportunity to apply knowledge
through the exercise of command,
leadership is acquired only
stant practice.
(6) Avoid overspecialization in too narrow a
field. mm
(7) Keep abreast of current military devel-
opments.
(8) Familiarize yourself with the capabili-
ties and limitations of all elements of
your command, by study and through
frequent visits to subordinates.
AGO 3167C
19
b.
impr
(2)
Principle II — Know Yourself and Seek Self-
ovement.
(1) Analyze yourself objectively to deter-
mine the strong and weak points of your
character.
Recognize your weak points and make an
effort to overcome them.
olicit, when appropriate, the
opinions of others as to how
make the most of your desirable
and eliminate the undesirable ones
Profit by studying the causes for the
success or failure of other leaders past
and present.
Develop a genuine interest
acquire the human touch.
Practice the "Golden Rule.'
Master the art of good writing a
speaking.
Cultivate cordial relations with members
of the other arms and services and with
1 make an
e
you can
qualities
nes.
3st in peo
„
civilians.
c. Principle III — Know Your Men a
for Their Welfare.
(1) See the members of your command and
let them see you; be friendly and a
proachable.
Develop an intimate knowledge and un-
derstanding of your subordinates
through personal contact and available
records. In small commands, it is im-
(2)
AGO 3167C
perative not only that the leader know
and address his subordinates by name,
but also that he be familiar with their
characteristics.
(3) Interest yourself in the living conditions
of the members of your command, in-
cluding their family environment, food,
clothing, and billeting.
(4) Make ample provision for, and give
sonal and visible attention to, the various
personnel services, particularly thos
concerned with the personal problem
individuals.
(5) Provide for the spiritual welfare of your
command by supporting religious activi-
ties.
(6) Protect the health of your command by
active supervision of hygiene, and sani-
tation.
( 7 ) Support actively a safety program.
(8) Determine the mental attitude of mem-
bers of your command by frequent in-
formal visits and by using fully all avail-
able sources of information.
(9) Administer justice impartially to all
without fear or favor. When punishment
is necessary, the command
(a) Be fair, consistent, and impersonal.
(6) Punish in private, with dignity and
with human understanding,
(c) Never award degrading punishment.
AGO 3167C
21
(d) Avoid punishing a group for the faults
of an individual.
(e) Always make the individual feel that
the punishment is temporary and that
vement is expected.
Insure fair and equitable distribution of
ivileges such as passes, leaves, and
tion.
Incourage educational development by
providing educational opportunities for
members of your command.
Principle IV — Keep Your Men Informed.
(1) Explain to your principal subordinates
why any particular task must be accom-
plished and how you propose to do it.
Assure yourself by frequent inspections
and visits that subordinates are trans-
mitting necessary information to the
men.
Keep your principal subordinates in-
formed of plans for future operations,
subject only to security restrictions.
Disseminate information concerning the
capabilities of our weapons compared to
those of an active or potential enemy.
Where an enemy has an initial advan-
tage, show how this can be overcome.
Be sure the troops are informed of the
capabilities and limitations of supporting
units, arms, and services.
(5)
AGO 3167C
(6) Be alert to detect the spread of false
rumors. Stop rumors by replacing them
with truth.
(7) Build confidence and esprit de corps by
exploiting all information concerning
successes of the command.
e. Principle V — Set the Example.
at all times physically fit, mentally
;rt, well groomed, and correctly
Iressed.
Master your emotions. The commander
who is subject to intemperate bursts o
anger or to periods of depression wil
have difficulty in gaining and holding the
respect and loyalty of his subordinates.
Maintain an optimistic outlook. The will
to win is infectious. The leader fosters it
by capitalizing on his unit's capabilities
and successes, not on its limitations or
failures. Maintain an air of outward
calmness. The more difficult the situ
tion, the more important this becomes
Conduct yourself so that your personal
habits are not open to censure. Coarse
behavior and vulgarity are the marks of
;ssentially weak and unstah
(3)
es
rd
(4)
punctual, and a tendency toward selfish-
ness and self-indulgence in luxuries not
available to the command in general, are
inevitably resented by all ranks.
AGO 3167C
23
(5) Cooperate in spirit as well as in fact.
Cooperation must work in two directions.
It arises from a wholehearted desire by
all members to further the effective
tions of the team.
Exercise initiative and promote the
spirit of initiative in your subordinates.
(7) Be conspicuously loyal to those below
you as well as to those above you. Sup-
port those under you as long as the in-
dividuals concerned have been discharg-
ing their duties competently. The com-
mander who seeks, however, to protect
an incompetent subordinate from correc-
tion by a higher commander is being dis-
loyal himself. Loyalty is a primary trs
of leadership and demands unqual
support of the policies of superior
ers, whether the individual conce
personally favors them or not.
Avoid the development of a clique of
favorites. While it is difficult to avoid
partial to subordinates who have
rendered loyal and superior service over
a period of time, the temptation to show
partiality should be vigorously resisted.
Be morally courageous. The commander
who fails to stand by his principles
where the welfare of his command is
concerned, or who attempts to avoid the
responsibility for mistakes of his com-
24
AGO 3167C
mand, will fail to gain or hold the re-
spect of his associates or subordinates.
(10) Share danger and hardship. A leader
who has elements of his command sub-
ject to danger or to hardship of any kind
should visit them as often as possible to
demonstrate without ostentation his will-
ingness to assume his share of the diffi-
culties.
/. Principle VI — Insure That the Task Is Un-
stood, Supervised, and Accomplished.
1) Through study and practice, develop the
ability to think clearly and to issue cler
concise, positive orders.
(2) Encourage subordinates to seek immedi
ate clarification about any point in your
■ orders or directives that they do not un-
derstand perfectly.
Question your subordinates and assist-
ants to determine if there is any doubt or
misunderstanding as to the tas'
performed.
