Document text
WAR DEPARTMENT
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
J-
MILITARY TRAINING
July 16, 1941
FM 21-5
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
MILITARY TRAINING
Prepared under direction of the
Chief of Staff
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1941
WAR DEPARTMENT,
Washington, July 16, 1941.
FM 21-5, Military Training, is published for the informa-
tion and guidance of all concerned.
[A. G. 062.11 (5-26—41) .]
By order of the Secretary of War:
G. C. MARSHALL,
Chief of Staff.
Official :
E. S. ADAMS,
Major General >
The Adjutant General.
Distribution:
RandH (10)°; Bn and L (5); Bn 1 (10).
(For explanation of symbols, see FM 21-6.)
n
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraphs
Section I. General 1-10
II. Training management 11-30
III. Means and scope of training 31-43
IV. Training of individuals 44-52
V. Unit training 53-60
VI. Instruction 61-94
VII. Public speaking 95-103
VIII. Applicatory tactical exercises 104-121
IX. Company training programs and schedules 122-132
Page
Appendix I. Training missions 63
II. Unit Training Program 65
III. Mobilization Training program for Infantry
at Unit Training Centers 68
IV. Unit Training Schedule 71
Index 73
in
FM 21-5
BASIC FIELD MANUAL
MILITARY TRAINING
(This manual supersedes TR 1CM, August 10, 1935.)
Section I
GENERAL.
■ 1. Scope. — This manual contains the basic instructions
for the training of the Army of the United States. Detailed
instructions for military training are contained in Field
Manuals and Technical Manuals, in Mobilization Regula-
tions, in training circulars, and in other training directives
for the components of the Army. For example, see chapter
9, PM 23-55, and other Field Manuals of the 23-series.
® 2. Purpose of Military Training. — The ultimate purpose
of all military training is the assurance of victory in the event
of war. Such assurance will guarantee the domestic peace
and the international security of our people. The conditions
which may face the Army of the United States in war cannot
be definitely foreseen. It must be trained to function effec-
tively in any type of war in any climate or terrain.
■ 3. One Army. — The training of the Regular Army, the
National Guard of the United States, and the Organized Re-
serves will be so directed as to develop a single homogeneous
force with the same standards of efficiency. For the missions
of the various components of the Army of the United States,
see appendix I.
B 4. Offensive Spirit. — a. Training will be so conducted as
to develop in the Army the ability and desire to take offensive
action in combat. Although training must include thorough
instruction in defensive combat, it must be understood that
such combat is only a means to a definite end — offensive
action. See FM 100-5.
&. To develop an offensive spirit a major objective of train-
ing must be the development of aggressive, resolute, thor-
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MILITARY TRAINING
oughly capable individuals and units whose skill, initiative,
and confidence have instilled in them the desire to close with
the enemy and destroy him.
H 5. Qualities To Be Developed. — Successful offensive action
demands that military training develop in the individual and
in the unit the following qualities;
Morale.
Discipline.
Health, strength, and endurance.
Technical proficiency.
Initiative.
Adaptability.
Leadership.
Teamwork.
Tactical proficiency.
H 6. Conduct of Training. — In order to accomplish its pur-
pose efficiently, military training will be conducted by the
use of decentralization, balanced progressive training, and
applicatory tactical exercises.
HI 7. Decentralization.— Responsibility for and control of
training are functions of command. It is the duty of each
commander to inform his subordinate commanders of the ob-
jectives and standards to be attained by training and of the
time available for the purpose. The initiative and leadership
of the subordinates is developed by the responsibility for
choice of methods and for the details of execution.
b. When time, means, or suitable instructors are lacking,
the technical training of individuals, particularly specialists,
who must be trained to perform identical or similar tasks may
be conducted under centralized control. Such control gains
speed in basic and technical training and thus permits the
further decentralization of training in those subjects which
best promote the development of initiative and leadership.
c. Supervision and inspection are made by higher com-
manders to determine progress in training. Such supervi-
sion must not relieve subordinates of their personal responsi-
bility or hamper the exercise of their initiative.
■ 8. Balanced Progressive Training. — a. Training in all sub-
jects progresses from the elementary to the more advanced
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MILITARY TRAINING
8-11
subjects. The individual must be physically hardened, quali-
fied to march, to use his weapons, and to care for himself
and his transportation in the field. Training in these essen-
tial basic and technical subjects must be so balanced as to
prepare the individual to take the field at any time.
b. Tactical and logistical training begins with the opera-
tions of the small unit. Concurrent training of higher and
lower units gives to all an appreciation of the part each sub-
division must play in the task of the team as a whole. Train-
ing of higher units must not be attempted until the lower
unit has reached a stage of training which permits it to gain
further instruction by combined training with other units.
For example, only when the battalions are well trained will
they take part in the field exercises of the regiment, the
combat team, and the combined training of larger units.
0 9. Applicator Y Tactical Exercises. — Use of this type of
exercise should be commenced as early in training as prac-
ticable. These exercises are direct training for combat. All
other phases of military training directly or indirectly pre-
pare for tactical exercises. They permit the individual or
unit under training to apply the doctrine being taught to an
assumed or outlined tactical situation.
■ 10. Mobilization Training. — In time of emergency, train-
ing is conducted in accordance with the doctrine outlined
in this manual, with the following exceptions:
a. The conduct of training is centralized to a greater de-
gree, depending on the time, instructors, and means available.
b. Training is intensified and the length of the training
day is increased.
c. Such special training is required as the development
of particular task forces demands.
d. Such other exceptions as are prescribed in War Depart-
ment Mobilization Regulations and Mobilization Training
Programs.
Section II
TRAINING MANAGEMENT
■ ll. Definition. — Training management is the planning
and direction of training so as to make the most effective
use of the means and time available to accomplish the
training mission.
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MILITARY TRAINING
B 12. Responsibility. — Training management is a function
of command and therefore the responsibility of every unit
commander.
■ 13. Direction of Training. — a. The direction of training
to secure uniformity and coordination of effort is exercised
through the established chain of command from the highest
to the lowest headquarters. The announcement of policies
and doctrines, assignment of training objectives, allotment
of time and means, and the promulgation of plans for the
training of individuals and units are accomplished through
the medium of training orders.
b. Training orders, issued as training directives, general
orders, mobilization regulations, administrative letters, and
training circulars are issued usually by higher headquarters.
Training programs and schedules embody the more detailed
training plans of tactical commanders down to and including
commanders of companies and similar units. They may be
supplemented by memorandums which publish detailed
instructions for subordinate commanders.
E 14. Training Plan. — The training plan results from an
estimate of the training situation and is announced in train-
ing programs and schedules. Planning involves a careful
consideration of training methods suitable to the existing
state of training, to the personnel available, to weather and
climatic conditions, and to the objective to be reached. Prom
this is evolved a correct determination of the sequence of
subjects or courses, the use of available facilities, and the
division of time to meet the several requirements.
■ 15. Estimate of Training Situation. — The following fac-
tors are considered in an estimate of the training situation:
a. Mission (training objective).
b. Essential subjects (relative importance and scope of
each) .
(1) Basic.
(2) Technical.
(3) Tactical and logistical.
c. Time available.
d. Equipment and facilities available.
e. Personnel available as instructors.
/. Local conditions.
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MILITARY TRAINING
15-17
(1) Climate.
(2) Terrain.
g . Existing state of training.
h. Organization for training.
z. Obstacles.
(1) Administrative.
(2) Physical
(3) Human.
B 16. Mission. — The mission is the most important factor in
a training problem. The commander of every organization
must analyze carefully the training mission or objective desig-
nated by a higher echelon to ascertain precisely what he is
expected to accomplish. Each commander must analyze his
own requirements and assure himself that the training objec-
tive he has designated can be attained if the time, facilities,
and personnel are properly employed.
E 17. Essential Subjects. — a. In the training of any combat-
ant arm it will be found that the essential subjects may be
classified under three groups: basic, technical, and tactical
and logistical. Definite standards of proficiency can easily
be established for most technical subjects and for some basic
subjects, but in tactical and logistical training an arbitrary
measurement is hardly possible. Commanders of all grades
must be familiar with tactical doctrine. Their tactical judg-
ment should be developed and confirmed by applying the doc-
trine in the solution of all types of problems. By the solution
of tactical problems each commander will become acquainted
with the part he plays in tactical operations, and teamwork
will be secured.
b. The relative importance of subjects and the scope of
each are determined by the training objective, that is, the
mission. Broadly speaking, in the training of enlisted per-
sonnel, emphasis should be placed upon basic and technical
training; in the training of officers, upon tactical and logis-
tical training. Officers must know thoroughly the details of
basic and technical training and be able to instruct in them.
Accurate knowledge of details and precision in execution are
essential requirements in the training of a soldier. Non-
commissioned officers must understand the tactical handling
of the units they command.
324316° — 41 2
5
18-21
MILITARY TRAINING
H 18. Time Available. — The time available should be reduced
to hours, and morning hours listed separately from after-
noon hours. This is particularly necessary in preparing de-
tailed programs and schedules. Morning hours should be
used for training requiring the greatest mental concentration.
Afternoons are suited to subjects requiring action and move-
ment. Athletic games should be played in the afternoon.
Note. — In considering the available time it is necessary to allow
for the time consumed in going to and returning from training
areas. Such time must be considered a training loss and not com-
puted in the hours devoted to the subject of instruction.
B 19. Equipment and Facilities Available. — The use of lim-
ited facilities and equipment, such as rifle ranges and impact
areas, will be coordinated by a higher commander so that
each unit may have its necessary share of time for use in
training. The need for any special equipment should be
foreseen, so that it may be ready for use at the designated
time and place.
EJ 20. Personnel Available for Instructors. — A careful con-
sideration of the number and qualifications of instructors
available within the organization is an important part of
every detailed training plan. Lack of competent instructors
in technical or specialized subjects handicaps the training
of a unit. Such deficiencies must be foreseen and provided
against by securing outside instructors, or by establishing
schools for the training of local officers, noncommissioned
officers, or selected privates as instructors.
ffl 21. Local Conditions. — a. Seasonal changes will usually
require that some training be conducted indoors. Except in
the far south there will be periods when outdoor training
will be impracticable. The training plan must provide for
indoor training. Schools for officers, noncommissioned offi-
cers, and specialists can be conducted indoors. Prepara-
tory training for outdoor exercises can be conducted indoors,
thus insuring an economic use of time.
b. Where local terrain is limited or unsuited to certain
phases of tactical training, it will be necessary to go outside
the limits of military reservations to secure adequate terrain.
If this is impracticable training methods must be modified.
Sand tables are especially valuable in teaching the use of
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MILITARY TRAINING
21-24
cover and concealment, scouting and patrolling, and the tac-
tical handling of small units. Simple map exercises illustrat-
ing definite tactical doctrine may be used as a substitute for
practical work in the field. Training films which give demon-
strations of the application of tactical doctrine may be used
to advantage. Energy and resource can always improvise
means for teaching minor tactics when suitable terrain is
not available.
B 22. Existing State of Training. — The existing state of
training of the organization as a whole and also of the indi-
viduals composing it should be considered in order to avoid
repetition where the desired standard has already been at-
tained. All qualified individuals should be used to instruct
those who have not yet reached the required standard. Units
that are qualified in any phase of training should be used
for demonstration purposes to assist in training less advanced
units.
H 23. Organization for Training. — a. The organization for
training depends primarily upon the purpose for which the
training is conducted. If the mission is to qualify men for
appointment as officers, or to train those already commis-
sioned, training under specialists is recognized as the most
efficient method. It is the method of all service schools. It
can also be used to train noncommissioned officers and special-
ists as instructors. This method gives uniformity in training
standards and requires fewer instructors and less time for
training.
b. Organization for unit training must assure the develop-
ment of leadership and teamwork as well as the training of
individuals. It must be so planned as to make use of all
officers and noncommissioned officers for instruction of their
subordinates. Training will thus develop the leadership,
initiative, and judgment of all combat leaders, and the respect
and confidence of their subordinates. To develop teamwork,
unit training places emphasis on the combat role of each
subordinate group, as well as that of the unit as a whole in
the team of combined arms.
■ 24. Obstacles. — In his estimate of the training situation,
each commander must remember that one of his most import-
ant duties is to remove obstacles to training. This will most
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MILITARY TRAINING
often confront post and regimental commanders, and, to a
lesser extent, company commanders. Obstacles may be classi-
fied as administrative, physical, and human.
a. Excessive guard, fatigue, and numbers on special duty
are the principal administrative obstacles. In an efficient
organization, good administration and good training exist at
the same time. Administrative requirements must be held to
the minimum to reduce interference with training. The
requirements of guard, fatigue, and special duty should be
analyzed. The size of fatigue details should be large enough
to meet labor requirements and no larger. Soldiers become
dissatisfied when kept with a fatigue detail with nothing to
do, or doing obviously useless work. When fatigue duties of
a continuing nature are required, it is better to detail men
for a short period of time, excusing them from all formations.
By frequent rotation of fatigue and special duty details, the
men receive the requisite training. Every effort should be
made to have nonmilitary tasks performed by suitable civilian
labor thus releasing the men for military training.
b. The methods of overcoming physical obstacles have
been mentioned previously under equipment, facilities, and
terrain. Inclement weather is frequently an obstacle to
training. The training plan must make provision for the
interference of such weather. Means of training suggested
under local conditions are applicable. Lectures and train-
ing films on subjects of general information may be used.
Inclement weather should not be a reason for postponing
tactical exercises. If the state of training and the physical
condition of the troops permit, tactical training in bad
weather is excellent preparation for combat.
c. Personal eccentricities and interests of commanders
often present a definite obstacle to the well-rounded train-
ing of a unit. A commander must not permit his personal
interest in a particular subject to result in over-emphasis
of training in that subject at the expense of other neces-
sary training.
E 25. Detailed Plan. — a. The plans must include, first of
all, a basis for the allotment of training subjects, by the
day and by the week, for the entire training period. There-
fore, a tabulation of hours is necessary. Training must be
so planned and conducted that the objective is reached in
the minimum time without sacrificing thoroughness.
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MILITARY TRAINING
25-26
b. In assigning the sequence of subjects, consideration
should be given to any special conditions known to exist, such
as limited availability of equipment or other facilities. If
no special conditions exist, subjects should be arranged to
secure balanced progressive training.
c. The necessity for completing certain subjects at spec-
ified times does not preclude concurrent instruction in
subjects to be completed later. Monotony is avoided and
interest stimulated by variety in subjects when such variety
does not interfere with the efficient use of time.
d. The plan must fix responsibility for the conduct of
instruction. The plan should provide for the necessary
schools for officers and noncommissioned officers, and for
specialist training.
a 26. Training Programs. — Training programs, giving the
general plan for training the entire command over a con-
siderable period of time, are prepared and issued by responsi-
ble commanders down to and including the commanders of
companies or similar units. The scope and contents of this
program will depend upon the size and character of the
command for which it is issued. In general, it amplifies
the training orders received from higher authority and co-
ordinates and directs the training of subordinate units.
Form for a Unit Training Program is given in appendix II.
