Document text
FM 3-97.6 (90-6)
MOUNTAIN
OPERATIONS
NOVEMBER 2000
HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OE THE ARMY
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
Field Manual
No. 3-97.6
Headquarters
Department of the Army
Washington, DC, 28 November 2000
Mountain Operations
Contents
Page
PREFACE V
iNTRODUCTiON vi
Chapter 1 iNTELLiGENCE 1 -1
Section i - The Physicai Environment 1-1
Terrain 1-2
Weather 1-5
Section ii - Effects on Personnei 1-9
Nutrition 1-10
Aititude 1-11
Coid 1-14
Section iii - Effects on Equipment 1-15
Generai Effects 1-15
Smaii Arms 1-16
Machine Guns 1-16
Antitank Weapons 1-17
Section iV - Reconnaissance and Surveiiiance 1-17
Reconnaissance 1-17
Surveiiiance 1-20
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.
*This publication supersedes FM 90-6, 30 June 1980.
FM 3-97.6
Chapter 2 COMMAND AND CONTROL 2-1
Section I - Assessment of the Situation 2-3
Mission 2-4
Enemy 2-5
Terrain and Weather 2-5
Troops and Support Avaiiabie 2-8
Time Avaiiabie 2-9
Civii Considerations 2-9
Section ii - Leadership 2-1 0
Section iii - Communications 2-1 1
Combat Net Radio 2-1 1
Mobiie Subscriber Equipment 2-13
Wire and Fieid Phones 2-1 3
Audio, Visuai, and Physicai Signais 2-14
Messenger 2-14
Section iV - Training 2-15
Initiai T raining Assessment 2-1 6
Physicai Conditioning 2-1 6
Mountain Living 2-17
Navigation 2-18
Weapons and Equipment 2-18
Camoufiage and Conceaiment 2-18
Fortifications 2-19
Miiitary Mountaineering 2-19
Driver Training 2-22
Army Aviation 2-23
Reconnaissance and Surveiiiance 2-23
Team Deveiopment 2-23
Chapter 3 FIREPOWER AND PROTECTION OF THE FORCE 3-1
Section I - Firepower 3-1
Fieid Artiiiery 3-1
Mortars 3-5
Air Support 3-6
Eiectronic Warfare 3-7
Section II - Protection of the Force 3-7
Air Defense Artiiiery 3-7
II
Mountain Operations
Engineer Operations 3-9
NBC Protection 3-10
Chapter 4 MANEUVER 4-1
Section I - Movement and Mobility 4-2
Mounted Movement 4-3
Dismounted Movement 4-7
Mobiiity 4-8
Speciai Purpose Teams 4-10
Section II - Offensive Operations 4-1 6
Pianning Considerations 4-16
Preparation 4-17
Forms of Maneuver 4-18
Movement to Contact 4-1 9
Attack 4-20
Expioitation and Pursuit 4-22
Motti Tactics 4-23
Section III - Defensive Operations 4-25
Pianning Considerations 4-25
Preparation 4-26
Organization of the Defense 4-27
Reverse Siope Defense 4-29
Retrograde Operations 4-30
Stay-Behind Operations 4-31
Chapter 5 LOGISTICS AND COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT 5-1
Section I - Planning Considerations 5-3
Section II - Supply 5-5
Suppiy Routes 5-6
Ciasses of Suppiy 5-7
Section III - Transportation and Maintenance 5-9
Section IV - Personnel Support 5-10
Section V - Combat Health Support 5-1 1
Pianning 5-1 1
Evacuation 5-12
Mountain Evacuation Teams 5-12
Treatment 5-13
Mi
FM 3-97.6
Appendix A
Appendix B
MOUNTAiN iLLNESSES AND iNJURiES A-1
Chronic Fatigue (Energy Depietion) A-1
Dehydration A-2
Giardiasis (Parasiticai iiiness) A-2
Fiypoxia A-3
Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) A-3
Fiigh Aititude Puimonary Edema (HAPE) A-4
Fiigh Aititude Cerebrai Edema (FiACE) A-4
FORECASTiNG WEATHER iN THE MOUNTAiNS B-1
indicators of Changing Weather B-1
Appiying the indicators B-4
GLOSSARY Giossary-1
BiBLiOGRAPHY Bibiiography-1
iNDEX index-1
IV
Preface
FM 3-97.6 describes the tactics, techniques, and procedures that the United States (US) Army
uses to fight in mountainous regions. It is directly linked to doctrinal principles found in FM 3-0
and FM 3-100.40 and should be used in conjunction with them. It provides key information and
considerations for commanders and staffs regarding how mountains affect personnel, equipment,
and operations. It also assists them in planning, preparing, and executing operations, battles,
and engagements in a mountainous environment.
Army units do not routinely train for operations in a mountainous environment. Therefore,
commanders and trainers at all levels should use this manual in conjunction with TC 90-6-1,
Army Training and Evaluation Program (ARTEP) mission training plans, and the training
principles in FM 7-0 and FM 7-10 when preparing to conduct operations in mountainous terrain.
The proponent of this publication is Headquarters TRADOC. Send comments and
recommendations on DA Form 2028 directly to Commander, US Army Combined Arms Center
and Fort Leavenworth, ATTN: ATZL-SWW, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 66027-6900.
Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively
to men.
V
Introduction
The US Army has a global area of responsibility and deploys to accomplish missions in both
violent and nonviolent environments. The contemporary strategic environment and the scope of
US commitment dictate that the US Army be prepared for a wide range of contingencies
anywhere in the world, from the deserts of southwest Asia and the jungles of South America and
southeast Asia to the Korean Peninsula and central and northern Europe. The multiplicity of
possible missions makes the likelihood of US involvement in mountain operations extremely
high. With approximately 38 percent of the world's landmass classified as mountains, the Army
must be prepared to deter conflict, resist coercion, and defeat aggression in mountains as in other
areas.
Throughout the course of history, armies have been significantly affected by the requirement to
fight in mountains. During the 1982 Falkland Islands (Malvinas) War, the first British soldier to
set foot on enemy-held territory on the island of South Georgia did so on a glacier. A 3,000-meter
(10,000-foot) peak crowns the island, and great glaciers descend from the mountain spine. In
southwest Asia, the borders of Iraq, Iran, and Turkey come together in mountainous terrain with
elevations of up to 3,000 meters (10,000 feet).
Mountainous terrain influenced the outcome of many battles during the Iran-Iraq war of the
1980s. In the mountains of Kurdistan, small Kurdish formations took advantage of the terrain in
an attempt to survive the Iraqi Army’s attempt to eliminate them. In the wake of the successful
United Nations (UN) coalition effort against Iraq, US forces provided humanitarian assistance to
Kurdish people suffering from the effects of the harsh mountain climate.
Major mountain ranges, which are found in desert regions, jungles, and cold climate zones,
present many challenges to military operations. Mountain operations may require special
equipment, special training, and acclimatization. Historically, the focus of mountain operations
has been to control the heights or passes. Changes in weaponry, equipment, and technology have
not significantly shifted this focus. Commanders should understand a broad range of different
requirements imposed by mountain terrain, including two key characteristics addressed in this
manual: (1) the significant impact of severe environmental conditions on the capabilities of units
and their equipment, and (2) the extreme difficulty of ground mobility in mountainous terrain.
Chapter 1
Intelligence
Before they can understand how to fight in mountainous environment,
commanders must analyze the area of operations (AO), understand its
distinct characteristics, and understand how these characteristics affect
personnel and equipment. This chapter provides detailed information on
terrain and weather necessary to conduct a thorough intelligence prepa-
ration of the battlefield (IPB), however, the IPB process remains unaf-
fected hy mountains (see FM 2-01.3 for detailed information on how to
conduct IPB).
SECTION I - THE PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT
1-1. The requirement to
conduct military opera-
tions in mountainous
regions presents com-
manders with chal-
lenges distinct from
those encountered in
less rugged environ-
ments and demands in-
creased perseverance,
strength, will, and
courage. Terrain char-
acterized by steep
slopes, great variations
in local relief, natural
obstacles, and lack of
CONTENTS
Section I - The Physical Environment 1-1
Terrain 1-2
Weather 1-5
Section II - Effects on Personnel 1-9
Nutrition 1-10
Altitude 1-11
Cold 1-14
Section III - Effects on Equipment 1-15
General Effects 1-15
Small Arms 1-16
Machine Guns 1-16
Antitank Weapons 1-17
Section IV - Reconnaissance and
Surveillance 1-17
Reconnaissance 1-17
Surveillance 1-20
1-1
FM 3-97.6
accessible routes restricts mobility, drastically increases movement times,
limits the effectiveness of some weapons, and complicates supply operations.
The weather, variable with the season and time of day, combined with the
terrain, can greatly affect mobility and tactical operations. Even under non-
violent conditions, operations in a mountainous environment may pose sig-
nificant risks and dangers.