Supervise the execution of your orders.
Make every means possible available to
your subordinates to assist them in ac-
omplishing their mission.
doubt or
sk to be
g. Principle VII — Train Your Men as a Team.
(1) Insure by inspections and training tests
that your command is being trained in
accordance with training programs and
doctrine prescribed by higher authority.
AGO 3167C
25
(2) Make sure that the best available facili-
ties for team training are provided and
that maximum use is made of such de-
vices as communications drills, battle
drills, and realistic field exercises.
lining is purposeful and
lining are stressed
and are understood by all membe
team.
(4) Insure that each element of the command
is acquainted with the capabilities and
limitations of all other elements, thereby
developing mutual trust and understand-
ing.
(3) Insure that
that the rea
Insure that each subordinate leader u
derstands the mechanics of tactical co
trol for his own echelon of comma
Predicate team training on moder
alistic conditions.
Insist that each officer and enlisted man
know the functions of each other officer
and enlisted man with whom he habitual-
ly operates. Insist that each of these
know and understand each other, their
traits, peculiarities, strengths, and weak-
nesses.
Demand the highest standard of disci-
pline and teamwork in all training.
(9) Seize opportunities to train with other
units, both combat and service.
AGO 3167C
fill
h. Principle VIII — Make Sound and Timely
Decisions.
(1) Develop a logical and orderly thought
process by constant practice in making
objective estimates of the situation.
Making an estimate is not restricted to
the military. It is employed in the every-
day life of all persons.
Insofar as time and occasion p
plan for every contingency tha
reasonably be foreseen.
Consider the advice and suggestions of
your subordinates before making yo
wn decisions.
4) Announce decisions in time to allow
ordinates to make necessary plans.
i. Principle IX — Seek Responsibility and De
velop a Sense of Responsibility Among Subordi
Learn the duties and responsibilities
your immediate supervisor.
Seek diversified assignments which
give you responsibility and comman
perience.
Take advantage of any opportunit
which offers increased responsibility.
Perform every task, large or small, to the
best of your ability. Your reward will
consist of increased opportunity to
demonstrate your fitness to perform
bigger and more important tasks.
AGO 3167C
27
(5) Tell your subordinates what to do, not
how to do it; hold them responsible for
results. Delegate and supervise, but do
not intervene except when urgently nec-
essary. Avoid usurping the prerogatives
quent opportunities to perform dut
the next higher echelon.
Be quick to recognize accomplishm
of your subordinates when th
strate initiative and resourcefu
Correct errors in the use of judgment
and initiative in such a way as to encour-
age the individual. Avoid public criti-
cism or condemnation. Be liberal, how-
ever, in openly giving praise which is
deserved.
Give unstintingly of
when such are requeste
your command.
help and ad>
•d by those un
(10) Insu
posit
stra,
(11) Be p
10) Insure that your personnel are assigned
positions commensurate with demon-
Be prompt and fair in backing subordi-
nates to the limit. Until convinced other-
wise, have faith in each subordinate.
(12) Demonstrate to your command that you
are ready and willing to accept responsi-
bility.
AGO 3167C
j. Principle X — Employ Your Command in Ac-
cordance With its Capabilities.
(1) Know, understand, and apply the Prin-
ciples of War. See FM 100-5.
(2) Keep yourself informed as to the relative
operational effectiveness of various ele-
ments of your command.
(3) Be sure that the tasks assigned to sub-
ordinates are reasonably possible of ac-
complishment, but do not hesitate to de-
mand their utmost effort when necessity
dictates.
(4) Analyze any task assigned. If means at
your disposal appear inadequate, inform
your immediate commander and request
additional means.
(5) Make every effort to equalize tasks pro-
portionately, over appropriate periods of
time, among the several elements of your
command.
k. Principle XI — Take Responsibility for Your
Actions.
(1) Remember that you are responsible f
all your command does or fails to do
(2) Accept justified criticism.
(3) Adhere to what you think is r
the courage of your convictions
NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS
The noncommissioned officer has certain ad-
vantages and certain disadvantages in the exer-
AGO 3167C
29
cise of leadership. His constant and close associa-
tion with his subordinates affords him an oppor-
tunity to impress his leadership upon them almost
continuously. On the other hand, close association
robs him of many advantages enjoyed by those
whose station is more remote from their command.
The followin
to the
particularly useful
and Look out
Their Welfare.
(1) Cultivate an intimate knowledge of the
personal and family background of your
men without invading their personal
privacy.
Be attentive to the health of
your close contact with them will permit
you to detect evidence of ill health quite
early.
Equalize the unpopular or da
tails among your men.
Assist your commanders by
any conditions which obstruct your
efforts to provide for the welfare of your
men.
Avoid the appearance of awarding pun-
ishment upon your own authority.
Principle IV — Keep Your Men Informed.
(1) Pass on all information to your men
which will help them in the performance
of their duty.
Show your men how their efforts assist
in accomplishing the mission of the
larger unit.
ingerou
(2)
30
AGO 3167C
(3) Remember that you will be one of the
first to hear false rumors; stop them
before damage is done.
(4) Seek information which is desired and
which will be useful to your men.
15. ADDITIONAL LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES USEFUL TO
REGIMENTAL AND LOWER UNIT COMMANDERS
Commanders of regiments and lower units
ave the distinct advantage of participating in the
actual accomplishment of missions assigned to
their units. Superior leadership of the men in
platoons, companies, battalions, and regimen 1
essential. The soldier's opinion of all officers
usually will be the result of the opinion he forms
f the few officers with whom he is closely assoc
ated. The following techniques are particularly
useful to officers commanding regiments and lower
units:
a. Principle I — Know Your Job.
(1) Avoid overspecializing in too narrow a
field to the extent that you lose your per-
spective.