It includes such of the following as are appropriate:
a. A division of the training into phases or periods, if
necessary, with an allotment of time and a training objective
or subject for each phase. This will include any period re-
quired for combined training, or training of the unit as a
whole, under the personal direction of the issuing commander.
b. Assignment of periods, when necessary, for the use of
general training facilities, ranges, impact areas, etc., by the
various subordinate units or activities.
c. Citation of orders, regulations, or policies to be followed
in the conduct of training.
d. General instructions as to any special features of train-
ing which are to be emphasized.
e. Instructions as to administrative duties in their relation
to training.
/. Instructions as to the establishment, attendance, and
conduct of troop schools.
g. Instructions in regard to tactical or training inspections,
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MILITARY TRAINING
with dates of tactical inspections to be made by the issuing
commander or higher commanders.
h. A statement of expected training losses. These show
the demands of higher headquarters, guard duty and fatigue
which can be foreseen, and holidays. Periods reserved by
higher headquarters for its own purposes should not be post-
poned, when lost due to inclement weather or other uncon-
trollable reason, unless open time has been held for such a
contingency.
i. Instructions as to the submission of programs or sched-
ules by subordinate commanders.
j. Date the program becomes effective.
® 27. Training Schedules. — a. Training schedules, giving
detailed instructions for the conduct of training over a short
period of time, are issued by the commander of a company
or similar unit for all training within the unit, and by a
higher commander only for such training as is to be con-
ducted under his personal direction. A training schedule
contains specific instructions, including text references, for
each days* training, as to what is to be done, who is to do it,
when and where it is to be done, the uniform, and the equip-
ment required. If complete, no additional information is
required for training during the period covered by the
schedule.
b. Form for a Unit Training Schedule is given in appendix
IV.
■ 28. Distribution of Duties. — The training plan is carried
out by an intelligent distribution of training duties to sub-
ordinates. Training must be carried out along methodical
and progressive lines. The commanding officer is responsi-
ble for all training in his unit, but responsibility for the details
of training, and attaining and preserving certain standards,
must be delegated to subordinates down to include the squad
leader. Correct distribution of training duties and responsi-
bilities is a manifestation of leadership and insures correct
training of subordinates. See paragraphs 49 and 50.
■ 29. Execution of Training Plan. — A detailed discussion of
methods of instruction is given in section VI.
■ 30. Training Supervision. — a. The commander retains su-
pervision over all training delegated to subordinates. This
10
MILITARY TRAINING 30-32
Will consist of daily supervision, training inspections, and
tactical inspections. It should be exercised when practicable,
by the commander in person, assisted by his staff. He assists,
coordinates, and, when necessary, corrects errors observed.
b. Intervention in the work of a subordinate while he is
engaged in the training of his unit should be avoided, except
to avert serious errors. Such interference tends to destroy,
not only the initiative of the subordinate, but the confidence
and respect of the group in its leader. If an instructor’s
methods are obviously wrong and the results unsatisfactory,
remedial action must be taken. The necessary correction
should be given the instructor in private, or, if necessary, the
instructor must be replaced.
c. Daily supervision is informal and should not interrupt
the continuity of training. When a group under instruction
is called to attention on the appearance of supervising officers,
their train of thought is interfered with, their attention lost,
and valuable time is wasted.
d . Training inspections are essentially informal and are
made by all commanders to determine progress and adequacy
in training. Such inspections should be based on the training
standards and objectives which have been assigned to sub-
ordinate units.
e. Tactical inspections may be either formal or informal.
Those made by commanders of units up to and including the
regiment are normally informal. Formal tactical inspections
by higher commanders are defined and prescribed in AR 265-
10. Training inspections are designed to promote combat
efficiency of units as well as to determine their degree of
readiness for field service.
Section III
MEANS AND SCOPE OF TRAINING
■ 31. General. — Military training develops and fosters
those qualities necessary for success in battle by means of
military education and unit training.
fl 32. Military Education. — This means affords a variety
of instruction to the individual without regard to his member-
ship in any particular unit. It is carried out by the Army
school system (AR 350-5) and the Army Extension Courses
(AR 350-3000). Individual members of the various com-
il
32-37
MILITARY TRAINING
ponents of the Army receive this instruction in troop schools,
special and general service schools, and the United States
Military Academy, and by Army Extension Courses. These
schools insure uniformity in doctrine and methods of instruc-
tion and provide trained specialists.
B 33. Unit Training. — The military training of organizations,
generally referred to as unit training, is the direct responsi-
bility of unit commanders. Unit training is accomplished by
means of drill, practice, applicatory tactical exercises, troop
schools, and physical training and athletics.
Hf 34. Drill. — a . Drill is practice in standardized proce-
dure. The object of drill is the attainment of skill in the per-
formance of such duties, methods, or movements as are of
frequent use, development and maintenance of discipline and
military bearing, physical development of the individual, and
assurance of skillful performance of duty under stress of
battle.
b. It must be clearly understood that drill is a means to an
end, not an end in itself. Drill should be formal, precise; and
brief. Thus conducted it is a great aid in the development
of self-control and of a group spirit among the members of
the unit.
B 35. Practice. — Practice with weapons, equipment, and
means of transport is the best means of attaining proficiency
in their use. Practice should be continuous throughout the
training period.
B 36. Applicatory Tactical Exercises. — Application of tac-
tical doctrine to imaginary or simulated tactical situations is
a most important part of unit training. For the preparations
and use of such exercises see section vm.
IS 37. Troop Schools. — a. Troop schools are an important
means for training personnel to meet the requirements of the
training program. They are used for the military education of
the individual officer and noncommissioned officer, the train-
ing of specialists, and for the training of instructors to coor-
dinate and insure uniformity of instruction.
b. Lack of time and facilities will preclude sending all
officers and noncommissioned officers to service schools. Re-
fresher training will be conducted in troop schools. Instruc-
12
MILITARY TRAINING
37-39
tion will be given in new tactical doctrine and in the use and
care of new equipment. Preparation for tactical exercises
should be conducted in these schools. Map exercises and
command post exercises should be conducted in troop schools
prior to field maneuvers. Officers and noncommissioned
officers are thus instructed in the doctrine to be followed and
are well grounded in the procedure. They are thus able to
give maximum attention to the tactical training of the troops
during the maneuver.
c. Consolidation of troop schools in 1 identical or similar sub-
jects should always be sought within a unit. Such centraliza-
tion, particularly for the training of specialists and instructors,
permits the most efficient use of instructor personnel, materiel,
and training facilities and expedites training.
d. An average of an hour or more daily, except Sundays
and holidays, should be devoted to troop schools throughout
the training period.
■ 38. Physical Training and Athletics. — a. Modern warfare
requires the highest possible development of physical strength,
endurance, and stamina. Physical training must be a subject
of constant attention by all commanders. Quickening exer-
cises, group games, and mass athletics should be included in
the training program to augment calisthenics and develop
team spirit and aggressiveness. Athletics develop individuals
mentally and physically and certain forms teach leadership
and teamwork. Voluntary athletics should be encouraged for
recreation and to build up morale.
b. In all physical training and athletics the emphasis must
be placed on the physical development of all the individuals
of the unit. Concentration on the training of a few indi-
viduals, in the effort to develop a winning team, inevitably
leads to the neglect of the physical training of the majority.
Overemphasis of the importance of a team will frequently
result in neglect of the military training of the individuals
composing the team.
■ 39. Variety of Instruction. — Training subjects and meth-
ods should be varied to stimulate Interest and thus insure
effective results. Monotonous routine will produce apathy
and boredom and often do more harm than good. Variety
will arouse the enthusiasm and cooperation of those being
trained.
324316°— 41 3 13 ’
40-43
MILITARY TRAINING
B 40. Recreation. — Commanding officers are responsible for
the contentment and well-being of their commands. Train-
ing and administrative duties are so regulated that a satis-
factory proportion of the individual’s time may be given to
rest and recreation. Provision of such time alone is not
enough. Thought and ingenuity on the part of the com-
mander must provide suitable means and facilities for the
application of this leisure time.
B 41. Moral Training. — It is a duty of commanding officers
to give their support to chaplains and other proper agencies
in matters concerning the moral training, character build-
ing, and religious guidance of the soldier.
9 42. Scope of Training. — Troops of all arms and services
will be proficient in the following:
a. Disciplinary training of the soldier.
b. Physical training, military sanitation, and first aid.
c. Marching.
. d. Their own administration.
e. Their own shelter, supply, and movement.
/. Their own security, to include measures against air and
mechanized attacks.
g. Camouflage.
h. Signal communication.
L Protective measures against chemicals.
j. Expert care and use of their weapons, equipment, and
transport.
k. Tactics and technique of their arm or service, to include
its employment in suppression of domestic disurbances.
h Their cooperative duties as part of the combat team.
The arm, service, and type of unit determine the special train-
ing required by each.
B 43. Fundamentals of Military Training. — Every officer
and enlisted man who plans, supervises, or conducts training
must constantly bear in mind the following fundamentals of
military training:
a. That military training is but the application of common
sense to military ends. There is little in military training
that the average man cannot grasp if it is properly presented
to him.
b. That, as a rule, those under instruction come to the
14
MILITARY TRAINING
43-45
instructor with an open mind, anxious to accept instruction,
and ready to interest themselves in their new work. The ex-
ample of keenness and enthusiasm in the instructor will be
reflected by those under training. Half-hearted or leisurely
methods will carry a heavy penalty later in battle.
c. That the average man is more quickly and permanently
impressed with a fact when it is taught to him as something
which has a practical value. It is the instructor’s duty to
make his pupils understand the 'practical battle value of the
knowledge taught.
d. That evidence to the student of satisfactory progress
stimulates his interest and enthusiasm. Praise must be given
where it is due, genuine effort encouraged, and mistakes cor-
rected by constructive criticism.
Section IV
TRAINING OF INDIVIDUALS
0 44. Object. — a. The object of individual training is the
development of the skill and knowledge necessary to enable
the individual to play his part effectively in the military team
in order to assure its success in battle. See MR 3-1.
b. Modern battle is marked by noise and confusion. The
individual must develop in training, such skill in the technique
of operating his implements of war, whether it be vehicle,
weapon, or men, that he habitually follows correct procedure
under any conditions which may be encountered.
c. The increased tempo of modern war, its rapid changes
in local situations, and the great spaces it covers make it im-
possible for commanders to control the detailed action of sub-
ordinate units. Hence subordinates must be trained to take
proper action to accomplish the expressed will of their com-
mander. Responsibility for making decisions in local situa-
tions must be decentralized. These decisions require sound
judgment and initiative — qualities which must be systemati-
cally developed and fostered in the training of every
individual.
0 45. Recruit Training. — a. A recruit’s first mental reac-
tions to military life are almost certain to be confused. The
first instruction of the recruit should be designed to orient
him in his new surroundings. Simple lectures should be care-
15
45-47
MILITARY TRAINING
fully prepared to tell him what is expected of him, his hours
of duty, his time off, the location of such facilities as the post
exchange and the post theater, his leave expectations, pay
day, and other information necessary to dispel his ignorance
of his new life and surroundings. See FM 21-100.
b. Recruits should receive immediate instruction in the
Articles of War, local orders, military courtesy, and customs
of the service, such uniform regulations as are applicable,
sex hygiene, and in personal hygiene and sanitation. The
plan for instruction should make use of the many training
films available as instructional aids in these subjects. Elemen-
tary training in other basic subjects may be carried on during
this orientation stage.
c. After recruits are accustomed to their new organiza-
tion their training is continued to render them proficient
in the basic subjects. Instruction is given in those tech-
nical subjects of which a knowledge is necessary to fit them
for the higher and more specialized training of their par-
ticular arm or service.
d . Sequence of subjects in basic training is left to the
discretion of unit commanders. The War Department Mo-
bilization Training Programs for replacement training centers
will be the general guide.
e. In time of emergency, training is centralized to a greater
degree than in normal times of peace. Most recruits will
receive their initial basic and technical training at replace-
ment training centers.
0 46. Refresher Training. — Trained soldiers need refresher
instruction in subjects which are not regularly repeated.
This should be accomplished by using the men as instructors
or in demonstration units. When this is not practicable, short
refresher courses may be given, followed by requalification
tests.
H 47. Instructors and Specialists. — a. Training of instruc-
tors and specialists is most efficiently conducted under cen-
tralized control. They are trained preferably at general and
special service schools, or, on mobilization, at unit training
centers or enlisted replacement training centers. Troop
schools may be established for this purpose.
16
MILITARY TRAINING 47-50
b. In newly organized or expanded units it may be neces-
sary to train instructors concurrently with the troops. Spe-
cial instruction is given to the instructors a short time before
the training is imparted to their units. For further discus-
sion on training instructors see paragraph 63.
0 48. Training in Leadership. — The successful action of a
niilitary unit will be possible only if it has an efficient and
respected leader. Military training must develop leaders who
can rise above the depressing influences of the modern bat-
tlefield and carry their groups to a successful completion of
the mission. The leader gains the respect and confidence of
those under his command by his knowledge of his profession,
his example of courage, self-reliance, and vigor, by thought
and care for the welfare of his command, by his firm and
impartial administration of justice, and by his loyalty to his
subordinates. The development of leadership is of primary
importance in the training of officers and noncommissioned
officers.
H 49. Training Noncommissioned Officers. — Noncommis-
sioned officers are given responsibility appropriate to their
grade and required to conduct the instruction of their units.
Troop schools are used to instruct them in their duties and
to teach them proper methods and procedure. It is essential
that the training of noncommissioned officers develop initia-
tive and a sense of responsibility. They should be given fre-
quent opportunities to exercise command above their grades.
Those individuals selected to form the cadre of an inactive
unit should be trained and practiced in the duties of their
mobilization assignment. Selected privates should always be
undergoing training in the duties of a noncommissioned
officer.
H 50. Officer Training. — a . The training of officers is con-
tinuous throughout their service.
b. Every officer has a dual role in training, he is respon-
sible for his own training and for the training of the officers
and enlisted men under him. The confidence and ability
necessary to lead troops successfully in battle come from a
full knowledge of the duties he may be called upon to per-
form.
17
50-52
MILITARY TRAINING
c. The theoretical training of officers is accomplished
through troop schools, the various schools of the military
educational system (AR 350-5) , and by individual application
and study. It is the duty of every officer to apply himself to
the study of his profession so as to increase his knowledge
and proficiency. It is the duty of every commander to use
all means at his disposal to encourage and assist his sub-
ordinates in increasing their knowledge and attainments. 1
d. The practical training of officers is accomplished by
actual experience in command and staff duties appropriate
to their grades. It is of particular importance that young
officers receive early and thorough practical training in the
basic duties of a company (troop or battery) officer. To give
varied and well-rounded experience to these officers they
should be rotated in the duties within the company and within
the different units of the regiment.
e. Lack of experience on the part of his subordinates must
never lead a commander to increased centralization and relief
of his subordinates from responsibility. The lack of experi-
ence must be overcome by giving them increased opportuni-
ties for the exercise of judgment and initiative. Mistakes
must be corrected by wise supervision and not made subjects
for discouragement or censure provided that they are not
due to lack of interest or lack of effort.