TERRAIN
1-2. Mountains may rise abruptly from the plains to form a giant barrier or
ascend gradually as a series of parallel ridges extending unbroken for great
distances. They may consist of varying combinations of isolated peaks,
rounded crests, eroded ridges, high plains cut by valleys, gorges, and deep ra-
vines. Some mountains, such as those found in desert regions, are dry and
barren, with temperatures ranging from extreme heat in the summer to ex-
treme cold in the winter. In tropical regions, lush jungles with heavy seasonal
rains and little temperature variation frequently cover mountains. High,
rocky crags with glaciated peaks and year-round snow cover exist in moun-
tain ranges at most latitudes along the western portion of the Americas and
in Asia. No matter what form mountains take, their common denominator is
rugged terrain.
MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS
1-3. The principal mountain ranges of the world lie along the broad belts
shown in Figure 1-1. Called cordillera, after the Spanish word for rope, they
encircle the Pacific basin and then lead westward across Eurasia into North
Africa. Secondary, though less rugged, chains of mountains lie along the At-
lantic margins of America and Europe.
Figure 1-1. Mountain Regions of the World
1-2
Chapter 1
1-4. A broad mountainous region approximately 1,600 kilometers wide domi-
nates northwestern North America. It occupies much of Alaska, more than a
quarter of Canada and the US, and all but a small portion of Mexico and Cen-
tral America. The Rocky Mountain Range includes extensive high plains and
basins. Numerous peaks in this belt rise above 3,000 meters (10,000 feet). Its
climate varies from arctic cold to tropical heat, with the full range of seasonal
and local extremes.
1-5. Farther south, the Andes stretch as a continuous narrow band along the
western region of South America. Narrower than its counterpart in the north,
this range is less than 800 kilometers wide. However, it continuously exceeds
an elevation of 3,000 meters (10,000 feet) for a distance of 3,200 kilometers.
1-6. In its western extreme, the Eurasian mountain belt includes the Pyren-
ees, Alps, Balkans, and Carpathian ranges of Europe. These loosely linked
systems are separated by broad low basins and are cut by numerous valleys.
The Atlas Mountains of North Africa are also a part of this belt. Moving
eastward into Asia, this system becomes more complex as it reaches the ex-
treme heights of the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas. Just beyond the Pamir
Knot on the Russian-Afghan frontier, it begins to fan out across all parts of
eastern Asia. Branches of this belt continue south along the rugged island
chains to New Zealand and northeast through the Bering Sea to Alaska.
MOUNTAIN CHARACTERISTICS
1-7. Mountain slopes generally vary between 15 and 45 degrees. Cliffs and
other rocky precipices may be near vertical, or even overhanging. Aside from
obvious rock formations and other local vegetation characteristics, actual
slope surfaces are usually found as some type of relatively firm earth or
grass. Grassy slopes may include grassy clumps known as tussocks, short al-
pine grasses, or tundra (the latter more common at higher elevations and
latitudes). Many slopes will be scattered with rocky debris deposited from the
higher peaks and ridges. Extensive rock or boulder fields are known as talus.
Slopes covered with smaller rocks, usually fist-sized or smaller, are called
scree fields. Slopes covered in talus often prove to be a relatively easy ascent
route. On the other hand, climbing a scree slope can be extremely difficult, as
the small rocks tend to loosen easily and give way. However, this characteris-
tic often makes scree fields excellent descent routes. Before attempting to de-
scend scree slopes, commanders should carefully analyze the potential for
creating dangerous rockfall and take necessary avoidance measures.
1-8. In winter, and at higher elevations throughout the year, snow may blan-
ket slopes, creating an environment with its own distinct affects. Some snow
conditions can aid travel by covering rough terrain with a consistent surface.
Deep snow, however, greatly impedes movement and requires soldiers well-
trained in using snowshoes, skis, and over-snow vehicles. Steep snow covered
terrain presents the risk of snow avalanches as well. Snow can pose a serious
threat to soldiers not properly trained and equipped for movement under
such conditions. Avalanches have taken the lives of more soldiers engaged in
mountain warfare than all other terrain hazards combined.
1-9. Commanders operating in arctic and subarctic mountain regions, as well
as the upper elevations of the world’s high mountains, may be confronted
1-3
FM 3-97.6
with vast areas of glaciation. Valleys in these areas are frequently buried un-
der massive glaciers and present additional hazards, such as hidden crevices
and ice and snow avalanches. The mountain slopes of these peaks are often
glaciated and their surfaces are generally composed of varying combinations
of rock, snow, and ice. Although glaciers have their own peculiar hazards re-
quiring special training and equipment, movement over valley glaciers is of-
ten the safest route through these areas (TC 90-6-1 contains more informa-
tion on avalanches and glaciers, and their effects on operations).
MOUNTAIN CLASSIFICATIONS
1-10. There is no simple system available to classify mountain environments.
Soil composition, surface configuration, elevation, latitude, and climatic pat-
terns determine the specific characteristics of each major mountain range.
When alerted to the potential requirement to conduct mountain operations,
commanders must carefully analyze each of these characteristics for the spe-
cific mountain region in which their forces will operate. However, mountains
are generally classified or described according to their local relief; for military
purposes, they may be classified according to operational terrain levels and
dismounted mobility and skill requirements.
Local Relief
1-11. Mountains are commonly classified as low or high, depending on their
local relief and, to some extent, elevation. Low mountains have a local relief
of 300 to 900 meters (1,000 to 3,000 feet) with summits usually below the
timberline. High mountains have a local relief usually exceeding 900 meters
(3,000 feet) and are characterized by barren alpine zones above the timber-
line. Glaciers and perennial snow cover are common in high mountains and
usually present commanders with more obstacles and hazards to movement
than do low mountains.
Operational Terrain Levels
1-12. Mountain operations are
generally carried out at three
different operational terrain
levels (see Figure 1-2). Level I
terrain is located at the bottom
of valleys and along the main
lines of communications. At
this level, heavy forces can
operate, but maneuver space is
often restricted. Light and
heavy forces are normally combined, since vital lines of communication usu-
ally follow the valley highways, roads, and trails.
1-13. Level II terrain lies between valleys and shoulders of mountains. Gen-
erally, narrow roads and trails, which serve as secondary lines of communica-
tion, cross this ridge system. Ground mobility is difficult and light forces will
expend great effort on these ridges, since they can easily influence operations
at Level I. Similarly, enemy positions at the next level can threaten opera-
tions on these ridges.
I
The bottoms of valleys and main
lines of communications
II
The ridges, slopes, and passes that
overlook valleys
III
The dominant terrain of the summit
region
Figure 1-2. Operational Terrain Levels
1-4
Chapter 1
1-14. Level III includes the dominant terrain of summit regions. Although
summit regions may contain relatively gentle terrain, mobility in Level III is
usually the most difficult to achieve and maintain. Level III terrain, however,
can provide opportunities for well-trained units to attack the enemy from the
flanks and rear. At this terrain level, acclimatized soldiers with advanced
mountaineering training can infiltrate to attack lines of communication, lo-
gistics bases, air defense sites, and command infrastructures.
Dismounted Mobility Classification
1-15. When conducting mountain operations, commanders must clearly un-
derstand the effect the operational terrain level has on dismounted move-
ment. Therefore, in addition to the general mobility classification contained
in FM 2-01.3 (unrestricted, restricted, severely restricted), mountainous ter-
rain may be categorized into five classes based on the type of individual
movement skill required (see Figure 1-3). Operations conducted in class 1 and
2 terrain require little to no mountaineering skills. Operations in class 3, 4,
and 5 terrain require a higher level of mountaineering skills for safe and effi-
cient movement. Commanders should plan and prepare for mountain opera-
tions based, in large part, on this type of terrain analysis.
1
Gentler slopes/
trails
Walking techniques
Unskilled
(with some assistance)
and
Basic Mountaineers
2
Steeper/rugged
terrain
Some use of hands
3
Easy climbing
Fixed ropes where
exposed
Basic Mountaineers
(with assistance from assault
climbers)
4
Steep/exposed
climbing
Fixed ropes required
5
Near vertical
Technical climbing
required
Assault Climbers
* See Chapter 2 for a discussion of mountaineering skill levels
Figure 1-3. Dismounted Mobiiity Ciassification
WEATHER
1-16. In general, mountain climates tend to be cooler, wetter versions of the
climates of the surrounding lowlands. Most mountainous regions exhibit at
least two different climatic zones - a zone at low elevations and another at
elevations nearer the summit regions. In some areas, an almost endless vari-
ety of local climates may exist within a given mountainous region. Conditions
change markedly with elevation, latitude, and exposure to atmospheric winds
and air masses. In addition, the climatic patterns of two ranges located at the
same latitude may differ radically.
1-17. Like most other landforms, oceans influence mountain climates. Moun-
tain ranges in close proximity to oceans and other large bodies of water usu-
ally exhibit a maritime climate. Maritime climates generally produce milder
temperatures and much larger amounts of rain and snow. Their relatively
mild winters produce heavy snowfalls, while their summer temperatures
1-5
FM 3-97.6
rarely get excessively hot. Mountains farther inland usually display a more
continental climate. Winters in this type climate are often bitterly cold, while
summers can be extremely hot. Annual rain- and snowfall here is far less
than in a maritime climate and may be quite scarce for long periods. Rela-
tively shallow snow-packs are normal during a continental climate’s winter
season.