(2) Learn and cultivate the use of at least
one foreign language. Lack of language
facility is a marked handicap to leaders
who must be prepared to serve the far-
flung interests of the United States.
(3) Obtain a working knowledge of the char-
acteristics, habits of living, psychology,
and ideological concepts of people other
than your own.
AGO 3167C
31
(4) Broaden your global knowledge by a
study of geography and its influence on
peoples and on military operations.
b. Principle III — Know Your Men and Look out
for Their Welfare.
(1) Recognize the importance of morak
supporting activities and welfare serv-
ices and give them your wholehearted
interest and support.
(2) Protect the health of your command by
taking ,an active interest in your medical
service.
6. ADDITIONAL LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES USEFUL TO
COMMANDERS OF DIVISIONS AND HIGHER UNITS
gher commanders control the destiny oi
many men and the responsibility therefore is
reater. The following techniques are particularly
1 to commanders of divisions and highe
Principle I — Know Your Job.
(1) Keep informed of the relative develop-
ment of all units under your control by
frequent visits and command inspections.
Visits and inspections by a commander
and his staff are the most effective
method of determining whether leader-
rinciples are be
rectly not only by the commander but
also by subordinate leaders.
(2) Study those aspects of war upon which
basic policy is laid in high command.
32
AGO 3167C
(3) Employ your staff as extensions of your
personality during staff visits, and for
the primary purpose of fostering friendly
and efficient relationships between your-
self and your subordinate commanders.
b. Principle III. — Know Your Men and Look out
for Their Welfare.
(1) Protect the health of your command by
active supervision of hygiene, sanitation
and your medical service.
tablish and support a safety program.
Use command channels and surveys
determine mental attitude of the office
and men of your command.
Establish fair and equitable pass, leave,
and rotation policies. Insure that sour
promotion, assignment, and transfer
policies are carried out.
Establish appropriate standards and
policies for decorations and awards for
members of your command.
(6) Make certain that your staff has done
everything to assist subordinate com-
manders in providing for their men.
Make certain that disciplinary measures
taken by subordinate cor
ist.
(5)
(7)
c. Principle IV — Keep Your Men Informed.
Make full use of orders, memorandums, confer-
ences, talks, informational and educational mate-
AGO 3167C
33
rial, and unit newspapers to keep your command
well informed. Nevertheless, avoid the dissemina-
tion of administrative matters that are not actu-
ally necessary.
d. Principle VI — Insure That the Task Is Un-
derstood, Supervised, and Accomplished. Super-
vise the execution of your orders by personal visits
to the subordinate commands and by requiring
your staff officers to do the same.
ciple VII — Train Your Men as a Team.
Provide for progressive training and for
training exercises which involve combin-
ations of appropriate arms and services ;
show the battlefield application in the
training of service troops.
Hold realistic command post and field
exercises in which the situation is al-
lowed to develop without prearrange-
ment by the commander and staff con-
cerned, and which are designed to pro-
mote leadership, staff supervi
teamwork in all echelons.
Seize opportunities to trair
of the Navy and Air Force.
/. Principle VIII — Make Sound and Timely
cisions.
Direct and guide your staff to plan for
every contingency that can reasonably be
foreseen. Keep subordinate commanders
informed of contingencies as you antici-
pate them whenever security and other
considerations permit.
34
AGO 3167C
(2) Encourage concurrent estimates and
planning in the various echelons of your
command.
(3) Always make sure that your staff is
familiar with your current policies and
plans.
g. Principle IX— Take Responsibility for Your
Actions.
(1) Remember that regardless of your staff
and subordinates, responsibility for your
decisions and for their application i
vested in you.
(2) Insure that an unsuccessful commander's
failure was not due to some error on yoi
aart before considering his removal.
fa
AGO 3167C
35
CHAPTER 3
)UCTIOf
17. GENERAL
It is by no means true that every situation which
the commander encounters requires a special lead-
ership technique. The techniques listed in chapter
2 have an inherent elasticity and flexibility and
are adaptable to any situation. Special supple-
mentary leadership techniques are required, how-
ever, to meet certain problems such as duty in the
combat zone or communications zone, mobilization
training, demobilization, occupation duty, and
leading minority groups. This chapter presents
techniques useful in the solution of these
Section II. COMBAT ZONE
a. Training in leadership is essential to success
in combat. Battle conditions demand decisions
and operations which test the leadership of all
36
AGO 3167C
officers and all noncommissioned officers, of all
grades, to an extent which does not exist under
other conditions. It is impossible to bridge com-
pletely the gap between training and conditions
existing on the battlefield. Therefore, in combat
there are certain additional techniques which must
be applied to meet these special conditions.
b. The problem of the leader is to attain the
jective with the maximum of effectiveness and
conomy. To attain this objective —
(1) Develop fully the combat power of all
elements of your command.
Coordinate and control combat power so
as to gain maximum effectiveness in de-
stroying the enemy.
Restore promptly any part of the pote~
tial combat power which nu.y have bee
reduced or destroyed.
Recognize battlefield conditions which
might damage the combat potential of
your command.
c. Combat power is developed by creating and
sustaining a desire to close with and destroy the
enemy. In large measure, it is gained by expert
training, by the fostering of confidence, and by a
knowledge of the fact that forward movement
tends to reduce casualties. In developing aggn
si vgugsSj the lcsdcr will - ■
( 1 ) Strive to eliminate factors which produce
inertia, timidity, or uncertainty.
(2) Stimulate in all echelons implicit confi-
dence in weapons and leaders.
AGO 3167C
37
(3) Encourage all leaders to exercise initia-
tive and to exploit favorable situations.
(4) Condemn all forms of complacency, how-
ever temporary, that may arise from a
false feeling of security.
(5) Indoctrinate his command with the ne-
cessity for maintaining the momentum
of the attack.