■ 51. Staff Training. — The staff of a combat unit must be
trained primarily to function in tactical operations. Train-
ing programs should provide for staff instruction. The staff
should be used to the fullest extent in the preparation of tacti-
cal and logistical exercises. When engaged in tactical exer-
cises, the operation of the staff should be a subject of discus-
sion, during a critique, to the same degree as that of other
elements of the unit.
■ 52. Individual Tactical Training Without Troops. — Appli-
catory tactical exercises are used to provide tactical, staff, and
logistical training of individuals. For training in the tactics
of squads, platoons, and companies, sand table exercises and
tactical rides or walks are to be preferred to map exercises.
Map exercises, map maneuvers, tactical rides or walks, and
command post exercises are suitable means for training indi-
viduals in the tactics of larger units.
18
MILITARY TRAINING
53-56
Section V
UNIT TRAINING
B 53. General. — Unit training is designed to promote the
development of teamwork and leadership, and the application
of technique and tactical doctrine to combat situations.
E 54. Teamwork. — Success in combat demands the sub-
ordination of the individual to the accomplishment of the
group mission. A feeling of unity must be achieved if the
group of individuals is to function as a unit. Such a feeling
is obtained by the careful training of the individual and unit
in the part each has to play as an element of the fighting team,
and by the training and utilization of all elements in coordi-
nated action toward a single end. Teamwork is based on the
belief that the team task can be accomplished, the knowledge
that the leadership is competent, and the confidence that each
member of the team will perform his share of the task.
® 55. Tactical Proficiency. — The ultimate goal of mili-
tary training is the ability to apply on the battlefield the
doctrine and procedure learned in training. This ability re-
quires the possession and exercise by the individual and the
unit of all the qualities which military training must develop.
Tactical proficiency is developed by tactical exercises on the
sand table and maps and by exercises in the field under
simulated war conditions.
H 56. Newly Organized Units. — The training problem in
newly organized units will vary depending upon the size of
the trained nucleus and the number of partially trained and
untrained men in it. Training plans must provide instruction
for all groups in such a manner as to avoid needless repetition
for the well trained, and to assure thorough and progressive
training for the untrained. To this end the trained cadre
should be utilized as instructors to the greatest extent prac-
ticable. When the number of trained personnel is limited,
greater centralization of training is necessary. For example,
due to lack of qualified instructors, a platoon commander
might find it necessary to conduct the greater part of all
training in his platoon until suitable instructors can be
trained. This procedure should be followed only until the
19
56-60
MILITARY TRAINING
noncommissioned officers are instructed in their duties in
troop schools. War Department Unit Training Programs for
mobilization will be used as a general guide.
B 57. Refresher Training. — a. In units whose members are
largely well trained, basic and technical training should be
repeated only to the extent necessary for requalification
tests. Untrained individuals in such units should be trained
separately in basic and technical subjects. In such units
the major and continuing emphasis in training should be
placed on tactical exercises of all types.
b. The training of staffs should proceed concurrently with
that of the units. It is essential that the staff of each unit
be prepared to function in tactical exercises at the earliest
time practicable.
£1 58. Combined Training. — Unit tactical training will be con-
ducted by appropriate teams. Thus a company field exercise
should include appropriate battalion and regimental weapons.
Field exercises involving an infantry battalion should in-
clude supporting artillery and regimental weapons. Regi-
mental field exercises will, when possible, include artillery,
engineers, tanks or armored units, and aviation. Requests
for attachments of supporting troops should be made to
higher headquarters in ample time to be included in the
training programs of the commanders of the supporting
arms. It is only by combined training that the maximum
combat effectiveness of tactical groups of all arms and 'serv-
ices can be assured.
E 59. Progressive Training in Field Exercises. — Field train-
ing must be progressive, starting with the training of the
smallest unit and continuing with the training of successively
larger units. The object of the training of each unit is to fit it
to take its place in the next higher organization. Until the
battalions are trained, or when funds are restricted or time
limited, the more advanced training of the regiment and
larger units may consist of command post exercises and
war games for the higher commanders and their staffs.
M 60. Practice in Tactical Leadership. — Commanders of all
grades, particularly junior officers and noncommissioned offi-
cers, should be trained in the exercise of command in higher
20
MILITARY TRAINING
60-62
grades to provide for expected battle casualties. During a
period of tactical training the superior commander will pre-
pare and conduct exercises designed to give junior com-
manders training in higher commands. For example, the
battalion commander prepares and conducts exercises in
which platoon leaders command companies and company
commanders command the battalion. An officer commanding
a; unit should never attempt to command it while directing
am exercise for its tactical training. He should appoint a
temporary commander if he wishes to direct the exercise,
an officer to direct if he wishes to command.
Section VI
INSTRUCTION
■ 61. General. — The success in reaching the standards pre-
scribed by the training program will depend primarily on
the care with which instructors are selected and trained.
Knowledge of the subject is not alone sufficient. The in-
structor must be able to arouse the student’s interest in that
subject and then, by use of proper methods of instruction,
transmit the necessary knowledge to the student.
■ 62. Instructors. — From time to time in all phases of train-
ing it is necessary for the unit commander to utilize most
of his officers and noncommissioned officers as instructors,
in order to complete the training program as planned. In-
structing is one of the means by which leadership and initi-
ative are developed. It is essential that the individuals
selected as instructors either possess or develop the following
personal and professional qualifications:
a. Personal. — (1) The instructor must be experienced in
handling men.
(2) He must have a personality that inspires confidence
and stimulates interest.
(3) His manner must be pleasant but firm in dealing with
students.
(4) He must be neat, dignified, and have a keen interest
in his subject.
(5) He must be patient and sympathetic with the student’s
problems and must be able to put himself mentally in the
position of the student.
024316° — 41 4
21
62-64
MILITARY TRAINING
b. Professional . — (1) He must have a complete knowledge
of the subject to be taught.
(2) He should be able to plan Instruction and must be
competent to carry the plan into effect.
(3) He must be able to demonstrate successfully the sub-
ject which he is to teach.
(4) He must have a knowledge of proper instructional
methods. The instructor must always bear in mind the
mentality, age, and physical condition of the student. The
language used must be that which the student understands.
Examples, comparisons, and contrasts cited must be within
the student’s experience. Exertion required must be within
his physical capabilities.
S 63. Training of Instructors. — a. Regardless of the source
of instructors, the officer responsible for the attainment of the
training objective, for which the instruction is to be given,
is charged with the responsibility of preparing the instruc-
tors to teach the assigned subjects. Those who are deficient
in the technique of their subject are brought up to standard.
Coordination and uniformity of instruction must be assured
by conferences and troop schools for instructors, held prior
to the commencement of training. The unit commander
must verify the instructors' ability to teach and their knowl-
edge of correct methods.
b. In training instructors, they must be impressed with the
importance of planning their work so as to make full use of
the available time. They must assure themselves that all
necessary equipment and such aids to instruction as they are
to use are available in proper condition before the period
begins. See paragraphs 88 to 92.
■ 64. Mechanism of Instruction. — The process involved in
teaching must be understood and mastered by the instructor.
It applies in teaching a single lesson, a specific item of in-
formation or procedure, or an entire subject. It consists of —
Preparation by instructor.
Explanation.
Demonstration.
Application.
Examination.
Discussion.
22
MILITARY TRAINING
65-68
Jfi 65. Preparation by Instructor. — The instructor must have
mastered the subject which he is to teach. He must analyze
the subject and the schedule he is to follow, considering the
purpose of the subject and the essential facts which must
be taught. He must select his material texts to be used,
equipment, and aids to instruction which he will need. The
essential facts are arranged for presentation in a logical and
progressive order. He then prepares his specific plan (lesson)
for each instructional period. See paragraph 88.
El 66. Explanation. — The student must understand at the
beginning of the instruction just what he is to learn and why
he is to learn it. The subject is explained to the student
so that his interest is gained and his mind prepared to receive
the . instruction. Lengthy explanations are avoided and an
illustration or experience sought which will accomplish the
desired result. Comparison or contrast to those things which
the student already knows are preferable to a detailed dis-
cussion. Narratives which are brief, to the point, and which
excite interest, are advantageous in gaining and holding the
student’s attention.
0 67. Demonstration. — A demonstration of the subject will
frequently make a more lasting impression than can be made
by other means. Graphic, step-by-step illustrations are help-
ful in teaching certain subjects. The use of carefully re-
hearsed demonstrations simplifies instruction and aids the
student in remembering the points brought out. Training
films provide excellent demonstrations of many subjects which
may be repeated as often as is necessary to make the essential
points clear.
H 68. Application. — By practice of those things in which
he has received instruction the student acquires further
knowledge through his performance and develops skill by
repetition. Application must be supervised by the instructor
in order to prevent the forming of bad habits which are
difficult to eradicate. Under supervision the students practice
correct methods until those methods become fixed habits.
Intelligent use of competition between individuals and groups
stimulates interest and activity and increases knowledge and
skill. The object of such competition is the use of friendly
rivalry to establish the proficiency of all in the subject, not to
23
68-69
MILITARY TRAINING
emphasize relative merit between individuals and groups.
Systematic and continuous competition tends to develop
jealousy and prevents the development of teamwork.
M 69. Tests and Examinations. — a. These have the two-
fold purpose of reviewing the essentials of the subject of
instruction and thus impressing them on the mind of the
student, and of determining whether or not the student has
the requisite knowledge and the ability to apply it. They may
take the form of written or oral answers to questions; of
applications of doctrine; or of performance demonstrating
certain required phases of drills, exercises, or mechanical
technique. Performance tests should be used whenever
practicable. The progress of units is normally tested by
training or tactical inspections.
b. One great virtue of tests and examinations is that they
encourage the student to strenuous effort. He must show
that he understands the subject and consequently he must
review his instruction, analyze the subject matter, and be able
to apply his knowledge to a concrete situation. Knowing that
he will be judged by the result of his examination or test, his
pride will spur him on to greater effort.
c. Examination questions should be confined to the essen-
tial facts of the subject. Questions should be framed to sug-
gest practical application of the knowledge acquired, not
simply to test the memory. Questions must be clear, there
must be no doubt in the student’s mind as to the information
desired. A question that can be misunderstood will be mis-
understood. Questions for written examinations should be
discussed with a disinterested person before they are given
to the student. They should require specific answers; ques-
tions such as “Tell all you know” or “Discuss briefly” should
be avoided. Examinations should be susceptible of uniform
grading for fairness in comparison. Provision should be
made for full discussion of an examination with the students
examined to point out errors and clear up all points of mis-
understanding.
d. Examinations which show lack of knowledge of the
essentials of the subject, or Inability to apply the knowledge
to particular situations indicate either faulty instruction or
lack of ability or application on the part of the student.
Supervision by the commander will generally indicate
24
MILITARY TRAINING
69-72
whether the instructor or the student is at fault. When there
is a general failure on the part of a group to absorb instruc-
tion, the methods of instruction used should be critically re-
garded and the instructors surveyed to determine where the
fault lies.
12* 70. Discussion. — The purpose of discussion is to sum up
and clarify the important points of the subject which have
been developed by the previous steps. In the - discussion the
instructor points out correct and incorrect methods of ex-
ecution and makes uniform the general understanding of
the subject. The discussion may take the form of a con-
ference, and, when held at the conclusion of an applicatory
tactical exercise, is generally called a critique.
■ 71. Methods of Instruction. — The only means by which
human beings impart ideas to one another are the physical
senses — seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and feeling.
Teachers impart ideas to students by one or more of these
physical senses. Teaching methods have been developed
from this fundamental fact. The teaching methods most
commonly used for military instruction are —
Lectures.
Conferences.
Demonstrations.
Group performance.
Coach-and-pupil method.
■ 72. Lectures. — a. A lecture is an oral discourse. It may
be given with or without aids to instruction. (Par. 80.)
Without such aids a lecture involves but one physical sense,
hearing. Illustrated lectures, aided by training films or film
strips, for example, are more valuable than lectures in which
no aid is used. The lecture method is one of the poorest
methods of imparting knowledge because the teacher has no
way of knowing whether or not his lecture is making the
proper impression, if any, on the mind of the student.
b. The success of this method of instruction depends upon
the subject, the character of the audience, the phraseology
and form of presentation of the subject, and the use made
of aids to instruction. The instructional value of a lecture
is dependent not only on the personality, method of delivery,
and experience of the instructor, but also on the mentality
25
72-73
MILITARY TRAINING
of his audience and its experience in acquiring knowledge
from lectures. Lectures are frequently employed in the
training of officers, occasionally in the training of non-
commissioned officers, but have limited value in the instruc-
tion of organizations in mass.
c. The lecture method may be used when it is necessary
for one instructor to present certain subjects to a large
group of students, or to orient students at the start of t a
course of instruction. The development of the training film
permits an excellent presentation of certain difficult subjects,
requiring considerable explanation, by the illustrated lecture
method.
d. Lectures should be brief and confined to the subject. No
lecture should exceed 50 minutes in length; in recruit train-
ing, periods of 15 minutes are preferable. Demonstrations
accompanying lectures increase the teaching value. Many
instructional aids such as illustrations by training films or
strips, lantern slides, charts, diagrams, and blackboard draw-
ings may be employed to increase the efficacy of the lecture
method of instruction. For the preparation and delivery of
lectures, see section VII.
■ 73. Conferences. — a. The conference method of instruc-
tion is a directed discussion of a subject. A conference may
be used for a detailed discussion either of text material
which has been studied by the class or of a subject pre-
sented to the cla&s by the instructor. Conferences are most
often concerned with the application of a doctrine or pro-
cedure to specific situations. This method presents or ex-
plains ideas by use of the sense of hearing as does the lecture
method. It has the distinct advantage over the lecture
method in that it enables the instructor to determine readily
whether his ideas are making the correct impression and
allows the student to clear up, by questions, those points
which he does not understand.
b. Although a conference does not require a long dis-
course, as does a lecture, it requires more preparation, skill,
and alertness on the part of the instructor. In prepara-
tion he must anticipate pertinent questions and be able to
give sound reasons for the correctness and incorrectness of
all points at issue. He must be skilled in leading the dis-
cussion in such a way that the minds of the students will
26
MILITARY TRAINING
73—74
be kept on the- subject under discussion. He must be alert
to guard against loss of control of the discussion. Ques-
tions of general interest are encouraged to expose and clear
up obscure and difficult points. Irrelevant and inconsequen-
tial questions, which lead away from the subject or waste
time in discussion of trivial points, must be skillfully avoided.
- c. There are two general types of conferences, the informa-
tional type and the developmental type. In the informa-
tional type the instructor states facts which he wishes the
students to learn and answers questions, asked by the stu-
dents, to clear up points which are not understood. This
type transmits facts from the mind of the instructor to that
of the student. It is used when the instructor is sure that
the ideas transmitted will be accepted as true by the students.
d. The developmental type of conference requires the stu-
dent himself to develop the ideas which the instructor wishes
to teach. Leading questions are put by the instructor and are
answered by the student who uses his own reasoning and
judgment. This method requires the student to have sufficient
basic knowledge of the subject to work out a reasonable answer
to a question which the instructor may ask. This method
enables the instructor to impress the essentials of the subject
on the student's mind and develops confidence on the part of
the student in his ability to think his way through problems
on the subject under discussion.
e. When the conference method of instruction fails to evoke
response and interest it may be assumed that another method
of presenting the subject should be employed.