1-18. Major mountain ranges force air masses and storm systems to drop sig-
nificant amounts of rain and snow on the windward side of the range. As air
masses pass over mountains, the leeward slopes receive far less precipitation
than the windward slopes. It is not uncommon for the climate on the wind-
ward side of a mountain range to be humid and the climate on the leeward
side arid. This phenomenon affects coastal mountains, as well as mountains
farther inland. The deepest winter snow-packs will almost always be found on
the windward side of mountain ranges. As a result, vegetation and forest
characteristics may be markedly different between these two areas. Prevail-
ing winds and storm patterns normally determine the severity of these ef-
fects.
1-19. Mountain weather can be erratic, varying from strong winds to calm,
and from extreme cold to relative warmth within a short time or a minor shift
in locality. The severity and variance of the weather require soldiers to be
prepared for alternating periods of heat and cold, as well as conditions rang-
ing from dry to extremely wet. At higher elevations, noticeable temperature
differences may exist between sunny and shady areas or between areas ex-
posed to wind and those protected from it. This greatly increases every sol-
dier’s clothing load and a unit’s overall logistical requirements. Figure 1-4
summarizes the effects of mountain weather discussed below. FM 2-33.201
and FM 3-97.22 contain additional information on how weather affects opera-
tions.
TEMPERATURE
1-20. Normally, soldiers encounter a temperature drop of three to five de-
grees Fahrenheit per 300-meter (1,000-foot) gain in elevation. In an atmos-
phere containing considerable water vapor, the temperature drops about one
degree Fahrenheit for every 100-meter (300-foot) increase. In very dry air, it
drops about one degree Fahrenheit for every 50 meters (150 feet). However,
on cold, clear, and calm mornings, when a troop movement or climb begins
from a valley, soldiers may encounter higher temperatures as they gain ele-
vation. This reversal of the normal situation is called temperature inversion.
Additionally, during winter months, the temperature is often higher during a
storm than during periods of clear weather. However, the dampness of pre-
cipitation and penetration of the wind may still cause soldiers to chill faster.
This is compounded by the fact that the cover afforded by vegetation often
does not exist above the tree-line. Under these conditions, commanders must
weigh the tactical advantage of retaining positions on high ground against
seeking shelter and warmth at lower elevations with reduced visibility.
1-21. At high elevations, there may be differences of 40 to 50 degrees Fahr-
enheit between the temperature in the sun and that in the shade. This is
similar in magnitude to the day-to-night temperature fluctuations experi-
enced in some deserts (see FM 3-97.3). Besides permitting rapid heating, the
1-6
Chapter 1
clear air at high altitudes also results in rapid cooling at night. Consequently,
temperatures rise swiftly after sunrise and drop quickly after sunset. Much of
the chilled air drains downward so that the differences between day and
night temperatures are greater in valleys than on slopes.
Weather Condition | Flat to Moderate Terrain Effects
Added Mountain Effects
Sunshine
• Sunburn
• Snow biindness
• Temperature differences between
sun and shade
• Increased risk of sunburn and
snow biindness
• Severe, unexpected tempera-
ture variations between sun and
shade
• Avaianches
Wind
• Windchiil
• Increased risk and severity of
windchili
• Biowing debris or driven snow
causing reduced visibiiity
• Avaianches
Rain
• Reduced visibiiity
• Cooier temperatures
• Landsiides
• Fiash fioods
• Avaianches
Snow
• Coid weather injuries
• Reduced mobiiity and visibiiity
• Snow biindness
• Biowing snow
• Increased risk and severity of
common effects
• Avaianches
Storms
• Rain/snow
• Reduced visibiiity
• Lightning
• Extended duration and intensity
greatiy affecting visibiiity and
mobiiity
• Extremeiy high winds
• Avaianches
Fog
• Reduced mobiiity/visibility
• Increased frequency and dura-
tion
Cioudiness
• Reduced visibiiity
• Greatiy decreased visibility at
higher eievations
Figure 1-4. Comparison of Weather Effects
WIND
1-22. In high mountains, the ridges and passes are seldom calm. By contrast,
strong winds in protected valleys are rare. Normally, wind velocity increases
with altitude and is intensified by mountainous terrain. Valley breezes mov-
ing up-slope are more common in the morning, while descending mountain
breezes are more common in the evening. Wind speed increases when winds
are forced over ridges and peaks (orographic lifting), or when they funnel
through narrowing mountain valleys, passes, and canyons (Venturi effect).
Wind may blow with great force on an exposed mountainside or summit. As
wind speed doubles, its force on an object nearly quadruples.
1-23. Mountain winds cause rapid temperature changes and may result in
blowing snow, sand, or debris that can impair movement and observation.
Commanders should routinely consider the combined cooling effect of ambi-
ent temperature and wind (windchill) experienced by their soldiers (see Fig-
ure 1-5 on page 1-8). At higher elevations, air is considerably dryer than air
at sea level. Due to this increased dryness, soldiers must increase their fluid
1-7
FM 3-97.6
intake by approximately one-third. However, equipment will not rust as
quickly, and organic matter will decompose more slowly.
WIND SPEED
COOLING POWER OF WIND EXPRESSED AS “EQUIVALENT CHILL TEMPERATURE ”
KNOTS
MPH
TEMPERATURE (° F)
CALM
CALM
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
-0
-5
-10
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
-55
-60
EQUIVALENT CHILL TEMPERATURE
3-6
5
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
-55
-60
-70
7-10
10
30
20
15
10
5
0
-10
-15
-20
-25
-35
-40
-45
-50
-60
-65
-70
-75
-80
-90
-95
11-15
15
25
15
10
0
-5
-10
-20
-25
-30
-40
-45
-50
-60
-65
-70
-80
-85
-90
-100
-105
-110
16-19
20
20
10
5
0
-10
-15
-25
-30
-35
-45
-50
-60
-65
-75
-80
-85
-95
-100
-110
-115
-120
20-23
25
15
10
0
-5
-15
-20
-30
-35
-45
-50
-60
-65
-75
-80
-90
-95
-105
-110
-120
-125
-135
24-28
30
10
5
0
-10
-20
-25
-30
-40
-50
-55
-65
-70
-80
-85
-95
-100
-110
-115
-125
-130
-140
29-32
35
10
5
-5
-10
-20
-30
-35
-40
-50
-60
-65
-75
-80
-90
-100
-105
-115
-120
-130
-135
-145
33-36
40
10
0
-5
-15
-20
-30
-35
-45
-55
-60
-70
-75
-85
-95
-100
-110
-115
-125
-130
-140
-150
WINDS ABOVE
40 HAVE
LITTLE
ADDITIONAL
EFFECT
LITTLE DANGER
INCREASING DANGER
(Flesh may freeze within 1 minute)
GREAT DANGER
(Flesh may freeze within 30 secs)
Figure 1-5. Windchill Chart
PRECIPITATION
1-24. The rapid rise of air masses over mountains creates distinct local
weather patterns. Precipitation in mountains increases with elevation and
occurs more often on the windward than on the leeward side of ranges.
Maximum cloudiness and precipitation generally occur near 1,800 meters
(6,000 feet) elevation in the middle latitudes and at lower levels in the higher
latitudes. Usually, a heavily wooded belt marks the zone of maximum precipi-
tation.
Rain and Snow
1-25. Both rain and snow are common in mountainous regions. Rain presents
the same challenges as at lower elevations, but snow has a more significant
influence on all operations. Depending on the specific region, snow may occur
at anytime during the year at elevations above 1,500 meters (5,000 feet).
Heavy snowfall greatly increases avalanche hazards and can force changes to
previously selected movement routes. In certain regions, the intensity of
snowfall may delay major operations for several months. Dry, fiat riverbeds
may initially seem to be excellent locations for assembly areas and support
activities, however, heavy rains and rapidly thawing snow and ice may create
flash floods many miles downstream from the actual location of the rain or
snow.
1-8
Chapter 1
Thunderstorms
1-26. Although thunderstorms are local and usually last only a short time,
they can impede mountain operations. Interior ranges with continental cli-
mates are more conducive to thunderstorms than coastal ranges with mari-
time climates. In alpine zones, driving snow and sudden wind squalls often
accompany thunderstorms. Ridges and peaks become focal points for light-
ning strikes, and the occurrence of lightning is greater in the summer than
the winter. Although statistics do not show lightning to be a major mountain-
eering hazard, it should not be ignored and soldiers should take normal pre-
cautions, such as avoiding summits and ridges, water, and contact with metal
objects.
Traveling Storms
1-27. Storms resulting from widespread atmospheric disturbances involve
strong winds and heavy precipitation and are the most severe weather condi-
tion that occurs in the mountains. If soldiers encounter a traveling storm in
alpine zones during winter, they should expect low temperatures, high winds,
and blinding snow. These conditions may last several days longer than in the
lowlands. Specific conditions vary depending on the path of the storm. How-
ever, when colder weather moves in, clearing at high elevations is usually
slow.
Fog
1-28. The effects of fog in mountains are much the same as in other terrain.