(6) Reward evidence of aggressiveness by
every means feasible, including decora-
tions and unit awards.
d. Firepower produces combat power. Lack of
firepower is uneconomical, in that such lack must
be compensated for by commitment of dispropor-
tionate forces. Combat training must lay emphasis
jpon economy and effectiveness of fire. To de-
velop firepower, the leader will —
(1) Stress control and coordination of the
fire of all weapons and emphasize fire
distribution.
(2) Emphasize the necessity of firepower
against areas or positions without spe-
cific target designation or identification.
(3) Emphasize the necessity to economize on
ammunition, along with the need for
effectiveness of fire. Guard against the
tendency toward "trigger happiness"
is manifested
troops.
e. To gain maximum effectiveness in destroying
the enemy, coordination and control of combat
power is essential at all times. To maintain
momentum of attack, operation plans must be
38
AGO 3167C
(3)
(4)
(5)
supervised to their execution. The commander
must be accurately informed of the location of all
elements, particularly of the forward elements, of
his command. The leader will —
Issue orders in time for subordinates to
;e their own plans.
Insure the establishment and full use of
adequate signal communication.
Encourage direct coordination between
commanders of attacking echelons.
Make full use of phase lines, forward
and rear echelons of control, and other
coordination agencies.
See that communication and liaison with
higher, lower, and adjacent units are es-
tablished. Make sure that command chan-
nels of specially organized forces
adequately and clearly defined.
Insofar as practical, personally observe
rogress of the battle and the effic
f control. The commander who re-
s in his command post is courting
disaster.
/. Attainment of objectives is dependent upon
restoration of the potential combat power of any
part of the command which has been weakened or
destroyed by enemy action. With the rapidity of
movement in modern warfare, it is imperative that
plac
tails efficient movement, proper reserve and sup-
port positions, and assignment of units to missions
within their capabilities. To maintain potential
combat power, the leader must —
are
jrve
AGO 3167C
39
replace and
3vot
its which
ore their
(4)
(5)
(1) Insure that the chain of command re-
mains intact^ Make necessary replace-
ments of subordinates promptly.
(2) Permit adequate time in reserve position
for units to assimilate replacements, to
reorganize and regroup, to train, and to
equipment
ntion to
have failed in combat, to restore t
confidence and esprit de corps.
See that subsequent missions of such
units are within their capabilities.
When advisable, make prompt replace-
ment of commanders. Wholesale replac
ments, however, may serve to accentu
failure to the unit and thus lower es
de corps.
g. Factors adversely affecting the combat
tential of the command include fear; panic;
couragement ; isolation ; and lack of confidence in
If, unit, or leaders. The presence of fear and
ic fluctuates in accordance with the condition
of troops, the degree of tactical success, and the
physical conditions of the battlefield. The greatest
susceptibility to fear and panic usually exists dur-
ing baptism of fire, retrograde movement, or when
the unit is dispersed or isolated. Normally, it is
the commander of the small unit who must coun-
teract such elements. However, it is the leader of
the large unit who trains and indoctrinates him
and who enunciates policies which should be in-
strumental in counteracting possible fear or panic.
40
AGO 3167C
(4)
To counteract these factors, the leader should —
( 1 ) Insure that his troops are fed and rested
whenever possible, since hunger or ex-
haustion leads to lowered morale and re-
duces combat efficiency.
Combat the effect of false rumor by
ding up a reputation for truthfulness
Minimize or eliminate, when possible,
those physical and combat conditions
which might produce fear or panic.
Inculcate in his command those factors
which oppose such psychological con
tions as anxiety, tension, insecurity, a
uncertainty, by keeping his men in-
formed and by promoting group ide:
fication.
urnish every possible support, physii
and moral, for units which are isolated.
Do not allow such units to feel that they
are neglected, abandoned, or fighting a
sacrifice mission.
Emphasize indoctrination which will
prepare the unit to wage aggressive com-
bat in the fact of reverses, of isolation,
and of the unexpected.
a. One of the major leadership problems that
confronts the commanders of larger combat units
such as divisions, corps, and armies is the proper
handling of attached units. In corps especially,
AGO 3167C
41
there is a continuous turn-over of divisions and
separate units during the course of a campaign.
The corps commander has the difficult problem of
integrating newly attached units into the corps
effort and of giving them a sense of belonging to
the team. This calls for certain leadership tech-
niques of a special nature in addition to the more
general techniques previously discussed.
b. To integrate newly attached u
command, the commander should —
(1) Establish communication with a new
attached unit at the earliest pract:
time.
(2) Insure that liaison is established with a
unit as soon as he learns it is to be
tached.
(3) Deliver promptly a brief of all cu
standing operating procedures an
inistrative policies to the commander
and staff of a newly attached unit.
(4) Make all necessary administrative ar-
rangements for the efficient reception of
a unit newly attached to his command.
(5) Insure that administrative responsibility
for attached units is clearly defined and
promptly accepted.
Prevent unnecessary administrative re-
porting to his headquarters by attached
units.
(7) Require his staff to observe the chain of
command in dealing with attached units.
AGO 3167C
(8) Visit attached units, even though they
may be further attached to subordinate
units.
(9) Require his staff to visit newly attached
units to ascertain what assistance his
and can render.
Be familiar with the history of every
unit attached to his command.
Insist that subordinate comman
elude attached units in recomm
for decorations and awards.
Encourage commanders of attached
units to make their problems or sugges-
tions known to him.
Check plans of subordinate commanders
to see that attached units are not dis-
criminated against in missions assigned.
ee that attached units receive their lai
share of all privileges and welfare activi-
ties. Make these units feel that they are
an integral part of his team.
Write a letter of appreciation to z
parting unit whenever its service merits
such action.