B 74. Demonstrations. — a. A demonstration is an accurate
portrayal of a subject or procedure to be taught. A well-
planned and carefully presented demonstration is one of the
most effective methods of instruction in basic, technical, and
tactical and logistical subjects. The demonstration is based
on the fact that seeing an object or procedure usually makes
a more rapid and lasting impression on the mind than that
obtained by the other senses. A demonstration is always
preceded by a thorough explanation of the work to be demon-
strated and therefore is not a distinct and separate method
of instruction. Demonstrations used in conjunction with
other methods of instruction add to the instructional value
of the other methods.
27
74
MILITARY TRAINING
b. A demonstration demands considerable preparation on
the part of those concerned with its execution. Preparation
includes a careful study of the subject, complete plans based
on the result of such study, and, finally, repeated rehearsals
by all personnel involved in the demonstration. The demon-
stration should convey to the student, not only a clear and
accurate picture of the subject or procedure, but also a stand-
ard of excellence which he or his group is to attain. It should
arouse admiration in those for whose benefit it is given
and stimulate a desire to emulate it.
c. The many time-consuming factors in demonstrations,
preparation and rehearsal of the necessary troops, time re-
quired to set up facilities and equipment, time lost in taking
the group to and from observation points are all eliminated
by the use of training films. In planning instruction PM 21-6
should be consulted and full use made of the available
training films for demonstration purposes.
d. In preparing for a demonstration the subject must be
studied from all aspects and the entire demonstration must
be worked out in detail before rehearsals are attempted.
Decisions must be made as to exactly what is to be demon-
strated; what phases are to be emphasized; what facilities
are at hand and what additional facilities must be procured;
the personnel and equipment necessary; and the exact time
and place of not only the finished demonstration but also of
the rehearsals.
e. The above decisions having been made, the entire plan
for the demonstration should be drawn up in the form of
a scenario, setting forth clearly and in detail the following
information:
(1) Purpose of demonstration.
(2) Text references applicable to subject being demon-
strated.
(3) Preparation needed for demonstration.
(a) Troops or other personnel required.
(b) Uniforms and equipment for troops.
Cc) Demonstration equipment.
(d) Instructor’s equipment.
(e) Place where demonstration is to be held.
(/) Maps, if any are required.
($0 Arrangements for rehearsals.
28
MILITARY TRAINING 74-75
(4) Procedure to be followed, This should be shown in
detail, step by step, and in correct sequence.
/. In demonstrating to personnel unaccustomed to this
form of instruction, the demonstration should not be too in-
volved or executed too rapidly lest the various phases shown
become simply a confusion of movement to the students.
On the contrary the demonstration should be simple and
executed slowly in order that all may obtain an exact and
correct idea of the subject or procedure.
cf. In basic military training it will be found that demon-
strations can be used to advantage in giving instructions in
subjects, such as —
(1) Soldier dismounted.
(2) Squad.
(3) Individual equipment.
(4) Shelter tent.
(5) Interior guard duty.
(6) Individual cooking.
(7) Motor driver training.
(8) First aid and bandaging.
(9) Military courtesy.
(10) Physical training.
h. In tecjhnical training the method of instruction by
demonstration is highly important and if properly used will
save much time in the training of individuals and small groups
in their technical duties. The field of technical duties is so
broad that it is impracticable to give illustrations of the use
of this method in teaching them, however, it may be applied
to practically all technical subjects with profit and a saving
of time.
i. In tactical training, demonstrations usually show the
movement and functioning of groups of individuals or units
in combat. Since most tactical exercises are intricate and
complex, demonstrations for the instruction of enlisted men
should be limited to those by the company and smaller units.
Demonstrations of tactical exercises by units larger than the
company generally have their application in the instruction of
officers.
S 75. Group Performance. — a. The group performance
method of instruction may be used in the training of any
group, regardless of size or organization. It provides careful,
324316° — 41 5 29
75-76
MILITARY TRAINING
simultaneous learning under the direct supervision of an
instructor, and centralizes control within .the group for the
purpose of teaching the mechanics of any subject. It is par-
ticularly valuable when there is a lack of well- trained instruc-
tors. Its disadvantage lies in the fact that personnel under
instruction are frequently removed from the control of their
normal commanders. It is an excellent method for use in in-
troductory training and is especially well adapted to instruc-
tion in basic subjects. It consists of four distinct steps, as
follows :
(1) Explanation of the subject or action by the instructor.
(2) Demonstration of the subject or action by the instruc-
tor or his assistant.
(3) Imitation (application) by all undergoing instruction.
(4) Correction of errors by the instructor and his assistants.
b. The group performance method is excellent for instruc-
tion in various technical operations by the slow- motion or
step-by-step procedure. After explaining and demonstrating
the action the instructor performs each step slowly, accom-
panying the action with a detailed explanation. Each student
imitates every movement made by the instructor. Assistant
instructors verify the correctness of the students’ movements.
When a large group is being instructed in this manner several
assistant instructors are placed so that all students can see
one instructor clearly. These assistants all go through the
slow-motion action simultaneously.
B 76. Coach -and -Pupil Method. — a. The coach - and - pupil
method logically follows the group performance method and
should never be used as an introductory method of training.
Its greatest usefulness will be found in instructing large groups
of individuals that have passed through other methods of
instruction and have mastered many of the subjects of basic
military training. In this system individuals are paired off,
and, acting alternately as coach and pupil, teach each other
the procedure previously explained and demonstrated by the
instructor. Properly applied and supervised, this teaches
the individual to think as well as to do, stimulates his powers
of observation, increases his alertness, teaches him how to
give commands, and adds to his individual value by giving
him a detailed knowledge of training matters. The procedure
is as follows:
30
MILITARY TRAINING
76-77
(1) The entire class is divided into as many groups as there
are instructors available.
(2) Groups are divided into pairs with an initial assign-
ment of one of each pair as coach and the other as the pupil.
(3) The instructor first describes the subject or its first
phase and then demonstrates it slowly and with precision.
(4) Next he gives the group an opportunity to clear up
any uncertainties regarding the subject by asking if there
are any questions. After assuring himself that all understand
the work, he directs the coaches to proceed with the instruc-
tion.
(5) Thereupon each coach explains and demonstrates the
work to his pupil.
(6) Coaches then have their pupils execute the work or
movement and attempt to detect and correct all errors.
(7) The instructor regulates the progress of the instruc-
tion and corrects errors made by the coaches. Whenever he
notices many faults in the coaching he stops the instruction
and by explanation and demonstration corrects the errors
he has detected.
(8) After a short period of instruction the relation is
reversed; the pupils become the coaches, and the former
coaches the new pupils.
(9) After proficiency has been attained by both members
of all pairs in the first phase of a subject, or the entire sub-
ject, the instructor explains and demonstrates the next phase
or the succeeding subject and the process of tutoring by pairs
is continued as before.
b. The relationship of coach and pupil must be properly
maintained; pupils should not criticize the work of the
coaches. When the situation is reversed, the former pupil,
then acting as a coach, can call attention to the errors in
the instruction just given him.
c. Only one subject or part of a long subject should be
taken up at a time. The presentation of too much will only
result in confusion and failure to accomplish satisfactory
results.
d. The coach- and- pupil method is applicable to instruc-
tion in many subjects of basic and technical training.
■ 77. Aids to Instruction. — Devices and means which assist
in focusing the student’s attention on the subject or impart
31
77-79 MILITARY TRAINING
knowledge by use of more than one physical sense are great
aids to instruction. Some of the more generally used aids
are discussed below. Thought and ingenuity on the part of
the instructor will find many more.
■H 78. Training Films and Film Strips. — Training films and
film strips are among the most valuable and most modern
aids to instruction. Their use should be a planned part of
the instruction in all subjects for which they are available.
They are not to be considered an emergency or substitute
form of instruction. They are not designed to be the sole
means of instruction in a subject but are to be used as in-
structional aids.
■ 79. Training Films. — a. Training films are motion pic-
tures, sound or silent, produced specifically for use as visual
aids in expediting and standardizing instruction in all com-
ponents of the Army. They are designed for use primarily
in the explanation, demonstration, or illustration of sub-
jects. They make use of the national habit of acquiring in-
formation from motion pictures and hence are a highly
valuable aid to military instruction. Training films are
classified as —
(1) Basic . — -To present factual knowledge of basic subjects
of general instruction such as “Personal Hygiene,” “Military
Courtesy,” etc.
(2) Mechanical . — To explain the mechanical functioning
or operating characteristics of weapons, material, and equip-
ment; to illustrate the organization or equipment of units;
and to explain physical or chemical phenomena of military
value.
(3) Technical . — To illustrate the use of weapons and
equipment and the actions of an individual or of a group
in performing an operation or series of operations.
(4) Tactical , — To illustrate the application of the basic
doctrine of combat tactics of the different arms and services.
b. Training films are aids to all methods of instruction.
In the lecture method they are the best available aids for
instruction in many difficult basic subjects. In the confer-
ence method they may be used to present and explain the
subject or to demonstrate correct procedure which should
have been followed.
32
MILITARY TRAINING
79-80
c. Their use permits the instructor to demonstrate the
application of a doctrine or technique which would otherwise
be impossible, due to limitations of terrain, personnel, facili-
ties, time, or funds. Demonstrations by moving pictures focus
the students’ attention on the essential points and eliminate
objects and action which are diverting.
d . Training films save time and clarify the first three steps
in the group performance method of instruction and aid the
instructor using the coach -and -pupil method in description,
demonstration, and correction of errors.
0 80. Film Strip. — a. A film strip is a strip of standard mo-
tion picture film, the individual frames of which contain
still photographs, diagrams, charts, detailed drawings, or
similar representations which are projected on a screen or
wall. Film strips are important aids to all methods of in-
struction, both in the presentation of new material and for
review and refresher purposes.
b. Film strips usually are made from data contained in a
Field Manual or Technical Manual and therefore are not ac-
companied by lecture notes or outlines. If various different
sources were used in making the strip, notes or an outline
may accompany it. The instructor should study the film
strip in conjunction with the manual and make such notes
as may be necessary for his explanation of the subject. He
should know the strip so well that he will not have to study
the screen while speaking. Since it is necessary to darken
the room when using film strips, it is desirable to break
the instruction into periods so that the lights are turned on
and the instructor regains contact with his audience. There
is a tendency in a darkened room to drowse, and it is neces-
sary for the instructor to speak a little more loudly than usual,
and to be particularly alert to keep the interest up to the
highest pitch.
c. Film strips simplify and save considerable time in the
preparation of charts. The requisite strip is projected on
paper at the desired size and the enlarged view is traced in
the proper colors. Many charts may be made in this manner
for outdoor instruction, where the film strips themselves
could not be used.
d. Training films and film strips which have been released
are listed in FM 21-6.
33
81-83
MILITARY TRAINING
S3 81. Blackboard. — A blackboard will be found useful both
indoors and outdoors for certain kinds of illustrations. Maps
or sketches, drawn or developed on the blackboard aid in
presenting a clear picture to the class. Bold heavy lines are
used and the sketch or figure must be large enough to be
clearly seen by all students. The instructor should draw
rapidly, keep to the right of the work, and point with his
right hand. If it is necessary to turn the head away from
the audience the instrut or should raise his voice. When not
using material on the board he should step away from it and,
as soon as it is no longer required, it should be covered or
erased. Figures and illustrations that are not being used
tend to divert attention.
■ 82. Charts. — a. Drawings, made to represent a fact, a
group of facts, or an idea, aid in all methods of instruction
to focus the attention of the audience. Most charts consist
of line drawings accompanied "by explanatory words or fig-
ures. The drawing should express the thought so clearly that
few words or figures are required. Many charts on technical
subjects, particularly in the care and operation of weapons,
materiel, and equipment have been prepared by the pro-
curing services, or are available in the technical manuals.
b. Charts must be sufficiently large and clear to be dis-
tinct to all members of the class. They may be prepared
by the use of film strips and lantern slides. (See par. 80.)
c. The instructor should stand to one side of a chart
when discussing the material on it. He should not look at
it except when pointing to a specific thing on it. Charts should
be withdrawn or covered after use unless there is a definite
reason for leaving them displayed to the class. Where sliding
boards are not available, charts may be hung on an easel and
folded over the top after use, or they may be built up
and then uncovered successively.
B 83. Maps. — a. Maps on which operations are indicated
should be of large enough scale so that the symbols on them
can be seen with ease by students in the back of the room.
Terrain features, cities, and other items to which reference
may be made, should be emphasized by special lines or letter-
ing. A map scale of 3 inches to a mile is large enough for
use in a room that will hold an audience of 100. A map scale
34
MILITARY TRAINING
83-35
of 6 inches to a mile covers too little ground to be used in
presenting large operations, but more detail can be given
on it in the operations of small units. Symbols and other in-
dications to represent the opposing forces should be made
with a broad-pointed pen and colored inks.
b . When successive operations are to be shown on the
same terrain on maps, this may be done either by the use
of movable symbols, or by a series of map cut-outs on which
each phase of the operation is drawn and which are placed
on the map with thumbtacks, one over the other, and stripped
off as the changes take place. In using movable symbols it
is desirable for the instructor to have an assistant to move
the symbols as the instructor proceeds with his lecture.
a 84. Lantern Slides. — a. Lantern slides are valuable
visual aids. The audience should be prepared, by explanation,
for the picture or slide to be shown. The same procedure
should be followed in the use of slides as in the use of film
strips. Lantern slides are suitable for illustrative pictures,
for display of outline maps showing the progress of opera-
tions, or to emphasize, by display of the printed word, certain
important points.
b. In preparing slides for historical illustrations of military
operations it is advisable to prepare a basic map, containing
only the detail that will be essential, for the series of slides
prepared for the same ground. On this basic map the posi-
tions of the opposing forces can be drawn in for each phase
and any additional place names needed may be added. The
symbols indicating the opposing forces, and arrows indicating
the direction of operations, should be drawn in outline and
when the print has been transferred to the glass slide the
outlines can be colored for the opposing forces. Too much
detail on a slide is confusing and should be avoided. It is
rarely desirable to use photographs of maps such as are found
in books of military history since the audience cannot make
a close examination of detail, as can the reader of a book.
When it is desirable to show terrain features in connection
with operations it is better to prepare a separate slide showing
only the terrain.
9 85. Classroom. — The effectiveness of instruction in a class-
room is increased greatly by provision of suitable facilities.
35
85-87
MILITARY TRAINING
The room should be well lighted and well ventilated. Black-
boards should be provided. If students are expected to take
notes or to use maps, sufficient tables of suitable size should
be provided. Wall boards are required for the display of
maps and charts. A projector and a screen should be
installed if lantern slides, film strips, and training films are
to be shown. A stand with a manuscript light is a great
aid to the instructor. The instructor must assure himself
in advance that his voice will be audible and all visual aids
clearly seen by the students in the back and at the sides
of the room.