However, because of the topography, fog occurs more frequently in the moun-
tains. The high incidence of fog makes it a significant planning consideration
as it restricts visibility and observation complicating reconnaissance and sur-
veillance. However, fog may help facilitate covert operations such as infiltra-
tion. Routes in areas with a high occurrence of fog may need to be marked
and charted to facilitate passage.
SECTION II - EFFECTS ON PERSONNEL
1-29. The mountain environment is complex and unforgiving of errors. Sol-
diers conducting operations anywhere, even under the best conditions, be-
come cold, thirsty, tired, and energy-depleted. In the mountains however,
they may become paralyzed by cold and thirst and incapacitated due to utter
exhaustion. Conditions such as high elevations, rough terrain, and extremely
unpredictable weather require leaders and soldiers who have a keen under-
standing of environmental threats and what to do about them.
1-30. A variety of individual soldier characteristics and environmental condi-
tions influence the type, prevalence, and severity of mountain illnesses and
injuries (see Figure 1-6 on page 1-10). Due to combinations of these charac-
teristics and conditions, soldiers often succumb to more than one illness or
injury at a time, increasing the danger to life and limb. Three of the most
common, cumulative, and subtle factors affecting soldier ability under these
variable conditions are nutrition (to include water intake), decreased oxygen
due to high altitude, and cold. Preventive measures, early recognition, and
1-9
FM 3-97.6
rapid treatment help
minimize nonbattle
casualties due to these
conditions (see Appen-
dix A for detailed in-
formation on moun-
tain-specific illnesses
and injuries).
NUTRITION
1-31. Poor nutrition
contributes to illness
or injury, decreased
performance, poor mo-
rale, and susceptibility
to cold injuries, and
can severely affect
military operations.
Influences at high alti-
tudes that can affect nutrition include a dulled taste sensation (making food
undesirable), nausea, and lack of energy or motivation to prepare or eat
meals.
1-32. Caloric requirements increase in the mountains due to both the altitude
and the cold. A diet high in fat and carbohydrates is important in helping the
body fight the effects of these conditions. Fats provide long-term, slow caloric
release, but are often unpalatable to soldiers operating at higher altitudes.
Snacking on high-carbohydrate foods is often the best way to maintain the
calories necessary to function.
1-33. Products that can seriously impact soldier performance in mountain
operations include:
• Tobacco. Tobacco smoke interferes with oxygen delivery by reducing
the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity. Tobacco smoke in close, confined
spaces increases the amounts of carbon monoxide. The irritant effect of
tobacco smoke may produce a narrowing of airways, interfering with
optimal air movement. Smoking can effectively raise the “physiological
altitude” as much as several hundred meters.
• Alcohol. Alcohol impairs judgement and perception, depresses respira-
tion, causes dehydration, and increases susceptibility to cold injury.
• Caffeine. Caffeine may improve physical and mental performance, but
it also causes increased urination (leading to dehydration) and, there-
fore, should be consumed in moderation.
1-34. Significant body water is lost at higher elevations from rapid breathing,
perspiration, and urination. Depending upon level of exertion, each soldier
should consume about four to eight quarts of water or other decaffeinated
fluids per day in low mountains and may need ten quarts or more per day in
high mountains. Thirst is not a good indicator of the amount of water lost.
Figure 1-6. Environmental and Soldier Conditions
Influencing Mountain Injuries and Illnesses
1-10
Chapter 1
and in cold climates sweat, normally an indicator of loss of fluid, goes unno-
ticed. Sweat evaporates so rapidly or is absorbed so thoroughly by clothing
layers that it is not readily apparent. When soldiers become thirsty, they
are already dehydrated. Loss of body water also plays a major role in
causing altitude sickness and cold injury. Forced drinking in the absence of
thirst, monitoring the deepness of the yellow hue in the urine, and watching
for behavioral symptoms common to altitude sickness are important factors
for commanders to consider in assessing the water balance of soldiers oper-
ating in the mountains.
1-35. In the mountains, as elsewhere, refilling each soldier's water containers
as often as possible is mandatory. No matter how pure and clean mountain
water may appear, water from natural sources should always be purified or
chemically sterilized to prevent parasitical illnesses (giardiasis). Command-
ers should consider requiring the increased use of individual packages of
powdered drink mixes, fruit, and juices to help encourage the required fluid
intake.
ALTITUDE
1-36. As soldiers ascend in altitude, the proportion of oxygen in the air de-
creases. Without proper acclimatization, this decrease in oxygen saturation
can cause altitude sickness and reduced physical and mental performance
(see Figure 1-7). Soldiers cannot maintain the same physical performance at
high altitude that they can at low altitude, regardless of their fitness level.
Low
Sea Levei - 1 ,500
Sea Levei - 5,000
None.
Moderate
1,500-2,400
5,000-8,000
Miid, temporary aititude sick-
ness may occur
High
2,400-4,200
8,000-14,000
Aititude sickness and de-
creased performance is in-
creasingiy common
Very High
4,200-5,400
14,000-18,000
Aititude sickness and de-
creased performance is the
ruie
Extreme
5,400 -Higher
18,000- Higher
With acciimatization, soidiers
can function for short periods
of time
Figure 1-7. Effects of Altitude
1-37. The mental effects most noticeable at high altitudes include decreased
perception, memory, judgement, and attention. Exposure to altitudes of over
3,000 meters (10,000 feet) may also result in changes in senses, mood, and
personality. Within hours of ascent, many soldiers may experience euphoria,
joy, and excitement that are likely to be accompanied by errors in judgement,
leading to mistakes and accidents. After a period of about 6 to 12 hours,
euphoria decreases, often changing to varying degrees of depression. Soldiers
may become irritable or may appear listless. Using the buddy system during
this early exposure helps to identify soldiers who may be more severely af-
fected. High morale and esprit instilled before deployment and reinforced fre-
quently help to minimize the impact of negative mood changes.
1-11
FM 3-97.6
1-38. The physical effect most noticeable at high altitudes includes vision. Vi-
sion is generally the sense most affected by altitude exposure and can poten-
tially affect military operations at higher elevations. Night vision is signifi-
cantly reduced, affecting soldiers at approximately 2,400 meters (8,000 feet)
or higher. Some effects occur early and are temporary, while others may per-
sist after acclimatization or even for a period of time after descent. To com-
pensate for loss of functional abilities, commanders should make use of tac-
tics, techniques, and procedures that trade speed for increased accuracy. By
allowing extra time to accomplish tasks, commanders can minimize errors
and injuries.
HYPOXIA-RELATED ILLNESSES AND EFFECTS
1-39. Hypoxia, a deficiency of oxygen reaching the tissues of the body, has
been the cause of many mountain illnesses, injuries, and deaths. It affects
everyone, but some soldiers are more vulnerable than others. A soldier may
be affected at one time but not at another. Altitude hypoxia is a killer, but it
seldom strikes alone. The combination of improper nutrition, hypoxia, and
cold is much more dangerous than any of them alone. The three most signifi-
cant altitude-related illnesses and their symptoms, which are essentially a
series of illnesses associated with oxygen deprivation, are:
• Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS). Headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue,
irritability, and dizziness.
• High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (RAPE). Coughing, noisy breathing,
wheezing, gurgling in the airway, difficulty breathing, and pink frothy
sputum (saliva). Ultimately coma and death will occur without treat-
ment.
• High Altitude Cerebral Edema (RACE). HACE is the most severe ill-
ness associated with high altitudes. Its symptoms often resemble AMS
(severe headache, nausea, vomiting), often with more dramatic signals
such as a swaying of the upper body, especially when walking, and an
increasingly deteriorating mental status. Early mental symptoms may
include confusion, disorientation, vivid hallucinations, and drowsiness.
Soldiers may appear to be withdrawn or demonstrate behavior gener-
ally associated with fatigue or anxiety. Like HAPE, coma or death will
occur without treatment.
OTHER MOUNTAIN-RELATED ILLNESSES
1-40. Other illnesses and effects related to the mountain environment and
higher elevations are:
• Subacute mountain sickness. Subacute mountain sickness occurs in
some soldiers during prolonged deployments (weeks/months) to eleva-
tions above 3,600 meters (12,000 feet). Symptoms include sleep distur-
bance, loss of appetite, weight loss, and fatigue. This condition reflects
a failure to acclimatize adequately.
• Carbon monoxide poisoning. Carbon monoxide poisoning is caused by
the inefficient fuel combustion resulting from the low oxygen content of
air and higher usage of stoves, combustion heaters, and engines in en-
closed, poorly ventilated spaces.
1-12
Chapter 1
• Sleep disturbances. High altitude has significant harmful effects on
sleep. The most prominent effects are frequent periods of apnea (tem-
porary suspension of respiration) and fragmented sleep. Sleep distur-
bances may last for weeks at elevations less than 5,400 meters (18,000
feet) and may never stop at higher elevations. These effects have even
been reported as low as 1,500 meters (5,000 feet).
• Poor wound healing. Poor wound healing resulting from lowered im-
mune functions may occur at higher elevations. Injuries resulting from
burns, cuts, or other sources may require descent for effective treat-
ment and healing.