NAL COMMU
a. Just as leadership and command are insepar-
able, so, in turn, are command and signal com-
munication inseparable. Thus it follows that
leadership and communication are in equally close
association ; it is therefore essential that the leader
AGO H1B7C
43
use all available signal communication facilities in
the application of the techniques of leadership.
b. The establishment and operation of signal
communications in the communications zone is not
difficult, since methods follow peacetime commer-
cial practices. Technological improvements in sig-
nal communication facilities, however, introduce
int factors into the problem of leader-
"he ability of the commander to exercise
leadership and tactical control is being
constantly extended.
(2) Senior officers who are not in frequent
contact with modern signal equipment
experience difficulty in becoming, or in
remaining, adept in its use.
c. To know his job, it is essential that a com-
mander become thoroughly acquainted with the
capabilities and limitations of the signal communi-
cation equipment which is furnished. For higher
commanders it is not necessary to know the details
of its functioning, but only what it can accomplish.
However, any commander, who may be even tem-
porarily required to use voice radio personally
should become familiar with the operation of the
equipment.
d. With the continued development of moder
signal communication facilities, the commander of
higher units are afforded increasing opportunity
to comprehend quickly the conditions faced by
their troops. Consequently, it enables the com-
mander to exert his leadership ability to a degree
y
ie
>f
44
AGO 3167C
hitherto unknown. By creating a staff-observer
radio net, it is possible to emphasize most prin-
ciples of leadership, though the chief application
must be that of tactical control.
e. The use of staff observers to assist the leader
has long been established practice. The practice is
greatly facilitated by the designation of a special
radio frequency for staff use. The commander and
the staff officer thus are enabled to become per-
sonally mobile, to have the advantage of on-the-
spot observation, and to keep in touch with the
situation, with one another, and with staff sections
at the command post. Staff observers equipped
with vehicular-mounted radios may travel with
the headquarters of subordinate commands whose
action may be critical. They operate in the same
net as the commander and staff and report the
position of the units accompanied and the salient
facts of the situation. Staff observers are not in-
vestigators. Their primary function is to help the
command to which they are attached or are
accompanying.
Section
COMMUNICATIONS ZONE
GENERAL
While service in the communications zone usu-
rdship anc
countered in the combat zone, close attention to
leadership principles and techniques is still nec-
essary. The troops lack the incentive of combat
service. The commander does not have the ad-
AGO 3167C
45
vantage of unit identification with its attendant
history and background. The emphasis that has
been placed upon service with combat units has
often reacted to the detriment of the morale of
service troops. Yet the opening of ports, the de-
livery of supplies, and similar activities in record
time can be employed to generate pride and de-
velop esprit de corps.
22. T
QUES
There are additional techniques applicable to
leadership of larger units in the communications
zone. The commander of these units shoulc
a. Utilize his staff, particularly the special
to familiarize him with the various types of :
units under his command.
b. Delegate authority to his staff, especiallj
the chiefs of technical services, for supervision of
units and accomplishment of assigned tasks,
member, however, that final responsibility al
ests with the highest commander.
c. Determine the requirements and obtain a
balanced troop list that is adequate for the task.
d. Plan so that logistical support will be avail-
able when needed.
e. Maintain the highest possible standard of
living consistent with avoidance of justified criti-
cism by combat zone personnel. However, he
should avoid requiring service troops to be uncom-
fortable merely because discomfort is unavoidable
in the combat zone.
46
AGO 3167C
/. Prevent the diversion of personnel and means
intended for the combat zone.
g. Prescribe a uniform for his troops appropri-
ate to the work performed. Service troops should
not be required to dress as combat troops unless a
h. Make special arrangements for combat troops
who are temporarily stationed in the communica-
tions zone. Conferences between commanders
should develop an interpretation of regulatio:
which does not cause resentment by either
or service troops.
i. Identify each project with the combat effort
of the theater of operations. Stress the part
particular unit has in support of major operations
Devise ways by which the command will
what it has accomplished and how it can do
j. Subject to security restrictions,
situation maps in each unit to keep tro<
formed of the progress of operations.
k. Assure himself that the administrative
quirements of supported commands are
and adequately met. Maintain liaison wi
ported commands.
I. When troops must be worked for excessively
long hours on a particular job, insure that they
anderstand their contribution to the over-all effort.
m. Employ units in the role for which they were
organized and trained except in emergency. Be
prepared to select and train physically able troops
for combat duty in case of emergency.
AGO 3167C
47
n. Maintain a high standard of discipline and
service efficiency. Take advantage of ceremonies
to engender unit esprit de corps, but avoid en-
croaching on essential duties or recreational time.
o. Where personnel stability permits, provide
ies for those desiring to partici-
zt becai
23. GENERAL
The material which follows is primarily
ted to training. It is included in this text bee
it directly affects the study and develo
leadership in all units.
b. The commander charged with the training
f newly activated units must consider not only the
leadership which he himself exerts, but also that
of his subordinate commanders as well. The effi-
cacy of his leadership will be reflected in the sum
total of their command abilities. It is of para-
mount importance that he develop leadership qual-
ities in his subordinates : first, those manifested by
traits of character; and second, those based on
confidence which arises from knowing the job and
which are demonstrated by the ability to maneuver
nd control troops in a coordinated effort.
c. One of the most important leadership respon-
sibilities of the commander both before and during
mobilization training is the establishment of har-
monious relations with the members of the adja-
48
AGO 3167C
cent civilian communities. The commander must
stimulate public support and cooperation by per-
sonal appearances before civic groups and per-
sonal visits to important civic officials such as the
mayor and chief of police. During such visits, the
commander and members of his staff must explain
the mission of the units undergoing mobilization
training and point out various problems that are
likely to arise when a large military organization
is suddenly superimposed upon a civilian com-
munity. Through mutual understanding between
the civilian and the military of each other's prob-
lems, undesirable incidents involving misunder-
standing or animosity between soldier and civilian
will be held to a minimum. Moreover, the civilian
will not only accept but also welcome the
and thus make a substantial contribution
soldier morale and esprit de corps,
d. Still another important leadership responsi
ity of the commander during mobilization train
ing is the proper indoctrination of the cadre dur-
ing their training prior to the arrival of fillers.