0 86. Outdoor Instruction. — The same care should be exer-
cised in choice of ground for outside instruction as in choice
and arrangement of classrooms. A small ravine or cup-
shaped area makes a good amphitheater for giving a lecture.
If no such accidents of the ground are available, sloping
ground may be used, the students being placed on ground
above the instructor. By having rows of students sit, kneel,
and stand, assurance may be had that all are able to see
illustrations or demonstrations which are used. The voice
must be raised to be sure that all hear the instructor’s
remarks. In the instruction of large groups it is well to
have one or more assistants with the students farthest
removed from the instructor to warn the instructor if his
voice is not heard, and to aid in directing the students’
attention on the instruction. Portable loud speakers, if
available, are a great aid in outdoor instruction, particularly
in demonstrations and in instructing large groups.
H 87. Training Expedients. — Every effort should be made, in
both indoor and outdoor exercises, to promote realism and
increase interest by the employment of training expedients.
These have a wide application to training in technical and
tactical subjects. Some of the many expedients are men-
tioned below:
a. The development of airplanes, armored vehicles, and
vehicular mounts demands the greatest ingenuity in instruc-
tion in combat gunnery. Accurate replicas of various weap-
ons, employing an electric beam as ammunition, may be used
for teaching the fundamentals of marksmanship and for
preliminary service practice. These expedients may be
36
MILITARY TRAINING
87
mounted on movable platforms, stands, or wobble plates to
simulate vehicular mounts. The beam may be so regulated
as to allow for time of flight for various distances, thus
teaching proper lead for the target.
b . Model tanks, of sizes appropriate for various ranges,
may be used as moving targets both indoors and outdoors.
They may be used in combination with landscape targets,
sand tables, or miniature ranges.
c. Model airplanes may be used for instruction in identi-
fication and in antiaircraft marksmanship. They may be
suspended on wires or tracks and propelled by wires. Equip-
ped with photoelectric cells and used with an electric beam
weapon they stimulate interest and are a close approach to
actual fire at airplanes.
d. Sand tables and miniature ranges are excellent for
instruction in minor tactics. For construction of a sand
table see FM 23-75. A piece of canvas or target cloth can
be painted, and molded to represent the accidents of the
terrain by stuffing paper underneath.
e. Landscape targets may be used for target designation
and fire distribution on indoor and subcaliber ranges.
f. Terrain boards, sand tables, and miniature ranges are
excellent for gunnery instruction.
g. Blank ammunition for all weapons should be used when
practicable in field exercises and maneuver.
h . Smoke puffs, pyrotechnics, and flags should be used to
simulate artillery fire. Trained details, directed by radio,
should be used to mark artillery and other supporting weapon
fire.
i. Effort should be made to accustom troops to the noise
and confusion of battle. Detonation of TNT blocks and
firecrackers, the sound of klaxons, sirens, and other noise-
producing devices, the use of tear gas and smoke candles,
all are of value in preparing troops for battle conditions.
Sound track and phonograph records of battle sounds may
be amplified through a portable public address system to
give an excellent imitation of battle sounds. One airplane
equipped with a sound track and amplifying device can imi-
tate the sound of a large number of airplanes in air attack.
Ingenuity, used with care to prevent accidents, should be
exercised by all commanders in the effort to simulate battle
conditions in training.
324316° — 41 6
37
88-90
MILITARY TRAINING
ffl 88. Lesson Planning. — The efficient use of available
time requires a careful analysis of each lesson. Without care-
ful lesson planning the value of the instruction received will
never be commensurate with the time used.
B 89. Basis For Lesson. — A n instructor requires the fol-
lowing information before he may effectively complete his
lesson plan —
a. Subject and scope of instruction to be given.
b. Training schedule or program of which the lesson is a
part.
c. Duration of period of instruction.
d. Number of students to whom the lesson is to be given.
e. Place in which instruction is to be conducted.
E8 90. Lesson Analysis. — With the above information de-
termined the instructor must make a general analysis of the
lesson. This analysis includes consideration of each of the
following:
a. What is the scope of the subject matter to be covered
in the instructional period? What must be done in the period
and what must the instructor know to do it?
b. How should the student be prepared for the lesson?
Is a previously prepared text assignment desirable? Will a
brief explanation or illustration be satisfactory? What will
tie this lesson to those previously taught?
c. What method of instruction will be most effective in
teaching the subject? (See par. 71.)
d. Does the subject matter lend itself to any particular
means of arousing and maintaining the students’ interest?
What historical examples, illustrative stories, etc., are appli-
cable?
e. What methods or means may be employed to require
the student to apply the ideas and knowledge taught him
or to gain skill in procedure?
/. What type of examination is most suitable . for deter-
mining the effectiveness of the instruction and impressing
the subject on the student? Should it be an oral or written
examination or a performance test?
g. What points are to be summarized in the discussion
at the end of the period?
h. How shall the total time of the lesson period be pro-
38
MILITARY TRAINING
90-93
portioned to the various phases of instruction to accomplish
the best results? This time allotment must be borne in mind
during the whole analysis and a final time schedule should
be made at the completion of the plan. If time estimates
are too short it will generally be for one or all of the following
reasons :
(1) Overenthusiasm on the part of the instructor, causing
him to extend his remarks, illustrations, or questions beyond
the allotted time.
(2) Lack of the necessary background on the part of the
student or a failure on the part of the instructor to appre-
ciate the difficulty of the lesson, which prevents the pre-
senting of new ideas as rapidly as planned.
(3) Failure of the instructor to adhere closely to the sub-
ject, usually the result of questions which digress from the
particular lesson.
i. What aids to instruction are necessary and available?
E 91. Lesson Plan. — Having made the analysis the instructor
should write out his lesson plan. This is essentially an out-
line of the lesson in the order and manner in which it is to
be presented.
a 92. Rehearsal. — a . When the lesson plan is completed the
instructor should set up the necessary equipment, illustra-
tions, and other aids to instruction and conduct a practice
run on the presentation of the lesson. Such a rehearsal fur-
nishes a check on the time allotment and assures the pres-
entation in a smooth, natural manner.
&. Practice in lesson planning will develop facility and
insure the attainment of training objectives in the allotted
time. Failure to plan lessons will result in incomplete or
sketchy instruction, loss of interest, and the waste of val-
uable time.
c. The value derived from the lesson is in direct propor-
tion to the care and thought put into its preparation and
to the enthusiasm with which it is conducted.
S3 93. Common Errors in Instruction. — When a group under
instruction fails to reach the desired standard in the allotted
time, the reason must be found without delay. Some of the
more common errors of failure are —
a . Incorrect interpretation of training program by those
39
93-94
MILITARY TRAINING
conducting instruction. — Conferences, attended by all instruc-
tors, held prior to the commencement of the program as
well as during the course of the program, will assure a com-
plete understanding of the full intent of the training,
b. Insufficient time allotted to program. — The prepara-
tion of a good program of instruction requires practical
experience in time and training values, and a thorough study
of local conditions, qualifications of available instructors,
facilities for carrying out the program, and the personnel
to be trained,
c. Lack of knowledge or preparation. — There is no substi-
tute for full knowledge of the subject to be taught; it is the
first requirement of an instructor. Lack of preparation is
generally inexcusable. It may be prevented by supervision
and, when discovered, appropriate action must be taken to
prevent a recurrence. All instructors must be made to
realize the importance of their responsibility in being pre-
pared.
d. Wrong methods. — The use of wrong methods of instruc-
tion should be discovered by supervision and inspections, and
correct methods must be adopted at once,
e. Poor personality of instructor. — When it is found that
the personality of the instructor is objectionable, it is best
to relieve him and detail another instructor,
/, Insufficient and ineffective supervision and inspections , —
Such neglect of responsibility may be due to inexperience
or indifference, both, usually, among junior commanders.
Only by constant supervision and inspection can incorrect
methods be discovered and full compliance with the train-
ing program assured. Administrative details and other
duties not directly concerned with training must not be
allowed to interfere with training supervision. Indifference
is eliminated by instant remedial action.
® 94. Advice to Instructors. — a. Never bluff to cover lack
of knowledge. While the instructor is expected to know his
subject thoroughly, questions may arise which bring up un-
considered aspects of the subject. If the answer is not known,
admit it, determine the correct answer, and give it to the
class as soon as practicable.
b. Avoid use of profanity or obscenity. Frequent use of
profanity and any use of obscenity result in a loss of dignity
40
MILITARY TRAINING
94-96
and of the respect of the class that cannot be regained.
c. Never use sarcasm or ridicule. Since the students are
helpless to retort their resentment is aroused. When an in-
dividual is resentful his mind is closed to the acceptance of
instruction.
d. Never talk down to a class. The instructor and the
class must feel, not that the instructor is of higher intelli-
gence, but that he has been fortunate in acquiring experience
and knowledge which he wishes to share with fellow mem-
bers of his profession.
e. Never decide that the student is stupid. The instructor’s
task is to teach the student, using the means suitable for
transmitting the information. If the student doesn’t learn,
the instructor has failed.
/. Remember that the instruction is given to assure suc-
cess in battle. Use every opportunity to impress the student
with the battle importance of what he is learning.
Section VII
PUBLIC SPEAKING
H 95. General. — a. While many of the considerations which
enter into successful public speaking do not apply to the
military instructor, a knowledge of the theory and practice
of this subject is of great value as a means to effective in-
struction. A comprehensive discussion of public speaking
is not within the scope of this manual, but several generally
accepted ideas on the subject are given below:
b. To make an effective speech, the speaker must be sure
of what he says, sure of its soundness, and sure of its clear-
ness and coherence. This demands preparation of a most
thorough kind. He must analyze the subject, determine the
specific aim of his discourse, collect, evaluate, and select his
material, and then decide upon what he has to say and how
he is to say it. This process is usually simplified for the mili-
tary speaker for the reason that higher authority assigns the
subject and indicates the purpose. The military speaker is
concerned chiefly with holding the interest of his audience
and with transmitting his ideas clearly in simple words.
3 96. Fundamental Qualities. — There are certain funda-
mental qualities of address which every speech should have:
41
96-98
MILITARY TRAINING
A sense of communication; physical vitality; enthusiasm;
poise and control; genuineness and earnestness.
S 97. Sense of Communication. — The purpose of the
speech is to communicate ideas. Get rid of the idea that the
speaker is “making a speech” — he is not talking at people; he
is talking to people. There is no place on the platform for
the impersonal attitude, the fishy eye, the colorless voice.
Public speaking demands the personal touch, interest in the
listeners, and a very strong sense of talking to them. The
audience is made up of human beings and when this is kept
in mind the speaker is apt to be conversationally direct and
to get and keep his sense of communication with them. In
order to achieve this sense of communication —
a. The speaker must think as he progresses, not mechani-
cally repeat words, but focus his attention on the ideas to be
conveyed.
b. Speak slowly. Do not hurry. Give the audience time to
understand and appreciate the weight of each idea as it comes
along. Group the words so as to bring out the meaning most
clearly. Pause between these groups of words and think.
c. Feel the idea as well as think it. Be enthusiastic. If the
speaker does not believe in what he is saying, he will never
get the audience to believe in it.
d. After thinking and feeling the idea, the speaker makes
an effort to adapt himself to the audience. He reaches out
after them — projects the voice to them. He focuses his
eyes on the listeners and gives them his idea as though he
really wanted them to get it. If they are not listening, are
not interested, it is because he is not sufficiently interesting.
Every art of conversation should be used to reach them
and to hold their attention and interest. Only by taking
a lively interest in conveying the idea can the speaker reach
the people effectively.
® 98. Physical Vitality. — Next to a sense of communication,
the most important quality of a speaker is life, vigor, physi-
cal vitality, and animation. Strong and positive tone of
speech, forceful enunciation, strong position, and vigorous
gesture count for much. Common conversation requires lit-
tle muscular effort because the listener is close by and easily
reached, but when the audience is large and many of them
are seated at a distance, the problem is different.
42
MILITARY TRAINING
99-103
® 99. Enthusiasm. — The third quality is enthusiasm. In
practicing delivery, the speaker tries to generate the same
enthusiasm as for the final speech. This will result in life
in the gesture and in the spoken words.
& 100. Poise and Control. — To the qualities physical vitality
and enthusiasm, the effective speaker must add what at
first glance may seem to be antagonistic qualities, namely
poise and control. But poise and control do not mean that
one must lessen his enthusiasm. It simply means that with
all his force and enthusiasm, he must not fly off the handle;
he must be master of himself; he must always keep him-
self in hand.
B 101. Genuineness and Earnestness. — In addition to the
foregoing, the speaker must always be genuine and earnest;
he must believe what he says. A sense of humor is one of
the greatest assets to the speaker, and is evidenced by his
manner as well as by his words. A sense of humor is never
inconsistent with seriousness; it is essentially a mark of
mental balance, for it is in reality an appreciation of rela-
tive values.
E3 102. Summary. — To summarize, there are five fundamental
qualities without which no speech can succeed, no matter
how good it may be as far as voice, enunciation, position,
and gesture are concerned. These are a lively sense of com-
munication, physical vitality, enthusiasm, poise, and earnest-
ness. With these qualities, a speech may succeed in spite
of poor voice, poor gesture, and poor English. On the other
hand, crudities of style, such as an awkward appearance,
a rasping voice, speech so soft that it can’t be heard, eccen-
tricities of manner, etc., may completely offset the sense
of communication, vitality, enthusiasm, and earnestness of
the speaker.
Bi 103. Aids to Delivery. — a. A speech should not be memo-
rized. Nor should one read from a manuscript unless the
subject is quite technical or exactness of statement is the
first consideration, and misquoting is to be guarded against.
Reading is not speaking and detracts more or less from the
interest of the speech and impairs the relation between the
43
103-105
MILITARY TRAINING
speaker and the audience, as the “eye to eye” contact is
largely lost. Moreover, it is impossible to attain those prime
essentials in effective speaking, directness and spontaneity,
when reading from a manuscript.
b. Regarding the use of notes, there is no universally ac-
cepted rule. Some authorities urge against all notes, others
advise the use of the short outline, while others suggest the
use of memoranda consisting of key phrases or key sentences.
Some speakers use letter or foolscap size sheets of pamper for
their notes, and others use small cards. Some instructors
underscore the headings throughout their manuscript and
use it as a guide. No two speakers are alike, and the method
that will prove effective in the case of one instructor, may
not only be of no assistance, but may actually be a hindrance
to another. Therefore, whatever method will best assist in
effectively recalling your ideas should be used. Whatever
form of notes is used, it should be possible to follow them
at a glance, and to handle them in an inconspicuous manner.
These remarks do not apply when the speaker is quoting
authorities, citing statistics, or giving data of a technical
nature, for here reliance upon the memory may result in
failure to secure absolute accuracy. In such cases, the read-
ing of such material is apt to make a more effective impres-
sion on the audience, because there is the feeling that expert
testimony is being presented.