ACCLIMATIZATION
1-41. Altitude acclimatization involves physiological changes that permit the
body to adapt to the effects of low oxygen saturation in the air. It allows sol-
diers to achieve the maximum physical work performance possible for the al-
titude to which they are acclimatized. Once acquired, acclimatization is main-
tained as long as the soldier remains at that altitude, but is lost upon re-
turning to lower elevations. Acclimatization to one altitude does not prevent
altitude illnesses from occurring if ascent to higher altitudes is too rapid.
1-42. Getting used to living and working at
higher altitudes requires acclimatization.
Figure 1-8 shows the four factors that affect
acclimatization in mountainous terrain.
These factors are similar to those a scuba
diver must consider, and the consequences of
an error can be just as severe. In particular. Figure 1-8. Factors Affecting
high altitude climbing must be carefully Acciimatization
paced and staged in the same way that divers must pace and stage their as-
cent to the surface.
1-43. For most soldiers at high to very high altitudes, 70 to 80 percent of the
respiratory component of acclimatization occurs in 7 to 10 days, 80 to 90 per-
cent of overall acclimatization is generally accomplished by 21 to 30 days, and
maximum acclimatization may take several months to years. However, some
soldiers may acclimatize more rapidly than others, and a few soldiers may not
acclimatize at all. There is no absolute way to identify soldiers who cannot ac-
climatize, except by their experience during previous altitude exposures.
1-44. Commanders must be aware that highly fit, motivated individuals may
go too high too fast and become victims of AMS, HAPE, or HACE. Slow and
easy climbing, limited activity, and long rest periods are critical to altitude
acclimatization. Leaves that involve soldiers descending to lower altitudes
and then returning should be limited. Acclimatization may be accomplished
by either a staged or graded ascent. A combination of the two is the safest
and most effective method for prevention of high altitude illnesses.
• Staged Ascent. A staged ascent requires soldiers to ascend to a moder-
ate altitude and remain there for 3 days or more to acclimatize before
ascending higher (the longer the duration, the more effective and thor-
ough the acclimatization to that altitude). When possible, soldiers
• Altitude
• Rate of Ascent
• Duration of Stay
• Level of Exertion
1-13
FM 3-97.6
should make several stops for staging during ascent to allow a greater
degree of acclimatization.
• Graded Ascent. A graded ascent limits the daily altitude gain to allow
partial acclimatization. The altitude at which soldiers sleep is the criti-
cal element in this regard. Having soldiers spend two nights at 2,700
meters (9,000 feet) and limiting the sleeping altitude to no more than
300 meters per day (1,000 feet) above the previous night’s sleeping alti-
tude will significantly reduce the incidence of altitude sickness.
1-45. In situations where there is insufficient time for a staged or graded as-
cent, commanders may consider using the drug acetazolamide to help accel-
erate acclimatization; however, commanders must ensure soldiers are accli-
matized before they are committed to combat. When used appropriately, it
will prevent symptoms of AMS in nearly all soldiers and reduce symptoms in
most others. It has also been found to improve sleep quality at high altitudes.
However, commanders should consult physicians trained in high-altitude or
wilderness medicine concerning doses, side effects, and screening of individu-
als who may be allergic. As a non-pharmacological method, high carbohydrate
diets (whole grains, vegetables, peas and beans, potatoes, fruits, honey, and
refined sugar) are effective in aiding acclimatization.
COLD
1-46. After illnesses related to not
being acclimatized, cold injuries, both
freezing and nonfreezing, are gener-
ally the greatest threat. Temperature
and humidity decrease with increas-
ing altitude. Reviewing cold weather
injury prevention, training in shelter
construction, dressing in layers, and
using the buddy system are critical
Frostbite (freezing)
Hypothermia (nonfreezing)
Trench/immersion Foot
(nonfreezing)
Snow Biindness
Figure 1-9. Common Coid
Weather injuries
and may preclude large numbers of debilitating injuries. Figure 1-9 lists the
cold and snow injuries most common to mountain operations. See FM 3-97.11
and FM 4-25.11 for information regarding causes, symptoms, treatment, and
prevention.
1-47. Altitude sickness and cold injuries can occur simultaneously, with signs
and symptoms being confused with each other. Coughing, stumbling indi-
viduals should be immediately evacuated to medical support at lower levels to
determine their medical condition. Likewise, soldiers in extreme pain from
cold injuries who do not respond to normal pain medications, require evacua-
tion. Without constant vigilance, cold injuries may significantly limit the
number of deployable troops and drastically reduce combat power. However,
with command emphasis and proper equipment, clothing, and training, all
cold-weather injuries are preventable.
1-14
Chapter 1
SECTION III - EFFECTS ON EQUIPMENT
1-48. No manual can cover
the effects of terrain and
weather on every weapon
and item of equipment
within the Army inventory.
Although not all-
encompassing, the list at
Figure 1-10 contains factors
that commanders should
take into account when
considering the effect the
mountainous environment
may have on their weapons
and equipment. Of these,
the most important factor is
the combined effects of the
environment on the soldier
and his subsequent ability
to operate and maintain his weapons and equipment. Increasingly sophisti-
cated equipment requires soldiers that are mentally alert and physically ca-
pable. Failure to consider this important factor often results in severe injury,
lowered weapons and equipment performance, and mission failure. The in-
formation provided within this manual, combined with the information found
in weapon-specific field manuals (FMs) and technical manuals (TMs), pro-
vides the information necessary to know how to modify tactics, techniques,
and procedures to win on the mountain battlefield.
GENERAL EFFECTS
1-49. In a mountainous environment, the speed and occurrence of wind gen-
erally increase with elevation, and the effects of wind increase with range
(depending on the speed and direction). Due to these factors, soldiers must be
taught the effects of wind on ballistics and how to compensate for them. In
cold weather, firing weapons often creates ice fog trails. These ice fog trails
obscure vision and, at the same time, allow the enemy to more easily discern
the location of primary positions and the overall structure of a unit’s defense.
This situation increases the importance of alternate and supplementary firing
positions.
1-50. Range estimation in mountainous terrain is difficult. Depending upon
the type of terrain in the mountains, soldiers may either over- or underesti-
mate range. Soldiers observing over smooth terrain, such as sand, water, or
snow, generally underestimate ranges. This results in attempting to engage
targets beyond the maximum effective ranges of their weapon systems.
Looking downhill, targets appear to be farther away and looking uphill, they
appear to be closer. This illusion, combined with the effects of gravity, causes
the soldier shooting downhill to fire high, while it has the opposite effect on
soldiers shooting uphill.
• Operator/Maintenance Personnel
• Line-of-Sight
• Range
• Thermal Contrast
• Ballistics and T rajectory
• Target Detection and Acquisition
• First Round Hit Capability
• Camouflage and Concealment/Noise
• Mobility
• Wear and Maintenance
• Aerodynamics and Lift
• Functioning and Reliability
• Positioning/Site Selection
Figure 1-10. Weapons and Equipment
Factors Affected by the Environment
1-15
FM 3-97.6
1-51. Higher elevations generally afford increased observation but low-
hanging clouds and fog may decrease visibility, and the rugged nature of
mountain terrain may produce significant dead space at mid-ranges. These
effects mean that more observation posts are necessary to cover a given
frontage in mountainous terrain than in non-mountainous terrain. They also
require the routine designation of supplementary firing positions for direct
fire weapons. Rugged terrain also makes ammunition resupply more difficult
and increases the need to enforce strict fire control and discipline. Finally, the
rugged environment creates compartmented areas that may preclude mutual
support and reduce supporting distances.
SMALL ARMS
1-52. In rocky mountainous terrain, the effectiveness of small arms fire in-
creases by the splintering and ricocheting when a bullet strikes a rock. M203
and MK-19 grenade launchers are useful for covering close-in dead space in
mountainous terrain. Hand grenades are also effective. Although it may seem
intuitive, soldiers must still be cautioned against throwing grenades uphill
where they are likely to roll back before detonation. Grenades (as well as
other explosive munitions) lose much of their effectiveness when detonated
under snow, and soldiers should be warned that hand grenades may freeze to
wet gloves.
1-53. As elevation increases, air pressure and air density decrease. At higher
elevations, a round is more efficient and strikes a target higher, due to re-
duced drag. This effect does not significantly influence the marksmanship
performance of most soldiers, however, designated marksmen and snipers
should re-zero their weapons after ascending to higher elevations. (See FM 3-
25.9 and FM 3-23.10 for further information on ballistics and weather effects
on small arms.)
MACHINE GUNS
1-54. Machine guns pro-
vide long-range fire
when visibility is good.
However, grazing fire
can rarely be achieved in
mountains because of
the radical changes in
elevation. When grazing
fire can be obtained, the
ranges are normally
short. More often,
plunging fire is the re-
sult (see Figure 1-11 and
FM 3-21.7). In moun-
tainous terrain, situa-
tions that prevent indi-
rect fire support from
protecting advancing
forces may arise. When
Figure 1-11. Classes of Fire with Respect
to the Ground
1-16
Chapter 1
these occur, the effects of machine-guns and other direct fire weapons must
be concentrated to provide adequate supporting fires for maneuvering ele-
ments. Again, supplementary positions should be routinely prepared to cover
different avenues of approach and dead space.