The commander must impress upon all members
of the cadre that they will be the backbone of the
unit that is being formed around them ; that they
must establish and maintain the highest standards
of discipline, training, and military courtesy so
that they, in turn, can suitably train and set the
example for the fillers. The commander who effec-
tively applies the principles of leadership during
the cadre training period produces a cadre that is
efficient and well disciplined — a cadre that will be
the nucleus for an efficient and well-disciplined
sol
M
ing
ins
AGO 3167C
49
organization. The unfit must be eliminated from
the cadre.
24. COMBAT LEADERSHIP TRAINING
a. In training a new unit, the commander wi
recognize that ability to lead troops in combat is
the prime requirement of junior leaders. More-
over, facility in handling troops is a technique and
as such is far easier for a commander to deveL
in his subordinates than is leadership of the in
spirational type. Men do not learn to lead troops
from theoretical instruction alone. They learn
mainly by experience in command. Therefore, the
commander must insure that the opportunity to
command exists. For example, he must insist that
all echelons of command follow strictly the provi-
sions of the mobilization training programs which,
"or most divisional units, require that nearly 50
percent of training time be spent in unit
exercises.
In this phase, "know your job" is a basi
element in instruction of new units. Realistic ad
herence to high standards of duty in all training
the fundamental.
c. Techniques available to the leaders of al
units by which their own leadership training, and
that of their subordinates, can
tated are —
( 1 ) Map exercises and maneuver.
( 2 ) Command post exercises.
(3) Field exercises.
50
AGO MR-C
d. Instructions for the conduct of these exer-
cises are found in appropriate manuals. Correct
training methods and logical training progression,
however, are of such importance in the develop-
ment of battle leadership that some elaboration of
these subjects is considered desirable and will be
covered in succeeding paragraphs.
e. Whenever possible, combination of the three
types of exercises laid on the same terrain is useful
for training in leadership as well as in the tactical
handling of troops. Initially, the exercise may be
conducted on a map, then be repeated on the
ground as a command post exercise. Finally, when
the training of the troops has progressed suffici-
ently, the same situation may be portrayed as a
field exercise. Thus, through logical progression
the commanders learn the theoretical aspects of
leadership in the map exercise, map maneuver,
and command post exercise, and then apply this
theory to the field exercise, employing actual
troops.
25. MAP EXERCISES AND MAP MANEUVERS
a. General. The definitions and conduct of map
exercises and map maneuvers are found in FM
21-5. These are devices for training commanders
and staff officers in the theoretical conduct of mili-
serations by means of a map.
mand post exercises and field exercises.
b. Techniques.
(1) Whenever possible, base the exercise or
AGO 3167C
51
maneuver on local terrain so that the
same tactical situation can later be
played in the field by subordinate head-
quarters and subordinate units.
Prepare the map maneuver so that all
the staff will participate.
tress realism by introducing require-
ments for staff supervision of the action
portrayed and approved techniques for
carrying it out.
COMMAND POST EXERCISES
I
a. General. A command post exercise can be
one of the most important leadership-training de-
vices, depending on the manner in which it is exe-
cuted. Where many artificialities are employed,
where the senior commander faces a situation re-
quiring no leadership or command decisions on his
art, or where the exercise fails to develop logi-
illy, very little value is realized. It is possible to
avoid such adverse factors through the application
of realism, to include a freely developing situation
which demands a series of command decisions on
the part of all echelons. A command post exercise
fills its primary purpose only when it affords
leadership training for all commanders and their
staffs.
Techniques.
(1) Require command post exercises in all
echelons, down to and including bat-
talions. Schedule these to precede the
field exercises for small units which are
ir
AGO 3167C
required by the mobilization training
program. These two exercises should be
based on the same situation.
(2) Wherever possible, hold command post
exercises on the ground. Require all
headquarters elements to be deployed at
appropriate distances and to move in ac
cordance with
situation.
(3) In all command post exercises, require
units to pass information back to the
next higher echelon, using organic means
of communication.
(4) Require all echelons to act on the factual
or imaginary information furnished by
executing their original plan of action,
revising it, or calling for additional
means.
6)
Adopt an attitude that the exercise is f<
the training of all, including the com-
mander. Stress the fact that neither
commander nor any other leader can
velop command facility without practice,
and that the command post exercise gives
experience in correcting mistakes with-
out causing the troops to suffer for them.
Schedule command post exercises in any-
one echelon only after the next lower
echelon has become proficient in passing
on the battle reports which actuate the
situation for its commander.
167C
53
(7) Use the chain of command in making
necessary corrections in the progress of
the exercise.
(8) Realize that, while a command post exer-
cise may be held for a commander and
his headquarters with only the next
lower echelon present, the exercise will
always benefit by the presence of as many
headquarters as can be spared at that
tage of training.
Insist that staffs be used in a realistic
manner to plan and supervise all
of the exercise.
27. FIELD EXERCISES
a. Ge
or sma
e
g
f,
General. Field exercises, particularly those
lall units, provide the best training test o
combat leadership ability and the best training
experience in developing it. Next to battle itself,
they are the end toward which all trainin
directed. Failure to stress this type of trai
results in low standards of leadership bein
brought to the battlefield. The techniques of con-
ducting field exercises are covered in appropriate
training manuals. However, because of their di-
rect relation to leadership training, the following
techniques are given special emphasis.
Techniques.
(1) Stress realism. The modern battlefield
under conditions of mobile warfare ap-
pears empty. Since the battlefield does
appear empty, normally plan exercises
54
AGO 31S7C
f&
which involve an advance to seize terrain
objectives.