Section VIII
APPLICATORY TACTICAL EXERCISES
B 104. General. — The applicatory method of training to de-
velop tactical proficiency consists of instruction in tactical
doctrine, followed by its application under assumed, outlined,
or represented situations which simulate, as closely as pos-
sible, conditions of actual war. The value derived from this
training will vary directly with the realism with which battle
conditions are simulated.
H 105. Definitions. — The various applicatory tactical exer-
cises are defined as follows :
Note. — W here the term “map” is used below it should be under-
stood as including all forms of map substitutes.
44
MILITARY TRAINING
105
a. Map exercises are exercises in which a series of military
situations are stated and solved on the map. All students
solve the requirements individually, after which the solutions
are discussed in a general conference.
b. Map problems are exercises in which a military situa-
tion is stated and solved in writing with the map as the only
guide to the terrain. The solution is graded.
c. Map maneuvers are exercises in which military opera-
tions with opposing sides, are conducted on a map, the troops
and military establishments being represented by markers,
or crayon symbols, which are moved to represent the maneu-
vering of the troops on the ground. Map maneuvers may be
either one-sided or two-sided. In the former case, the
players are assigned to one side only and the enemy move-
ments are controlled by the director. In minor tactics, sand
tables or miniature ranges in which the terrain is repre-
sented to scale may be substituted for the map.
d. Tactical rides or walks are exercises in which a series
of military operations are stated and solved on the ground,
the troops being imaginary. Solutions are generally oral,
but may be written, and are discussed in a general conference
on the terrain.
e. Terrain exercises are exercises in which a military situ-
ation is stated and solved on the ground, the troops being
imaginary and the solution being in writing. Usually, the
solution is graded.
/. Staff rides or walks are exercises in which practical staff
operations in definite strategical, tactical or logistical mili-
tary operations are stated and solved on the ground. The
troops are imaginary and the solutions generally are expressed
in the form required under actual conditions of war.
g. Historical rides are exercises in which past military op-
erations, such as a battle or a campaign, are studied on the
ground on which the operations took place.
h . Field exercises are exercises conducted in the field under
simulated war conditions in which troops and armament of
one side are actually present in whole or in part, while those
of the other side are imaginary or outlined. They are of
general application in the training of all troops. When the
troops present consist only of command, staff, and commu-
nications personnel, they are termed “command post exer-
45
105-106
MILITARY TRAINING
rises.” Command post exercises may be one- or two-sided
exercises.
i. Field maneuvers are exercises in which a military opera-
tion is conducted on the ground, the troops and armament of
both sides being actually present, either wholly or in part,
and all the conditions of actual war being simulated.
j. Joint Army and Navy exercises are field maneuvers in
which both Army and Navy forces take part. They are
either —
(1) Grand joint exercises in which the United States fleet
as a whole or one or more of its major subdivisions takes part;
or
(2) Minor joint exercises which include all joint exercises
other than grand joint exercises.
a 106. Preparation of Applicatory Tactical Exercises. — The
preparation of any tactical exercise must be careful and
thorough. It involves the following considerations:
a. Sequence of instruction. — Tactical exercises should be
introduced at an early stage in military instruction and con-
tinued throughout the training of individuals and units. When
specific abstract doctrine has been taught, tactical exercises
requiring the application of this doctrine should follow. These
tactical exercises are designed not only to give practice in
application of the doctrine to the solution of concrete prob-
lems, but also to test its soundness.
b. Decision and execution. — (1) Tactical problems are of
two general classes: those of decision and those of execution.
In a problem of decision, the solver must make a decision
based upon a definite tactical situation. He must choose the
type of action that the command is to adopt. In the prob-
lem of execution, the commander’s main decision has already
been made for him and his task is that of choosing the
best method of doing what he is told to do.
(2) The problems of the commander of an element of a
larger force are primarily problems of execution. The dis-
tinction between problems of decision and problems of execu-
tion is not hard and fast. Commanders of elements of a
larger force have many decisions to make in carrying out
missions assigned to them. Ability to make reasonable deri-
sions, even minor ones, is developed through solving prob-
46
MILITARY TRAINING
106
lems of decision. For that reason many of our problems
are of this type. Units up to and including the division in
war usually operate as part of a larger force, but in pre-
paring problems to train the solver to make sound decisions
he is frequently pictured as commanding a unit that is act-
ing alone. Command of a subordinate unit in battle calls for
full exercise of the power of decision. That power is devel-
oped by the command, under assumed battle conditions, of
the unit acting alone.
c. Clarity . — The situation for every tactical exercise should
be stated clearly. The author and all who review the prob-
lem should make a special effort to free it from ambiguous
and contradictory statements. An author must exercise great
care not to be influenced by a particular solution that he
has in mind, as he prepares the problem. His statements,
unless they are carefully tested, may mean one thing to
him and another to solvers. He may have certain important
items in mind regarding the enemy, or the situation in gen-
eral, and neglect to include them in the situation. Though
the author may do his best to view his draft of the problem
critically and in a detached or objective way, this is not
enough. Every problem should be reviewed by others in
order to strengthen its weak points and insure clarity.
d . Brevity. — (1) The situation in a good tactical exercise
is presented as briefly as possible. During operations in the
field the situation is a continuing one and all concerned are
familiar with it. Items of information, as they come in,
are assimilated easily by minds that are prepared for them.
In the tactical exercise, on the other hand, the solver must,
at one sitting, grasp and adjust himself to the entirely new
situation. Authors must make every effort to present their
situations briefly and in a manner that the solver’s mind
can grasp easily and quickly. The situation should lead
reasonably to the action contemplated. Unnecessary mat-
ter is avoided. Such items as international boundaries, con-
centration areas, war plans, detailed dispositions, action of
reconnaissance agencies, are included only when they have
a definite bearing upon the solution of the exercise. It is
usually not desirable to introduce such matters as mobiliza-
tion, politics, or national economics in order to set a brigade
or division in motion. Every element of the situation that
47
106
MILITARY TRAINING
can be clearly and properly shewn' on an overlay or special
map should be shown in this manner, in order to avoid
laborious plotting by the solver.
(2) As finally prepared, the exercise should present a
reasonable situation. That which is artificial or improbable
should be avoided, otherwise the solver is hampered from the
beginning by an unnecessary strain upon his imagination.
e. Form . — (1) Purpose of formal arrangement. — A stand-
ard form for the statement of the situation is an aid to brevity,
clearness, and quick understanding of the situation. The form
discussed below is applicable for the statement of the situation
in all tactical problems and exercises. The statement of a
tactical situation usually consists of a heading, a general
situation, a special situation, and a requirement. In many
exercises, particularly those involving small forces, the gen-
eral and special situations may be combined and termed
“situation.” This combination should always be made when
a separate statement of a general situation is not necessary
to a clear understanding of the problem.
(2) Heading. — The heading includes such caption as may
be necessary to identify the exercise; such as office of issue,
nature of exercise, identifying number (if one of a series),
and date.
(3) General situation . — The general situation follows the
heading. It first states the map or maps required (including
any special map or overlay issued with the problem). Then
follows a brief statement of the facts known, or assumed to be
known, to both belligerents. This is mainly for the purpose
of general orientation, to assist the solver in reading himself
into the situation. The general situation should be brief and
should contain no unnecessary information.
(4) Special situation. — The special situation follows the
general situation and is a statement of the assumptions and
the real or imaginary facts which, taken in conjunction with
the general situation, form the basis of judgment on which
the problem is to be solved. The following are some of the
essential features of a special situation:
(a) A definite statement of the force involved. In the
absence of any statement to the contrary, the composition
of the opposing forces is assumed to conform to authorized
Tables of Organization,
48
MILITARY TRAINING
106
(b) A statement of the location and disposition of the
force, at a stated time, in sufficient detail for the purpose of
the problem. Care should be taken to avoid the inclusion
of nonessential data.
(c) A statement of the mission of the force in definite,
unmistakable terms, or sufficient data from which to deduce
the mission.
( d ) Sufficient data on which to base an estimate of the
enemy’s situation. These data are such as to require analysis
in order to arrive at reasonable conclusions as to the enemy’s
situation and capabilities. Part of the value of the exercise
is lost when the enemy’s situation and capabilities are made
so obvious as to require no analysis.
(e) A statement of the date of the operation, in the event
that the hour of sunrise or sunset, or season of the year, has
a bearing on the problem,
(/) A statement of special climatic conditions, when it is
desirable to indicate their effects on roads, fords, bridges,
streams, visibility, and the like.
( g ) Such assumptions as are essential (generally entitled
“Notes”) .
(5) Paragraphing. — Arrangement of the subject matter in
logical sequence and its division into captioned paragraphs
are aids to quick understanding of the situation. Following
is an outline of the form for general and special situation:
1. GENERAL SITUATION. — a. Maps, (List all maps used,
including special maps and overlays.)
b. Boundary, (If necessary.)
c. Main forces. (A brief statement of the location of main
forces, Blue and Red, including any departure of organiza-
tion of each force from Tables of Organization.)
d. (Any additional subparagraph (s) added as called for by
the particular problem under consideration.)
2. SPECIAL SITUATION (BLUE) .—a. / Corps (or higher
unit) . (A brief statement when necessary as a background for
the situation used.)
b. 1st Division (or unit used.) (State commander, loca-
tion if necessary, and indicate any attached units.)
c. Mission of 1st Division.
d. Advance of 1st Division (or brief summary of prior action
of unit) .
49
106-107
MILITARY TRAINING
e. (Any additional subparagraph (s) added as required by
the particular problem under consideration.)
/. Situation at 8:00 AM, 1 June. (1) Enemy (2) Own
forces.
g. Weather , roads , and visibility (or miscellaneous) .
3. REQUIREMENT. (Such as to bring out the fundamen-
tals and methods it is desired to Illustrate by the exercise cr
problem.)
Notes
(State any assumptions made for the particular prob-
lem and any instructions necessary regarding the problem.
Notes are numbered serially and reference made to same at
appropriate places in body of problem.)
® 107. Tactical Elements of an Applicatory Exercise. —
a. Situations are prepared by arranging the various elements
that enter into military operations so as to require a definite
decision or to provide a situation of execution. The more
common factors used to vary situations are —
(1) Relative strength of opposing forces.
(2) Their composition.
(3) Their dispositions.
(4) Terrain.
(5) Distance.
(6) Mission.
(7) Reinforcements.
(8) Time of day.
(9) Climatic conditions.
b. Terrain can be selected that is suitable for different
types of operations, but it should be remembered that in
war the terrain cannot always be selected as it can be in
tactical exercises, hence the suitability of terrain for dif-
ferent types of operations should not be overemphasized.
The factors entering into any military situation can be varied
almost infinitely, a minor change in time, distance, or mis-
sion completely changes the problem. The mission should
be clearly stated. The use of different missions in con-
nection with other factors enables the officer preparing an
exercise to produce almost any situation he desires. Orders
and instructions contained in the statement of the situation
should be carefully prepared and correct in every detail,
in view of their instructional value. A problem of decision
50
MILITARY TRAINING
107-110
should not be so simple that only one possible solution need
be considered, but should require those under instruction
to weigh the merits of alternative solutions.
E 108. Conduct of an Exercise. — The more closely an exer-
cise is made to resemble war conditions the greater its value.
Clear-cut problems do not present themselves in war; un-
certainty, lack of information, friction, obscure the issues.
Information should be supplied in the forms in which it would
be received in war. Officers should be required to make
their decisions in a limited time and should be trained and
practiced in issuing oral orders. Except in the most elemen-
tary exercises the effect of air and armored operations on
the strategical, tactical, logistical problems should be pro-
vided for. Students’ solutions should be discussed, the doc-
trine emphasized, and errors pointed out.
0 109. Sand Table Exercises. — A sand table has the advan-
tage that it can be used anywhere. Any suitable scale, de-
pending on the size of the unit involved, can be selected.
Suitable tokens to represent different types of troops should
be provided. For elementary instruction simple and definite
situations should be created and definite answers required.
In addition to elementary tactical instruction, a sand table
can be used to illustrate combat formations, to teach recon-
naissance and occupation of positions by artillery or machine
guns, to illustrate defensive organization, or instruction in
map reading, and for preparation for field exercises and
field maneuvers.
H 110. Map Exercises. — In a map exercise a series of related
situations are solved and discussed. A typical map exercise
may have as the first requirement to be solved by the student
the decision, or the plan of the unit commander. After the
decision and plan have been discussed the plans and orders
of subordinate units of the different arms may be required.
Thus, in a single situation, instruction is given in the oper-
ation of combined arms. The situation may be carried for-
ward in time so that a series of tactical operations are solved.
Map exercises also are suitable for instruction in staff func-
tioning and troop leading. Each exercise should give a clear
conception of the normal distribution of the unit concerned,
together with the normal frontages and depths. The im-
51
110-113 MILITARY TRAINING
portance of the terrain should always be brought out. This
can best be done by emphasizing the effect of the terrain
on each operation such as attack, defense, etc. Before and
after each exercise students should be required to study the
paragraphs of Field Service Regulations and the other appro-
priate texts relating to the technical operation with which the
exercise deals. By such study they will learn how the tactics
and technique contained in the regulations should be applied
to concrete problems.
@ 111. Tactical Rides or Walks. — Tactical rides or walks
are conducted on the ground in a manner similar to that of
a map exercise. When large units are being used maps or
aerial mosaics are necessary. It often is beneficial to pro-
vide only outline maps which do not show the ground forms
so as to require the students to develop their own eye for the
terrain and not to depend exclusively on the map.
® 112. Map Maneuvers. — Map maneuvers may be either one-
sided or two-sided.
a. In the one-sided maneuver, players are assigned to one
side only, the enemy movements being controlled by the
director. Its principal value lies in practice in the technique
of orders, staff procedure, and troop leading. The director
can, through his control of the action of the. enemy, conduct
the progress of the play so as to bring out the application of
the tactical fundamentals which he wishes to illustrate. By
means of prepared messages, staff work and teamwork may
be emphasized. In the sequence of instruction the one-sided
map maneuver usually precedes the two-sided.
b. In the two-sided map maneuver, players are assigned
to both sides, the development of the maneuver is much
more free and therefore more interesting to students. The
control of a two-sided map maneuver may be quite close or
can be completely free. This type of maneuver gives oppor-
tunity for instruction in the formulation of decisions and
orders, in the application of tactical fundamentals, and in
the exercise of command and staff teamwork. Map ma-
neuvers should not be employed as a means of instruction
until the student is well grounded in tactical doctrine.
E3 113. Command Post Exercises. — Command post exercises
can vary in nature from an exercise that closely resembles
52
MILITARY TRAINING
113-116
a map maneuver to exercises in which all command posts
and communications actually are installed on the ground.
In the first type, command posts are grouped in one location,
no special communications are available, and all communi-
cations are by messenger service supplemented by local wire
lines. Air service is not used and the enemy is not outlined
on the ground. In this case umpires should impose normal
time for the transmission of messages. At the other ex-
treme is the exercise where the command posts are separated
by normal distances, signal and headquarters troop units are
employed, all means of communications are used, air service
participates in its normal role, and the enemy is outlined on
the ground. A scenario is prepared to serve as a guide for
the progress of the play. The scenario is usually supple-
mented by a general control map which governs the more
detailed control maps of the umpires. All extensive command
post exercises should first be played out as map maneuvers
by the directing personnel.