ANTITANK WEAPONS
1-55. The AT4 is a lightweight antitank weapon ideally suited for the moun-
tainous environment and for direct fire against enemy weapon emplacements.
Anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs), such as the Javelin and the tube-
launched, optically tracked, wire-guided, heavy antitank missile system
(TOW), tend to hinder dismounted operations because of their bulk and
weight. In very restrictive mountainous terrain, the lack of armored avenues
of approach and suitable targets may limit their utility. If an armored or
mechanized threat is present, TOWs are best used in long-range, antiarmor
ambushes, while the shorter-range Javelin, with its fire-and-forget technol-
ogy, is best used from restrictive terrain nearer the kill zone. However, their
guidance systems may operate stiffly and sluggishly in extreme cold weather.
SECTION IV - RECONNAISSANCE AND SURVEILLANCE
RECONNAISSANCE
1-56. During operations in a mountainous environment, reconnaissance is as
applicable to the maneuver of armies and corps as it is to tactical operations.
Limited routes, adverse terrain, and rapidly changing weather significantly
increase the importance of reconnaissance operations to focus fires and ma-
neuver. Failure to conduct effective reconnaissance will result in units being
asked to achieve the impossible or in missed opportunities for decisive action.
1-57. As in all environments, reconnaissance operations in a mountainous
area must be layered and complementary in order to overcome enemy at-
tempts to deny critical information to the friendly commander. In order to
gather critical and timely information required by the commander, the activi-
ties of reconnaissance assets must be closely coordinated. Strategic recon-
naissance platforms set the stage by identifying key terrain, as well as the
general disposition and composition of enemy forces. Operational level com-
manders compare the information provided by strategic assets with their own
requirements and employ reconnaissance assets to fill in the gaps that have
not been answered by strategic systems and achieve the level of detail they
require.
1-58. At the beginning of a campaign in a mountainous environment, recon-
naissance requirements will be answered by aerial or overhead platforms,
such as satellites, joint surveillance, target attack radar systems (JSTARSs),
U2 aircraft, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). In a mountain AO, it may
often be necessary to commit ground reconnaissance assets in support of stra-
tegic and operational information requirements. Conversely, strategic and
operational reconnaissance systems may be employed to identify or confirm
the feasibility of employing ground reconnaissance assets. Special reconnais-
sance (SR) and long-range surveillance (LRS) teams may be inserted to
1-17
FM 3-97.6
gather information that cannot be collected by overhead systems, or to verify
data that has already been collected. In this instance, satellite imagery is
used to analyze a specific area for insertion for the team. The potential hide
positions for the teams are identified using imagery and, terrain and weather
permitting, verified by UAVs. See FM 3-100.55 for detailed information on
combined arms reconnaissance.
1-59. In harsh mountain terrain, ground reconnaissance operations are often
conducted dismounted. Commanders must assess the slower rate of ground
reconnaissance elements to determine its impact on the entire reconnaissance
and collection process. They must develop plans that account for this slower
rate and initiate reconnaissance as early as possible to provide additional
time for movement. Commanders may also need to allocate more forces, in-
cluding combat forces, to conduct reconnaissance, reconnaissance in force
missions, or limited objective attacks to gain needed intelligence. Based upon
mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time
available, civil considerations (METT-TC), commanders may need to priori-
tize collection assets, accept risk, and continue with less information from
their initial reconnaissance efforts. In these cases, they must use formations
and schemes of maneuver that provide maximum security and flexibility, to
include robust security formations, and allow for the development of the
situation once in contact.
1-60. Although reconnaissance patrols should normally use the heights to ob-
serve the enemy, it may be necessary to send small reconnaissance teams into
valleys or along the low ground to gain suitable vantage points or physically
examine routes that will be used by mechanized or motorized forces. In
mountainous environments, reconnaissance elements are often tasked to de-
termine:
• The enemy's primary and alternate lines of communication.
• Locations and directions from which the enemy can attack or counter-
attack.
• Heights that allow the enemy to observe the various sectors of terrain.
• Suitable observation posts for forward observers.
• Portions of the route that provide covert movement.
• Level of mountaineering skill required to negotiate routes (dismounted
mobility classification) and sections of the route that require mountain-
eering installations.
• Suitability of routes for sustained combat service support (CSS) opera-
tions.
• Trails, routes, and bridges that can support or can be improved by en-
gineers in order to move mechanized elements into areas previously
thought to be impassable.
• Bypass routes.
• Potential airborne and air assault drop/pick-up zones and aircraft
landing areas.
1-18
Chapter 1
RECONNAISSANCE IN FORCE
1-61. The compartmented geography and inherent mobility restrictions of
mountainous terrain pose significant risk for reconnaissance in force opera-
tions. Since the terrain normally allows enemy units to defend along a much
broader front with fewer forces, a reconnaissance in force may be conducted
as a series of smaller attacks to determine the enemy situation at selected
points. Commanders should carefully consider mobility restrictions that may
affect plans for withdrawal or exploitation. Commanders should also position
small reconnaissance elements or employ surveillance systems throughout
the threat area of operations to gauge the enemy’s reaction to friendly recon-
naissance in force operations and alert the force to possible enemy counterat-
tacks. In the mountains, the risk of having at least a portion of the force cut
off and isolated is extremely high. Mobile reserves and preplanned fires must
be available to reduce the risk, decrease the vulnerability of the force, and
exploit any success as it develops.
ENGINEER RECONNAISSANCE
1-62. Engineer reconnaissance assumes greater significance in a mountain-
ous environment in order to ensure supporting engineers are properly task
organized with specialized equipment for quickly overcoming natural and
reinforcing obstacles. Engineer reconnaissance teams assess the resources re-
quired for clearing obstacles on precipitous slopes, constructing crossing sites
at fast-moving streams and rivers, improving and repairing roads, erecting
fortifications, and establishing barriers during the conduct of defensive op-
erations. Since the restrictive terrain promotes the widespread employment
of point obstacles, engineer elements should be integrated into all mountain
reconnaissance operations.
1-63. In some regions, maps may be unsuitable for tactical planning due to
inaccuracies, limited detail, and inadequate coverage. In these areas, engi-
neer reconnaissance should precede, but not delay operations. Because rug-
ged mountain terrain makes ground reconnaissance time-consuming and
dangerous, a combination of ground and aerial or overhead platforms should
be used for the engineer reconnaissance effort. Data on the terrain, vegeta-
tion, and soil composition, combined with aerial photographs and multispec-
tral imagery, allows engineer terrain intelligence teams to provide detailed
information that may be unavailable from other sources.
AERIAL AND OVERHEAD RECONNAISSANCE
1-64. During all but the most adverse weather conditions, aerial or overhead
reconnaissance may be the best means to gather information and cover large
areas that are difficult for ground units to traverse or observe. Airborne
standoff intelligence collection devices, such as side-looking radar, provide
excellent terrain and target isolation imagery. Missions must be planned to
ensure that critical areas are not masked by terrain or other environmental
conditions. Additionally, aerial or overhead photographs may compensate for
inadequate maps and provide the level of detail needed to plan operations. In-
frared imagery and camouflage detection film can be used to determine pre-
cise locations of enemy positions, even at night. Furthermore, AH-64 and
1-19
FM 3-97.6
OH-58D helicopters can provide commanders with critical day or night video
reconnaissance, utilizing television or forward-looking infrared.
1-65. Terrain may significantly impact the employment of overhead recon-
naissance platforms using radar systems to detect manmade objects. These
systems may find themselves adversely impacted by the masking effect that
occurs when the mountain terrain blocks the radar beam. Thus, the radar
coverage may not extend across the reverse slope of a steep ridge or a valley
floor. Attempts to reposition the overhead platform to a point where it can
“see” the masked area may merely result in masking occurring elsewhere.
This limitation does not preclude using such systems; however, the com-
mander should employ manned or unmanned aerial reconnaissance when
available, in conjunction with overhead reconnaissance platforms in order to
minimize these occurrences. The subsequent use of ground reconnaissance
assets to verify the data that can be gathered by overhead and electro-optical
platforms will ensure that commanders do not fall prey to deliberate enemy
deception efforts that capitalize on the limited capabilities of some types of
overhead platforms in this environment.
SURVEILLANCE
1-66. In the mountains, surveillance of vulnerable flanks and gaps between
units is accomplished primarily through well-positioned observation posts
(OPs). These OPs are normally inserted by helicopter and manned by small
elements equipped with sensors, enhanced electro-optical devices, and appro-
priate communications. Commanders must develop adequate plans that ad-
dress not only their insertion, but their continued support and ultimate ex-
traction. The considerations of METT-TC may dictate that commanders pro-
vide more personnel and assets than other types of terrain to adequately con-
duct surveillance missions. Commanders must also ensure that surveillance
operations are fully integrated with reconnaissance efforts in order to provide
aSdequate coverage of the AO.