(2) Require repeated drills in the execution
of simple tactical maneuvers designed to
e planned objectives.
ress logical progression of training,
recede field exercises with instruction
evaluation of terrain, with corn*,
orders, and with command post exercises
drawn for the same terrain and situa-
tion.
(4) State the conditions of enemy fire whic
are supposed to exist over the ground
traversed, or specific parts thereof. Do
not introduce complicated artificialitie
these only detract from the commander's
ability to concentrate on the control of
his unit and on the selection of a forma-
tion appropriate to the conditions of fire.
The end in view is leadership ability as
acility in handling
(5)
(6)
Stress the importance of each leader so
placing himself and his headquarters
that he can most readily coordinate all
efforts of his command and of the ele-
ments that may be supporting it.
Do not permit exercises against flagged
enemy positions, or two-sided maneuvers,
until leadership facility in command and
control has been demonstrated.
AGO 3167C
55
(7) Wherever possible, employ current meth-
ods for marking support fires. Require
that such marking, with accompanying
movement, simulate battle conditions, if
feasible.
impoi
n by all appropriate means.
) Have a well-planned critique
ately after each field exercise.
DEMOBILIZATION
LEADERSHIP IN DEMOBILIZATION
After each war, the Army is confronted with
the difficult problem of demobilization. Divergent
and often conflicting objectives usually face the
Army at such a time. Some of these are —
To return personnel to civilian life quickly.
b. To demobilize personnel in a just and fair
order.
c. To retain and maintain highly efficient forces
for occupation duties and for other commitments
of armed security at home and abroad.
d. To care for billions of dollars worth of sup-
plies and equipment, and to assist in the disposal
of surplus.
e. To maintain morale in the Armed Forces and
civilian population.
/. To continue the induction or enlistment of
personnel as required.
56
AGO 3167C
g. To secure public acceptance of the demobili-
zation plan.
29. TECHNIQUES
Leadership techniques that
to demobilization are —
a. Early Planning in all
mand.
The essence of a demobilization plan, re
gardless of the size of the military unit
involved, is that it is fair and just to the
individual, does not leave a weak, ineffec-
tive defense force, and can be carried out
expeditiously with the means availabl
Mass demobilization procedures which
overtax facilities, both in the theater and
in the continental United States, and
which strip fighting and service units of
essential personnel are not justified solel;
because of personal desires. These d
sires, expressed individually or in mass,
exert strong pressure for the rapid re-
lease of personnel from service without
regard to military expediency.
Early planning in division and higher
commands is dependent upon directives
received from higher authority. It is
here that new leaders must be trained to
take over the responsibilities of experi-
enced demobilized veterans. All troops
must be carefully oriented on the tvhy
and how of the demobilization plan.
AGO 3167C
57
b. Education of Both Army Personnel and Civil-
ians. One of the most important objectives of a
demobilization program is public acceptance. Al-
though all Army personnel must know and under-
stand the plan, basic support must come from the
civilian population. This support can be gained
only by providing a sound, fair plan which is made
known through a carefully conceived, forcefully
executed public information program. Initial im-
petus is gained through indoctrinating officers
and men who will, in turn, inform friends and
elatives. Continuous emphasis must be placed on
the responsibilities of the Armed Forces for fur
thering national interest. The press and the pub-
ic must be solidly behind procedures of the
mobilization plan.
c. Fairness to the Individual. A war of an;
preciable duration will find practically all
containing personnel with wide differences in age,
ervice, and family responsibility. If, at the end
of any future war, demobilization is based on in-
dividual criteria, those parts of the plan dealing
with the interests of individuals must be planned
and executed fairly.
d. Maintenance of Morale and Esprit de corps.
Any method of demobilization based entirely on
individual criteria will ultimately destroy group
identity. This is true not only of units that are
selected to remain in being, but also of units that
are used as vehicles for returning individuals
for demobilization. Large groups of personnel will
suddenly find themselves among strangers, in
strange surroundings, and under strange leaders.
58
ACO 3167C
(2)
Some methods that may prove useful in such units
for building and maintaining morale and esprit de
corps are —
( 1 ) To keep troops busy on useful work.
To separate as guickly as possible per-
sonnel to be demobilized from those who
re to remain in the service.
) To make every effort to insure that de-
mobilization plans work smoothly.
To make men leaving the Army feel that
their service has been appreciated and
that every effort has been made to separ-
ate them from the service in an efficient
manner.
(5) To indoctrinate remaining men with th
importance of their work and servic
(4)
ADDITIONAL TECHNIQUES FOR UNITS
OF PERSONNEL TO BE DEMOBILIZED
a. Welcome veterans to the unit. Foster a
"sense of belonging" among those assigned from
other units.
b. Orient and inform personnel. Officers and
men must be kept informed of the status of de-
mobilization as it affects them and of any reasons
for delays which may develop.
c. Include preparation for return to civilian life
in training. Courses of study in civilian pursuits
should be made available. Training should pro-
mote the health of the individual, and discipline
and pride in his unit.
AGO 3167C
59
A
d. Provide good food, billets, living conditions,
and recreation.
e. Stress discipline, appearance, saluting, uni-
form, and unit athletics. Encourage men to wear
service ribbons, decorations, and any other author-
ized symbols of previous service. Where practic
able, arrange for officers and men from the same
combat unit to remain together until separation
from the service.
/. Avoid rash promises and commitments
Keep in mind that the best of plans go astray for
unforeseen reasons.
g. Avoid changes and counterorders. By thor-
ough planning, seek stability for the unit and for
its individuals. Keep changes in orders and
of personnel to a minimum.
and shi
Section VI. LEADERSHIP OF OCCUPATION FORCES
31. OCCUPATION MISSIONS
5/
Primary missions of occupation forces are to
support the military government of the occupied
territory and to protect that territory from ex-
ternal aggression and from internal uprising.