H 114. Field Exercises and Field Maneuvers. — These tactical
exercises are the acme of all training since they are the
closest approach to actual combat. Their success is depend-
ent on the thoroughness of their preparation, the intelli-
gence exercised in their direction and control, and the imag-
ination and ingenuity used in making them realistic.
ffl 115. Realism. — One of the greatest obstacles to good
tactical training is the difficulty of representing accurately
the conditions of the battlefield. In war, amid the general
noise and confusion of battle, nerves will be strained, time
will be pressing, the situation will usually be vague, orders
may arrive late, messages may be ambiguous, physical discom-
fort and fatigue will be general. Officers and men must be
trained to expect such conditions and ingenuity used to
create, as nearly as possible, the physical phenomena, of
battle.
■ 116. Imagination. — All officers and noncommissioned offi-
cers conducting or participating in field exercises must pre-
vent the deliberate disregard of war conditions. Action
and movement must be considered from the enemy’s point of
view, and every individual must habitually conduct him-
self as if he were actually opposed by an intelligent enemy.
53
116-118
MILITARY TRAINING
Troops must be required always to take advantage of cover
and concealment, antitank and antiaircraft weapons must
always be manned, armored vehicles must operate with doors
and turrets closed, when the situation so demands, in short,
individuals and groups must conduct themselves as they
would under the threat of hostile fire. All must be made
to realize that, in war, the punishment for negligence in
these matters may be death by enemy action. The excuse
that such things would not be neglected in time of war can*
not be accepted. Imagination must be aroused so that
habits will be formed in training which will bring success
in battle.
E3 117. Knowledge of the Exercise. — a. The interest and
cooperation of intelligent men cannot be secured if they are
ignorant of the operation in which they are taking part.
If they are moved from place to place without knowing the
reason they will soon lose interest and become careless.
Pew activities are more conducive to boredom than, for
example, maintaining an imaginary road block in complete
ignorance of how the block is supposed to be constructed,
what it is intended to stop, the direction from which the
enemy is likely to approach, or the importance of holding
that block to the operation as a whole.
b. It is the duty of all commanders to insure that every
scheme of maneuver, every change in the situation, and
every operation are explained to all those being trained.
Senior officers and umpires should check up from time to time
whether or not individual men know the situation and the
intention of their commander.
E3 118. Preparation of Field Exercises and Field Manetj
vers. — a. The procedure for preparation of the tactical situa-
tion will be the same as that outlined for other tactical
exercises above. However, since the available terrain will
usually be limited, care must be exercised in drawing up
situations so that contact with the imaginary or outlined
enemy will take place on appropriate terrain. The officer
conducting the exercise must determine what definite phase
of combat is to be covered and review the tactical doctrine
pertaining to it. He should make a personal reconnaissance
and tentatively outline on the ground the situation or situa-
tions that will emphasize the type of combat to be covered.
54
MILITARY TRAINING
118-119
b. It must always be borne in mind that the exercise is to
train units, not just commanders and staffs. The exercise
must be planned to insure that each unit has a definite part
to play. Map exercises, map maneuvers, or command post
exercises should be played by the commanders and staffs prior
to the participation of the troops in an exercise or maneuver.
This will make certain that the exercise will benefit all who
participate, not just a few officers. No matter how much
preliminary work is done, new problems will be presented to
all commands and staffs when the exercise is held on the
ground.
c. The position, probable strength, and probable action of
the enemy is planned so as to bring out the action desired in
the exercise. The method of representation of the enemy and
the scheme for control of the exercise must be planned;
these will vary depending upon the size of the units involved.
A time table or schedule should be prepared and a place for
the critique selected. The problem may then be written
briefly and simply; in small units it is not always necessary
to write it.
d. Administrative arrangements such as equipment to be
carried, details or flags to represent the enemy, water and
food if necessary, use of ranges, targets, safety precautions,
and ammunition should be carefully planned. When neces-
sary to procure land for large exercises, ample time must be
allowed for the business of locating suitable tracts of land
and obtaining leases thereon.
■ 119. Control. — a. Intelligent control is necessary to the
success of any field exercise or field maneuver. A major
reason for failure of such exercises is inadequate or unimag-
inative control. The plan and preparations for control must
be made in advance. Control may be very simple, as, for
example, by means of signals made by the officer conducting
the problem, or it may be elaborate and include a telephone
and radio net, signal rockets, airplanes, and an umpire system.
The provisions for control will depend upon the kind of exercise
and the size of the unit. The simplest method that will pro-
vide adequate control should be used.
b . All officers and noncommissioned officers should be
trained to act as umpires in tactical exercises. Umpires
should be used in the control of field exercises for even the
smaller units.
55
119-121
MILITARY TRAINING
c. Good umpiring is difficult. A good umpire, by his de-
cisions and signals, must supply those elements of opera-
tions which are lacking under peacetime conditions — espe-
cially the effect of fire. He must be able to draw up the
picture of battle to those under training. Keenness, enthu-
siasm, and imagination are essential to effective performance
of this duty.
■ 120. Conduct! of Field Exercises and Field Maneuvers.-—
a. Play of the exercise is begun pursuant to the orders given
to comply with the initial requirements. The first require-
ment of all commanders for further operations will be infor-
mation of the enemy. It should be understood that this can
be obtained only through the regular channels, that is,
through the various reconnaissance agencies, from subordi-
nate units, or by personal reconnaissance. It is a function
of the umpire to furnish the information that properly could
have been obtained by the means used. The use of methods
of obtaining information, which could not be used in time
of war, is forbidden.
b. Realism and the closest possible approach to war con-
ditions must govern the planning and conduct of field exer-
cises and maneuvers. Soldiers act in war as they are trained
in peace, and the fighting spirit, the determination to win,
will lack development if maneuvers are formal and unreal.
This is best corrected by allowing initiative, maneuver, and
surprise to reap their legitimate rewards. Lessons thus
learned by commanders and troops will be driven home and
operations will gain in interest and training value.
c. Where it is necessary to limit the progress of the ma-
neuver, this should be done by decisions made by local um-
pires based on logical assumptions and not be penalizing
well conducted operations by palpably artificial decisions.
3 121. Critique. — The discussion or critique should be held
immediately following the exercise or maneuver and, for small
units, preferably at a location where the terrain can be seen.
The critique should consist of a lyrief review of the tactical
doctrine involved and its application to the problem. Notes
should be kept during the progress of the exercise or maneuver
for this purpose. The tactical significance of the exercise
and the doctrine involved must be kept foremost in the dis-
56
MILITARY TRAINING
121-124
cussion ; a mere recital of what has taken place is a waste of
time. It is the duty of the director or instructor to call
attention to errors and incorrect methods and to point out a
way to correct them. Adverse comments should treat of doc-
trine and not of individuals.
Section IX
COMPANY TRAINING PROGRAMS AND SCHEDULES
M 122. Company Training Program. — a. A company (troop
or battery) training program is a statement or description,
usually in tabular form, of the training plan for the company
over a period of time. It is prepared to cover the time allotted
by higher authority for company training. The program is
intended to estimate the time factor and form a logical and
economical basis for the use of training time. It must, how-
ever, be regarded as flexible, and not be followed blindly.
b. Appendix III shows a War Department Mobilization
Training Program for an infantry rifle company, based on
13 training weeks of 44 hours each; each week comprising
five 8-hour and one 4-hour training days.
B 123. Preparation of Company Program. — The preparation
of the company training program is the last item in the
process of planning the company’s training, and can only be
undertaken after necessary directives from higher authority
have been received and studied, and the estimate of the
training situation completed. The successive steps involved
in its preparation are discussed in detail below.
■ 124. Training Losses. — So far as the unit itself is con-
cerned, any allocation of time within the training period to
any activity, or for any purpose other than unit training,
constitutes a training loss. The principal training losses
are —
a. Holidays.
b. Guard duty (when performed by company) .
c. Fatigue (when performed by company) .
d. Periods reserved for battalion, regimental, or higher
unit training.
e. Unusual missions which necessitate interruptions in
the training of the unit.
/. Time required going to and returning from training
areas.
57
125
MILITARY TRAINING
! 125. Allocation of Hours of Instruction to Specific
Subjects. — a. By subtracting the training losses from the
total number of training hours in the prescribed period, the
unit commander arrives at the total number of hours avail-
able for unit training, and may then undertake the task of
allocating hours of instruction to training subjects. This
allocation is perhaps the most difficult single task in the entire
process. x.
b. Training situations in different commands of the various
arms and services vary so widely that no rule of thumb can
possibly be offered for the solution of this problem. The
mission of the command, the total training time available,
facilities, means, climate and terrain, and the existing state
of training are the chief factors that govern.
c. An analysis, however, of the training requirements of
different units, and an inspection of training programs pre-
pared for their specific purposes, will show that within reason-
able limits there are certain fairly constant factors that may
be accepted as guides. For example, in the War Department
13 -week Mobilization Training Program for Infantry at unit
training centers, the following percentages are found to obtain
(open time disregarded) :
Total time ( percent )
Basic subjects ___ 20
Technical subjects 32
Tactical subjects 46
d. Basic subjects, in which the recruit will generally receive
his earlier training, are shown in appendix III. Adequate
instruction in many of these subjects can be accomplished
within a few training hours. Others — notably marches and
bivouacs, close-order and extended-order drills, physical train-
ing, and inspections — require a greater number of hours and
are continued practically throughout the company training
period.
e. The allocation of training time to technical or mechani-
cal subjects depends largely upon the type of unit concerned
and the existing state of training. The subject of marks-
manship — or the technique of the primary weapon with which
an organization is equipped — is given greatest emphasis.
Here again no specific rules are applicable to all cases, and
the officer who plans the training of a unit must be guided
generally by two factors — the total training time available
58
MILITARY TRAINING
125—126
and the proficiency of the unit in that particular subject
at the time. Manifestly, an organization in which there are
many recruits or unqualified men will require far more
training time in marksmanship than will an organization
composed mainly of experienced soldiers. In the War
Department 13 -week Mobilization Training Programs for
Infantry the time allotted to rifle marksmanship in the rifle
company is 60 hours.. This may be taken as the irreducible
minimum of time for this subject, employing a carefully
planned and intensive course of instruction. Strict economy
of time and the adoption of abbreviated courses of training
in all subjects demand such a low figure. In a peacetime
organization the allotment of hours to such subjects will be
considerably higher. Economy of time may be effected by
planning other training concurrently with marksmanship,
such as pistol or other appropriate instruction, which can
be carried on concurrently without loss of training time.
/. In heavy weapons companies and in artillery batteries,
mechanical instruction and technique of fire are the technical
subjects which should be given the largest allotments of
training time. In these organizations the total time de-
voted to these subjects is relatively greater than the alloca-
tion of time to marksmanship in the rifle company. For
example, the War Department 13 -week Mobilization Training
Program for Field Artillery shows the following percentages
(open time not included) :
Total time (percent)
Basic subjects 16.9
Technical subjects ; 64.6
Tactical subjects 18.4
■ 126. Continuity. — Certain subjects should be practically
continuous throughout the training period. These include
physical training, close-order drill, extended -order drill
(mounted drill or motor vehicle operation in mounted or
motorized organizations) , and inspections. Wherever facili-
ties permit, training hours in marksmanship or service prac-
tice, marches and bivouacs, and bayonet practice (infantry)
should be distributed in a similar manner. The qualification
of the soldier in the essential subjects of disciplinary and
physical training, of marching, and of the expert use of his
weapons or technical equipment is maintained by continuity
of training throughout the year.
59
127-129
MILITARY TRAINING
E 127. Progressive Training. — a. In all military training,
instruction in every subject begins with the basic elementary
phases and advances to the more difficult or involved phases.
This rule must also be observed in blocking out the chrono-
logical sequence of subjects within the training period.
Purely basic subjects, intended largely to orient the recruit
in his new way of living, should be given priority in the cycle.
These subjects are, in general, the Articles of War, Army
Regulations, Citizenship, Customs of the Service, .Military
Courtesy, Sex Hygiene, Hygiene and Sanitation, Defense
Against Chemical Attack, Defense Against Air and Mech-
anized Attack, First Aid, Care and Maintenance of Equip-
ment, and Interior Guard Duty. Inasmuch as the primary
requirements of the soldier are that he be able to march
and to shoot (or to use his technical equipment) , instruction
in marches, bivouacs, and marksmanship should logically
follow the recruit’s earliest “orientation” training. A short
but thorough course of instruction in nomenclature, func-
tioning, and safety rules should precede any phase of marks-
manship that involves the firing of weapons.
b. In mounted organizations the subjects of stable manage-
ment and care of animals, care and adjustment of horse
equipment, and transportation should be taught early. Fun-
damental instruction in such subjects should precede or be
coincident with any drill or instruction involving the use of
animals or animal-drawn vehicles. Similarly, in motorized
units, early instruction is given in motor maintenance and
motor vehicle operation.
S 128. Training Combinations. — In order to avoid excessive
fatigue and also to provide variety and promote interest
in training, instruction in several subjects that require great
physical effort should not be conducted concurrently.
H 129. Periods of Instruction for Particular Subjects. —
Although the training program is not prepared with the
attention to detail that is incorporated in the weekly schedule,
yet the length of periods of instruction for particular subjects
must he considered in planning the program. A few gen-
erally accepted ideas on the length of instruction in various
subjects are given below:
a . Physical training (calisthenics and mass games) has as
its principal objects the development of coordination, muscular
60
MILITARY TRAINING
129-130
control, and bodily strength. Best results are obtained from
periods of 15 to 30 minutes.
b. Close-order drill or drills of a formal nature should not
exceed 1 hour, even in the recruit stage of training. Longer
periods make the drill tedious and uninteresting and without
value. After an organization has become proficient, daily
periods of V 2 hour or less, in which an exact, energetic execu-
tion of drill movements is insisted upon, will generally prove
ample to maintain precision and coordination.
c. Subjects which must be taught by means of lectures or
conferences should be scheduled in periods not exceeding 50
minutes in length. Longer periods result in loss of interest
and a waste of time. Shorter periods are desirable.
d. Mounted drill or driving has the dual function of fa-
miliarizing the soldier with basic mounted formations and
of exercising and conditioning animals. Therefore, periods
of at least an hour are allotted, ordinarily, to this subject,
(exclusive of the time devoted to saddling or harnessing and
grooming) .
e. Subjects for which considerable preparation is neces-
sary in assembling property and equipment, or requiring
the movement of troops to a distant part of the reservation,
can most economically be planned in blocks of 3 or 4 hours.
Thus, for marksmanship or range practice and for field ex-
ercises in general, entire training days or half days should
be allocated.
/. Night operations should be computed, for the purpose
of the training program, in units of 4 or 8 hours. Adjust-
ment is made in the training schedule of the following day
to compensate for the time so used.
H 130. Open Time. — Certain periods should be designated as
open time on the training program and reserved for the com-
pany commander to use as he sees fit. This may be for
additional instruction in subjects in which the command as a
whole has not reached the desired state of proficiency; for
the repetition of instruction previously completed, but for
which some immediate need has arisen (refresher or review
work) ; for the additional instruction of recruits or delin-
quents; for the advanced training of selected privates and
noncommissioned officers ; or to make up training losses which
could not be foreseen.