1-67. Long-range surveillance units (LRSUs) and snipers trained in moun-
tain operations also contribute to surveillance missions and benefit from the
restrictive terrain and excellent line-of-sight. Overhead platforms and air
cavalry may also be used for surveillance missions of limited duration. How-
ever, weather may impede air operations, decrease visibility for both air and
ground elements, and reduce the ability of ground surveillance elements to
remain hidden for prolonged periods without adequate logistical support. As
with overhead reconnaissance, terrain may mask overhead surveillance plat-
forms.
1-20
Chapter 2
Command and Control
In the mountains, major
axes of advance are limited
to accessible valleys and
often separated by
restrictive terrain. The
compartmented nature of
the terrain makes it
difficult to switch the effort
from one axis to another or
to offer mutual support
between axes. The battle to
control the major lines of
communications of Level I
develops on the ridges and
heights of Level II. In turn,
the occupation of the
dominating heights in
Level II may leave a force
assailable from the
restrictive terrain of Level
III. Each operational
terrain level influences the
application of tactics,
techniques, and procedures
necessary for successful
operations.
CONTENTS
Section I - Assessment of the Situation .... 2-3
Mission 2-4
Enemy 2-5
Terrain and Weather 2-5
Troops and Support Avaiiabie 2-8
Time Avaiiabie 2-9
Civii Considerations 2-9
Section ii - Leadership 2-10
Section iii - Communications 2-11
Combat Net Radio 2-1 1
Mobiie Subscriber Equipment 2-13
Wire and Fieid Phones 2-13
Audio, Visuai, and Physicai Signais 2-14
Messenger 2-14
Section IV - Training 2-15
Initial Training Assessment 2-16
Physical Conditioning 2-16
Mountain Living 2-17
Navigation 2-18
Weapons and Equipment 2-18
Camouflage and Concealment 2-18
Fortifications 2-19
Military Mountaineering 2-19
Driver Training 2-22
Army Aviation 2-23
Reconnaissance and Surveillance 2-23
Team Development 2-23
2-1
In mountainous terrain, it is usually difficult to conduct a coordinated
battle. Engagements tend to be isolated, march columns of even small
elements extremely long, and mutual support difficult to accomplish.
Command and control of all available assets is best achieved if command
posts are well forward. However, the mountainous environment de-
creases the commander’s mobility. Therefore, commanders must be able
to develop a clear vision of how the battle will unfold, correctly anticipate
the decisive points on the battlefield, and position themselves at these
critical points.
The success of a unit conducting mountain operations depends on how
well leaders control their units. Control is limited largely to a well-
thought-out plan and thorough preparation. Boundaries require careful
planning in mountain operations. Heights overlooking valleys should be
included in the boundaries of units capable of exerting the most influence
over them. These boundaries may be difficult to determine initially and
may require subsequent adjustment.
During execution, leaders must be able to control direction and speed of
movement, maintain proper intervals, and rapidly start, stop, or shift
fire. In the mountains, soldiers focus mainly on negotiating difficult ter-
rain. Leaders, however, must ensure that their soldiers remain alert for,
understand, and follow signals and orders. Although in most instances
audio, visual, wire, physical signals, and messengers are used to main-
tain control, operations may be controlled by time as a secondary means.
However, realistic timetables must be based on thorough reconnaissance
and sound practical knowledge of the mountain battlefield.
Commanders must devote careful consideration to the substantial effect
the mountain environment may have on systems that affect their ability
to collect, process, store, and disseminate information. Computers, com-
munications, and other sophisticated electronic equipment are usually
susceptible to jars, shocks, and rough handling associated with the rug-
ged mountain environment. They are also extremely sensitive to the se-
vere cold often associated with higher elevations. Increased precipitation
and moisture may damage electronic components, and heavy amounts of
rain and snow, combined with strong surface winds, may generate back-
ground electronic interference that can reduce the efficiency of inter-
cept/direction finding antennas and ground surveillance radars. Localized
storms with low sustained cloud cover reduce the effectiveness of most
imagery intelligence (IMINT) platforms, to include unmanned aerial ve-
hicles (UAVs). The collective effect of mountain weather and terrain di-
minishes a commander’s ability to achieve shared situational under-
standing among his subordinates. However, increased use of human in-
telligence (HUMINT), clear orders and intents, and leaders capable of ex-
ercising initiative, allow commanders to dominate the harsh environment
of a mountain area of operations.
Chapter 2
As in any environment, mountain operations pose both tactical and acci-
dent risks. However, since most units do not routinely train for or operate
in the mountains, the level of uncertainty, ambiguity, and friction is often
higher than in less rugged environments. Commanders must be able to
identify and assess hazards that may be encountered in executing their
missions, develop and implement control measures to eliminate unneces-
sary risk, and continuously supervise and assess to ensure measures are
properly executed and remain appropriate as the situation changes. Al-
though risk decisions are the commanders’ business, staffs, subordinate
leaders, and individual soldiers must also understand the risk manage-
ment process and must continuously look for hazards at their level or
within their area of expertise. Any risks identified (with recommended
risk reduction measures) must be quickly elevated to the chain of com-
mand (see FM 3-100.14).
SECTION I - ASSESSMENT OF THE SITUATION
2-1. Although higher-elevation terrain is not always key, the structure of a
mountain area of operations (AO) often forms a stairway of key terrain fea-
tures. Identification and control of dominant terrain at each operational ter-
rain level form the basis for successful mountain maneuver. Key terrain fea-
tures at higher elevations often take on added significance due to their inac-
cessibility and ease of defense. To maintain freedom of maneuver, command-
ers must apply combat power so that the terrain at Levels II and III can be
exploited in the conduct of operations. Successful application of this concept
requires commanders to think, plan, and maneuver vertically as well as hori-
zontally.
2-2. Mountain operations usually focus on lines of communication, choke
points, and dominating heights. Maneuver generally attempts to avoid
strengths, envelop the enemy, and limit his ability to effectively use the high
ground. Major difficulties are establishing boundaries, establishing and main-
taining communications, providing logistics, and evacuating wounded.
Throughout the plan, prepare, and execute cycle, commanders must continu-
ously assess the vertical impact on the mission, enemy, terrain and weather,
troops and support available, time available, civil considerations (METT-TC).
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Importance of Controlling Key Terrain:
Mustafa Kemai at Gaiiipoii (Aprii 1915)
On 25 April 1915, the Allies launched their Gallipoli campaign. However, LTC
Mustafa Kemal’s understanding of the decisive importance of the hilly terrain,
his grasp of the enemy’s overall intent, and his own resolute leadership pre-
served the Ottoman defenses. His troops seized the initiative from superior
forces and pushed the Allied invasion force back to its bridgehead. The result
was nine months of trench warfare, followed by the Allies’ withdrawal from
Gallipoli.
2-3
German Fifth Army Commander General von Sanders expected a major Al-
lied landing in the north, at Bulair. The British, however, were conducting a
feint there; two ANZAC divisions were already landing in the south at Ari
Burnu (now known as “ANZAC cove”) as the main effort. The landing beaches
here were hemmed by precipitous cliffs culminating in the high ground of the
Sari Bair ridge, a fact of great importance to the defense. Only one Ottoman
infantry company was guarding the area. Although prewar plans had estab-
lished contingencies for using 19*'^ ID, Kemal, the division commander, had
received no word from his superiors regarding the developing scenario. Nev-
ertheless, understanding that a major Allied landing could easily split the pen-
insula, he decided that time was critical and set off for Ari Burnu without wait-
ing for his senior commander’s approval. In his march toward Ari Burnu that
morning, he recognized that the hilly terrain in general and the Sari Bair ridge
in particular were of vital strategic importance: if the enemy captured this high
ground they would be in an excellent position to cut the peninsula in half.
Kemal now engaged the enemy. He impressed upon his men the importance
of controlling the hilltops at all costs, issuing his famous order: “I am not or-
dering you to attack. I am ordering you to die. In the time it takes us to die,
other forces and commanders can come and take our place.” Despite being
outnumbered three-to-one, the Turkish counterattack stabilized their position
and prevented the Allies from capturing the Sari Bair ridge. Nightfall brought
about a lull in the fighting. There was some sniping and a few local encounters
on 26 April, and on 27 April Kemal finally received major reinforcements. The
front stabilized and the opposing armies settled down into trench warfare. On
1 6 January 1 926, the Allies admitted defeat and withdrew.
The 19*'^ ID’S counterattack, which prevented the ANZAC from establishing
themselves on the Sari Bair ridge, may well have decided the outcome of the
entire Gallipoli campaign. Despite his lack of situational knowledge, Kemal in-
stinctively understood the enemy’s intent and, recognizing the importance of
controlling the hilltops and ridgelines, was committed to concentrating his
combat power to seize and hold this key terrain.
Compiled from “The Rock of Gallipoli,” Studies of Battle Command, George W. Gawrych
MISSION
2-3. Mission analysis must include the spatial and vertical characteristics of
the AO. Although defeating the enemy continues to be the basic objective of
tactical operations, the task of controlling specific operational terrain levels
will be paramount. At brigade level and below, major tactical objectives are
normally translated into tasks pertaining to seizing, retaining, or controlling
specific dominating heights at either Level II or Level III. Therefore, it is im-
perative to identify the tasks and assets necessary to access each operational
terrain level.