Secondary missions may include supervising and
regulating certain activities of the inhabitants of
the occupied territory; supervising and directing
essential rehabilitation and reconstruction; sup-
plying necessities to the population; controlling
borders; supporting civil police; and conducting
training not only to fit the forces for carrying out
60
AGO 3167C
their occupation missions, but also to maintain
them as capable combat forces.
32. SPECIAL FACTORS
Some factors peculiar to o
which bear on leadership are —
a. Foreign Duty. A large proportion of the
troops may not be serving overseas from choice.
The foreign population may naturally resent the
presence of an occupying force and may oppose it
by various means.
b. Incentive. Generally, it is difficult to convert
troops from their combat missions to those of oc
cupation. The commander must expect a natural
let-down of interest on the part of the occupation
troops if no new incentives are provided and
cepted by them.
c. Availability of Forces. The early stages of
the occupation are likely to be characterized by a
abundance of troops for occupation tasks. Late
shortage may exist. Furthermore, a rapid turn-
over of personnel of the occupation forces may re-
sult from short-term enlistments, time required
for training replacements in the continental
United States, shipping time from the continental
United States, demobilization criteria, and other
factors beyond the control of the occupation force
commanders. These factors will increase the
training problems of the occupation forces, partic-
ularly with respect to junior officers and noncom-
missioned officers.
AGO 3167C
41
d. Maintenance of High Standards of Disci-
pline. Not only is it necessary to carry out the
normal administrative duties of occupation effici-
ently, but also it is essential to gain and maintain
the respect of the conquered populace. A highly
isciplined force will have little trouble controllii
those who respect its military efficiency.
33
>
ai
fo
Pi
33. TECHNIQUES
All leadership techniques discussed previou
apply equally well to the commander of occup
forces. Some additional techniques are —
To keep occupation forces informed of
purpose and importance of their mission.
b. To do everything possible to make the tour of
occupation duty interesting for the command. Pro
vide recreation facilities, tours within the occu
and adjacent countries, comfortable billets, good
food, and freedom from menial tasks that can be
rmed by the conquered population. Provide
instruction for the troops in the langu
occupied country.
c. To treat the civil population fairly, firmly,
and courteously. Proper relations will greatly as-
sist in breaking down the people's natural resent-
ment towards occupation forces.
d. To keep troops busy on essential work a
training, or at interesti:
tion.
e. To provide the best in uniforms, arms, and
equipment, and insist upon outstanding appear-
ance.
62
AGO 3167C
/. To select leaders carefully. Popularity alone
within the unit is one of the poorest criterions in
these selections.
g. To demonstrate to your command that you
are part of it. The failures of the men are your
failures, and their successes are likewise yours.
f Within our nation there are many groups which
are considered minority groups — racial, religious,
and cultural. Since the Army's concern is only the
employment of men on their individual merit so
that they may contribute most efficiently and effec-
tively to the national effort, it follows that the
Army's interest in any minority group extends
only to distinctive differences which may necessi-
tate special handling. These differences lie in such
factors as general ability, physical strength, diet
needs, mechanical skills, language, and education.
The problem of using certain minority groups with
greater efficiency has caused grave concern during
the past two wars. In a future war, this problem
may be of greater magnitude. For this consider-
able portion of our National manpower resources,
the Army must accept the responsibility for pro-
viding competent leadership. At the same time,
leaders must avoid any effort to foster social ex-
periments within the structure of the Military
Establishment except when expressly ordered by
higher authority to do so. The principles in chap-
AGO 3167C
63
ter 1 apply to the leading of any minority group in
the United States. The greatest sources of diffi-
culty lie in the lack of thorough understanding of
the characteristics of the group, and in the failure
to recognize the fact that individual differences
are greater and more significant than are group
diffe
lose
A need for outstanding leadership is imperati
in units composed of personnel from recognized
minority groups. This need cannot be met by in-
creased quantity of leaders alone; the quality of
leadership must be of the highest order. The fol-
lowing techniques are presented for the purpose
amplifying the basic principles of leaders
and of applying them to minority group units
i. Recognize that all soldiers are entitled to
identical treatment and to fundamental rights,
privileges, and opportunities regardless of differ-
ences in race, color, creed, or cultural background.
To accept less for your unit invites unfavorable
criticism ; to demand more creates an undesirable
reaction from all elements.
b. Set the example in tolerance, understanding,
and freedom from prejudice. Become worthy of
being emulated as a broad-minded, unprejudic
leader.
c. Avoid creating the impression of either hos-
tility or patronizing condescension.
d. Develop an understanding of minority group
problems and feelings by observation and study.
64
AGO 3167C
It is only by first-hand knowledge that any race or
group may be understood. Diligent study of group
problems tends to destroy false beliefs and con-
ceptions.
e. Develop in your men initiative and a sense of
responsibility by providing means and opportuni-
ties for fostering and improving these traits.
/. Impress your unit with the fact that
Army is concerned primarily with the development
f soldiers and leaders and that each man will
ded opportunity to develop his own capabili
[ capacities
g. Be sure that adequate provisions are made
for off-duty time. When civilian facilities are
imited or restricted, increase the military recrea-
al program accordingly.
h. Be patient in training progress. It is better
to build slowly toward high standards than to
neglect details
t the
ment
ill be
ibili-
ards as are requi ;et
F FEMALE GROUPS
36. FEMALE GROUPS
While WAC's, nurses, and female civilian em-
ployees, Red Cross workers, and USO entertainers
do not constitute a minority group, their presence
with the Army poses certain problems of leader-
AGO 3167C
65
ship. Individually, or as a group, women require
certain facilities and items not essential to male
personnel ; among these are — special facilities for
billeting, transportation, hospitalization, and rec-
reation, and special items of individual equipment
and supply. The particulars concerning leader-
ship of women are contained in appropriate pub-
lications prepared by the Women's Army Corps.
66
AGO 3167C