61
131-132
MILITARY TRAINING
0 131. Company Training Schedules. — a. Training schedules
are issued by a company commander for the training of his
unit which is to be done directly under his own command.
They are based upon the programs and orders of higher
commanders and upon the present stage of training of his
unit. They are generally in tabular form and outline what
is to be done; how, when, and where it is to be done; and
the uniform and equipment required. If complete, no addi-
tional information is required for training during the period
covered by the schedule. Only short training periods
should be covered, such as a week, or a short encampment,
because many interruptions will occur if the training is sched-
uled for a long period.
b. The form shown in appendix IV is applicable to a com-
pany training schedule.
3! 132. Preparation of a Company Schedule. — Much of the
discussion contained in paragraph 130 is also pertinent to
the task of arranging the sequence of instruction in various
subjects within the training day. In order to avoid undue
fatigue, to provide variety, and to sustain the interest of the
men, weekly schedules should be carefully prepared. The
following points are furnished as a guide:
a. When weather permits, the best time for calisthenics
is the first drill period in the morning.
b . Instruction requiring physical activity should be alter-
nated with less strenuous instruction for the sake of variety
and maintenance of interest.
c. When any subject is to be presented by the lecture
method, the early morning periods, when minds are alert,
are by far the best. The first period in the afternoons is the
poorest time for such instruction.
d. In general, morning hours of instruction are much more
valuable than those of the afternoon. The training subjects
demanding the most application or concentration on the part
of the soldier should be presented during the morning periods,
reserving afternoon hours for subjects involving action and
movement in which individual interest can be maintained
without great effort.
62
Appendix I
TRAINING MISSIONS
B 1. Regular Army. — a. To maintain every Regular Army
unit in condition to function effectively, at existing strength,
i rr its assigned role, under war conditions, without further
training.
b. To provide a corps of efficient instructors for peace-
time training requirements of the National Guard, Organized
Reserves, Reserve Officers’ Training Corps, and Citizens’ Mili-
tary Training Camps.
c. To provide as many trained officers, noncommissioned
officers, and specialists as possible for use in reconstituting
inactive units, or otherwise assisting in carrying out a com-
plete and immediate mobilization in an emergency.
d. To develop the art and science of war with a view to
modifying the tactics and technique of the various arms and
services as may be necessary in order to utilize the latest
developments in science and invention.
■ 2. National Guard. — a. To maintain every National Guard
unit in condition to function effectively, at existing strength
and without further training, when employed in emergencies
by the State or Federal authorities.
b. To provide a trained force for employment in time of
war as a component of the Army of the United States.
Note. — For other regulations governing National Guard training,
see National Guard Regulations No. 45.
B 3. Organized Reserves. — a. To qualify each Reserve officer
for the duties of his war assignment.
b. For other regulations governing Reserve training see
AR 140-5 and annual War Department “Reserve Training
Policies.”
■ 4. Reserve Officers’ Training Corps. — To provide sys-
tematic military training at civil educational institutions for
the purpose of —
a. Qualifying certain selected students for appointment
as second lieutenants in the Officers’ Reserve Corps.
63
MILITARY TRAINING
b. Developing initiative, leadership, discipline, and high
physical, mental, and moral standards in the individual.
c. Providing for national defense purposes a potential re-
serve of partially trained civilians.
Note. — For other regulations governing the training of the
Reserve Officers’ Training Corps, see AR 145-10 and 145-30 and
courses of instruction issued by the War Department.
ES 5, citizens' Military Training Camps. — To provide a
means whereby young men may be given basic military train-
ing and instruction in the privileges, duties, and respon-
sibilities of American citizenship to qualify them for more
effective service as American citizens in time of peace or dur-
ing a national emergency.
Note. — For regulations governing the training in Citizens’ Mili-
tary Training Camps, see AR 350-2200 and training programs issued
by the War Department.
64
Appendix H
A suggested form for a
UNIT TRAINING PROGRAM 1
H q
(Unit)
(Station)
Orders
(Date)
No.
TRAINING PROGRAM
(Unit)
From to
(Date) (Date)
1. INFORMATION
a. Information, if any, as to the situation confronting the
unit insofar as it affects training. (Such as* probable
mobilization, movement, or use for a specific purpose
or in a specific theater.)
b. Citation of orders, regulations, policies, or training
guides which govern the conduct of training and which
have been previously issued or are otherwise available
to all concerned.
1 This form may be adapted, for use in the preparation of a post
or camp training program by inserting in paragraph 3 a separate
subparagraph for each separate component or training activity in
the command.
65
MILITARY TRAINING
2. GENERAL PLAN.
a. General mission or training objective (usually prescribed
by higher authority) .
b. General allotment of time or division of periods into
phases, showing:
(1) Time reserved by higher commanders.
(2) Time reserved by the issuing commander.
(3) Time allotted for duties other than training,
holidays, etc.
(4) Time remaining at the disposal of subordinate
commanders.
(5) Number of days and hours in the training week
(when applicable) .
c. Date the training program becomes effective, and period
covered.
3. DETAILED PLAN.
a. Instructions governing the training of the unit as a
whole, giving:
(1) Dates and general character of such training.
(In company programs an allotment of hours
for instruction in the various subjects is given
here. Detailed schedules covering this train-
ing are issued separately later.)
(2) Instructions as to tactical and training inspections
with dates of tactical inspections by issuing and
higher authority and instructions for proficiency
tests by or under the direct supervision of the
issuing commander.
b. Training to be conducted by subordinate commanders.
A separate subparagraph for each next subordinate unit,
giving —
(1) Its mission or training objective.
(2) Division of the training into phases or periods, if
necessary, and a training objective for each
period or phase.
(3) Allocation of training facilities with dates and
hours available.
(4) Special instructions, if any, necessary for its
training.
(5) Inspection calendar showing dates the next sub-
ordinate unit will be inspected for proficiency in
various subjects.
66
MILITARY TRAINING
c. Instructions in regard to schools.
(1) Instructions governing the conduct of troop
schools or enrollment in extension course schools
conducted by the issuing officer or higher
authority.
(2) Instructions in regard to schools to be conducted
by subordinate commanders.
x. Instructions applicable to the unit as a whole or to more
than one unit.
(1) Instructions as to training standards, proficiency
tests, and records of progress.
(2) Special features of training, if any, which must be
stressed.
(3) Instructions as to the submission of reports, pro-
grams, or schedules by subordinate commanders.
(4) Instructions, if any, for the keeping of training
charts or other trainingjrecords.
(5) Instructions in regard to particular subjects, such
as —
(a) Physical training.
(b) Athletics.
(c) Practice marches.
id) Target practice.
(e) Defense against chemical attacks.
(/) Antiaircraft and antimechanized defense.
( g ) Ceremonies.
Ui) Riot duty.
4. ADMINISTRATIVE INSTRUCTIONS.
a. Instructions, if any, for the regulation of administrative
duties, guard, and fatigue so as to provide the maxi-
mum time and personnel for training.
b. Instructions, if any, for the submission of estimates of
funds required for training purposes.
c. Instructions, if any, for the use, care, and maintenance
of training facilities.
d. Instructions, if any, relating to leaves of absences and
furloughs in their relation to training.
e. Instructions, if any, relating to uniforms and equip-
ment in their relation to training.
(Authentication) (Signature)
Distribution:
67
MOBILIZATION TRAINING PROGRAM FOR INFANTRY AT UNIT TRAINING CENTERS
MILITARY TRAINING
68
Packs and tent pitching FM 21-15
Interior guard duty FM 26-5
Physical training, group FM 21-20
games, mass athletics.
Inspections FM 22-5
MILITARY TRAINING
69
Observer training * FM 7-5 and 21-45
Messenger training h . 1 FM 7-5 and 24-5
See footnotes at end of table.
Rifle company, weapons platoon — rifle platoon — Continued
MILITARY TRAINING
70
MILITARY TRAINING
INDEX
Paragraphs Pages
Advice to instructors 94 40
Aids to delivery of training lectures 103 43
Aids to instruction 77 31
Application of instruction 68 23
Applicatory tactical exercises:
Command post exercises 113 52
Conduct of 108 51
Control 119 55
Critique 121 50
Definitions 105 44
Elements of 107 50
Field exercises and maneuvers 114,118,120 53,54,56
Imagination in 116 53
Knowledge of the exercise 117 54
Map exercises 110 51
Map maneuvers 112 52
Preparation 106 46
Realism 115 53
Rides or walks 111 52
Sand tables 109 51
Scope and value 9, 104 3, 44
Athletics ‘ 38 13
Balanced progressive training 8 2
Basis for lesson 89 38
Blackboards, Use 81 34
Charts, use in instruction 82 34
Classroom instruction 85 35
Coach-and-pupil method of instruction 76 30
Combined training __ 58 20
Command post exercises 113 53
Company training programs:
Allocation of instruction to specific subjects. 125, 129 58, 60
Continuity 126 59
Definition and description 122 57
Losses of time in 124 67
Management 26 9
Open time 130 61
Preparation 123 57
Progression 127 60
Variety in 128 60
Company training schedules 131, 132 62
Conduct of tactical exercises 108 51
Conduct of training 6 2
Conferences, instruction 73 26
Control of field exercised and maneuvers 119, 120 55, 56
Decentralization of training 7 2
Demonstrations, instructional 67, 74 23, 27
Detailed plan of training 25 8
Direction of training 13 4
73
INDEX
Paragraphs Pages
Discussions 70 25
Drill 34 12
Duties, training, distribution of 28 10
Enthusiasm in training lectures 99 43'
Equipment and facilities available, use 19 6
Errors in instruction 93 39
Essential subjects, training 17 6
Estimate of training situation 15 4
Examinations 69 24
Existing state of training 22 7
Expedients, training 87 36
Explanations in instructions 66 23
Field exercises and maneuvers:
Conduct 120 56
Control 119 55
Importance 114 53
Preparation 118 54
Film strips and training films 78-80 32
Fundamentals of military training 43 14
Genuineness and earnestness in training lectures. 101 43
Group performance method of instruction 75 29
Imagination in field exercises 116 53
Individuals, training of 44-52 15
Instruction:
Aids and expedients 77,87 31,36
Application 68 23
Basis for lesson 89 38
Blackboards, use in 81 34
Charts • 82 34
Classroom 85 35
Coach -and -pupil 76 30
Conferences 73 26
Demonstrations 67, 74 23, 27
Discussions 70 25
Errors in 93 39
Explanations 66 23
Films and film strips 78-80 32
Group performances 75 29
Lantern slides. 84 35
Lectures ^ 72 25
Lesson analysis 90 38
Lesson plan and rehearsal 88,91,92 88,39
Maps for , 83 34
Mechanism of 64 22
Methods 71 25
Outdoor 86 36
Tests and examinations 69 24
Variety in 39 13
Instructors:
Advice to 94 4Q
Preparation by 65 23
Qualifications for selection of 62 21
Training of 47, 63 16, 22
Lantern slides, use 84 35
74
INDEX
Paragraphs Pages
Leadership, training in 48 17
Lectures 72 25
Lessons:
Analysis 90 38
Basis for 89 38
Planning 88, 91 38, 39
Rehearsal 92 39
Local conditions, effect on training 21 6
Map exercises 110
Map maneuvers 112
Maps, use in instruction 83
Means and scope of training 31-43
Mechanism of instruction 64
Methods of instruction 71
Military education 32
Mission of training problem 16
Missions, training, of components of Army of
United States App. I
Mobilization training 10
Mobilization training program for infantry at unit
training centers App. Ill
Moral training 41
S3,
52
34
11
22
25
11
5
63
3
68
14
New units, training 56 19
Noncommissioned officers, training 49 17
Obstacles to training 24 7
Object of individual training 44 15
Offensive spirit training 4 1
Officer training 50 17
One army, training as 3 1
Organization for training 23 7
Outdoor instruction 86 36
Personnel available as instructors 20
Physical training - 38
Plans :
Lesson 91
Training 14,25
Practice :
In tactical leadership 60
In training 35
Programs, training:
Company 26, 122-130
Form for App. II
Mobilization App. Ill
Progressive training in field exercises 59
Public speaking:
Aids to delivery 103
Enthusiasm 99
Fundamental qualities 95, 96
Genuineness and earnestness 101
Physical vitality 98
Poise and control 100
Sense of communication 97
Purpose of military training 2
6
13
39
4,8
20
12
9,57
65
68
20
43
43
41
43
42
43
42
1
75
INDEX
Paragraphs Pages
Qualities :
Developed in individual and unit 5 2
Public speaking 96 41
Realism in field exercises 115 53
Recruit training 45 15
Refresher training:
Individuals 46 16
Units 57 20
Rehearsal of lesson plan 92 39
Responsibility, training management 12 4
Sand table exercises 109 51
Specialists, training 47 16
Staff training 51 18
Teamwork 54
Tests 69
Training :
Films and film strips 78-80
Fundamentals 43
Individuals:
In leadership 48
Instructors 47
Noncommissioned officers 49
Object 44
Officers 50
Recruits 45
Refresher courses , 46
Staff 51
Without troops 52
Management :
Consideration of existing state of training. 22
Definition 11
Direction 13
Distribution of duties 28
Equipment and facilities available, use 19
Essential subjects 17
Estimate of situation 15
Local conditions 21
Mission 16, App. I
Obstacles 24
Organization 23
Personnel available for instructors 2
Plan 14,25
Programs 26
Responsibility 12
Schedules 27
Supervision 30
Time availability 18
Means :
Drill 34
Military education 32
Physical training and athletics 38
Practice 35
Recreation 40
Tactical exercises 36
Troop schools 37
19
24
32
14
17
16
17
15
17
15
16
18
18
7
3
4
10
6
5
4
6
5,63
7
7
6
4,8
9
4
10
10
6
12
11
13
12
14
12
12
76
INDEX
Paragraphs Pages
Missions :
Components of Army of United States App. I 63
Importance 16 5
Moral 41 14
Programs:
Company :
Allocation of instruction time to spe-
cific subjects 125, 129 58, 60
Continuity 126 59
Definitions and description 122 57
Losses of time, consideration In 124 57
Management 26 9
Open time 130 61
Preparation , 123 57
Progression 127 60
Variety in 128 60
Form for App. II 65
Mobilization, for infantry at unit training
centers App. Ill 68
Schedules:
Company:
Definition and description 131 62
Preparation 132 62
Unit, form for App. IV 71
Tactical :
Elements of an applicatory exercise 107 50
Exercises 36 12
Individual, without troops 52 18
Proficiency 55 19
Bides or walks 111 52
Unit:
Combined 58 20
Means 33 12
New organizations 56 19
Practice in tactical leadership 60 20
Progressive, in field exercises 59 20
Refresher 57 20
Tactical proficiency in 55 19
Teamwork 54 19
Variety of instruction in 39 13
Troop schools 37 12
Unit training program, form for App. II 65
Unit training schedule, form for App, IV 71
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