2-4. At any operational terrain level, defending and delaying are easier at de-
files, while attacking is more difficult. Due to the compartmented terrain,
units usually execute offensive missions by conducting several simultaneous
Chapter 2
smaller-scale attacks, utilizing the full height, width, and depth of their area
of operations. Consequently, commanders must always consider the impact of
decentralization on security.
2-5. One method of maintaining freedom of action is to seize or hold key ter-
rain. In the mountains, key terrain is frequently identified as terrain that is
higher than that held by the enemy. Seizing this terrain often depends on
long and difficult envelopments or turning movements. Therefore, the speci-
fied and implied tasks associated with mobility and sustainment, as well as
command and control, must be considered in terms of their vertical difficulty.
ENEMY
2-6. An enemy will nor-
mally position forces in
depth and height along
likely avenues of approach.
Mountain terrain facili-
tates wide dispersal, al-
lowing relatively small
units to hold dominant ter-
rain in a connected system
of strong points. To pre-
vent bypassing and envel-
opment attempts, the en-
emy may adopt a many-
tiered, perimeter defense. Aside from the relative size of forces, the type of
enemy units and their equipment must be compared with those of friendly
forces, to include a comparison of the suitability of forces, tactics, and train-
ing. When considering the enemy's ability to operate in mountainous terrain,
commanders should consider how well the enemy can accomplish the tasks
and actions listed in Figure 2-1. Again, in analyzing both enemy and friendly
factors during mountain operations, the vertical, as well as the horizontal,
perspective should be fully integrated into all aspects of the assessment.
TERRAIN AND WEATHER
2-7. As in all military operations, terrain analysis involves observation and
fields of fire, cover and concealment, obstacles, key terrain, and avenues of
approach (OCOKA). Terrain often influences the conduct of operations more
in the mountains than on flatter terrain. The mountains form the nonlinear
and vertical structure of the battlefield, and the influences of geography and
climate dictate the extent to which commanders modify tactics. Examples of
these difficulties are often encountered in the concentration of forces, as well
as in the maintenance of command and control.
2-8. In the mountains, as elsewhere, surprise is easier to achieve for the force
that knows the terrain better and has the skills and equipment necessary to
achieve greater mobility. The appropriate use of vertical terrain improves the
element of surprise if the terrain has been analyzed properly to determine the
best means to counter the enemy’s reactions. Once the commander decides
• Utilize the environment to his
advantage
• Conduct air operations
• Conduct decentralized operations
• Utilize the terrain in Levels II and III
• Employ obstacles or barriers to
restrict maneuverability
• Conduct limited-visibility operations
• Sustain his maneuver elements
Figure 2-1. Factors Affecting Assessment of
the Enemy Situation
2-5
on a preliminary course of action, he should immediately initiate a detailed
terrain reconnaissance.
2-9. In a mountainous environment, the terrain normally favors the defender
and necessitates the conduct of limited visibility operations. Highly trained
units can achieve significant tactical gains and decisive victories by exploiting
limited visibility. However, limited visibility operations in mountainous ter-
rain require precise planning, careful daylight reconnaissance, exceptionally
good command and control, and a high degree of training. Imaginative and
bold limited visibility operations can minimize the advantage of terrain for
the defender and shift the balance of combat power to the side that can best
cope with or exploit limited visibility.
OBSERVATION AND FIELDS OF FIRE
2-10. Although moun-
tainous terrain generally
permits excellent long-
range observation and
fields of fire, steep slopes
and rugged terrain affect
a soldier’s ability to accu-
rately estimate range
and frequently cause
large areas to be hidden from observation. The existence of sharp relief and
dead space facilitates covert approaches, making surveillance difficult despite
such long-range observation. Four factors that influence what can be seen
and hit in mountainous terrain are listed in Figure 2-2.
COVER AND CONCEALMENT
2-11. The identification and proper use of the cover and concealment provided
by mountainous terrain are fundamental to all aspects of mountain opera-
tions. The ridge systems found in Level II may provide covert approaches
through many areas that are hidden from observation by the vegetation and
relief. The difficulties a force encounters in finding available cover and con-
cealment along ridges are fewer than those on the peaks, especially above the
timberline. Uncovered portions of an approach leave a force exposed to obser-
vation and fire for long periods. The enemy can easily detect movement in
this region, leaving commanders with three primary options to improve cover
and concealment:
1. Identify and exploit avenues of approach the enemy would consider
unlikely, due to their difficult ascent or descent.
2. Negotiate routes during periods of limited visibility.
3. Provide overwhelming route security.
1 . The ability to observe and identify tar-
gets in conditions of bright sunlight
2. The ability to estimate range in clear air
3. The ability to apply wind corrections
4. The ability to shoot accurately up and
down vertical slopes
Figure 2-2. Factors Affecting Observation
and Fields of Fire
OBSTACLES
2-12. Obvious natural obstacles include deep defiles, cliffs, rivers, landslides,
avalanches, crevices, and scree slopes, as well as the physical terrain of the
mountains themselves. Obstacles vary in their effect on different forces.
Commanders must evaluate the terrain from both the enemy and friendly
Chapter 2
force perspective. They must look specifically at the degree to which obstacles
restrict operations, and at the ability of each force to exploit the tactical op-
portunities that exist when obstacles are employed. Man-made obstacles used
in conjunction with restrictive terrain are extremely effective in the moun-
tains; however, their construction is very costly in terms of time, materiel,
transportation assets, and labor. Commanders must know the location, ex-
tent, and strength of obstacles so that they can be incorporated into their
scheme of maneuver.
KEY TERRAIN
2-13. Key terrain generally increases in importance with an increase in ele-
vation and a decrease in accessibility. In the mountains, however, terrain
that is higher than that held by the opposing force is often key, but only if the
force is capable of fighting there. A well-prepared force capable of maneuver
in rugged terrain can gain an even greater advantage over an ill-prepared
enemy at higher elevation levels.
2-14. The vast majority of operations in the mountains requires that the
commander designate decisive terrain in his concept of operations to commu-
nicate its importance to his staff and subordinate commanders. In operations
over mountainous terrain, the analysis of key and decisive terrain is based on
the identification of these features at each of the three operational terrain
levels. There are few truly impassable areas in the mountains. The com-
mander must recognize that what may be key terrain to one force may be an
obstacle to another force. He must also recognize that properly trained com-
batants can use high obstructing terrain as a means to achieve decisive victo-
ries with comparatively small-sized combat elements.
AVENUES OF APPROACH
2-15. In mountainous terrain, there are few easily accessible avenues of ap-
proach, and they usually run along valleys, defiles, or the crests and spurs of
ridges. This type of geography allows the defender to economize in difficult
terrain and to concentrate on dangerous avenues of approach. A typical offen-
sive tactic is to conduct a coordinated assault with the main effort along ac-
cessible avenues of approach, and supporting efforts by one or more maneu-
ver elements on difficult and unexpected avenues of approach. Normally,
high rates of advance and heavy concentration of forces are difficult or impos-
sible to achieve along mountainous avenues of approach. Relief features may
create large areas of dead space that facilitate covert movement. Units may
use difficult and unlikely avenues of approach to achieve surprise; however,
these are extremely high-risk operations and are prone to failure unless
forces are well trained and experienced in mountaineering techniques. In
mountainous terrain, the analysis of avenues of approach should be based on
a thorough reconnaissance and evaluated in terms of the factors listed in
Figure 2-3 on page 2-8.
WEATHER
2-16. As discussed in Chapter 1, weather and visibility conditions in the
mountainous regions of the world may create unprecedented advantages and
disadvantages for combatants. To fight effectively, commanders must acquire
2-7
accurate weather informa-
tion about their AO. Ter-
rain has a dominant effect
on local climate and
weather patterns in the
mountains. Mountainous
areas are subject to fre-
quent and rapid changes of
weather, including fog,
strong winds, extreme heat
and cold, and heavy rain or
snow. Thus, many forecasts
that describe weather over
large areas of terrain are
inherently inaccurate.
Commanders must be able figure 2-3. Factors Affecting Analysis
to develop local, terrain- of Avenues of Approach
based forecasts by combining available forecasts with field observations (local
temperature, wind, precipitation, cloud patterns, barometric pressure, and
surrounding terrain). Forecasting mountain weather from the field improves
accuracy and enhances the ability to exploit opportunities offered by the
weather, while minimizing its adverse effects (see Appendix B).
TROOPS AND SUPPORT AVAILABLE
2-17. Commanders must assess the operational and tactical implications of
the restrictive environment on mobility, protection, firepower, and logistics.
The complex task of arranging activities in time, space, and purpose requires
commanders to fully understand the impact of elevation, weather, and visi-
bility on the capabilities of his subordinate elements and relative combat
power. Mountainous terrain and weather can greatly enhance the relative
combat power of defending forces and, conversely, it can drastically reduce
those of the attacking forces. For example, an infantry battalion may be in-
adequate to defeat a defending infantry company in the mountains. Instead,
an infantry battalion may only be capable of defeating a well-positioned in-
fantry platoon. However, commanders must carefully consider each unique
situation and weigh all tangible and intangible aspects of combat power (ma-
neuver, firepower, leadership, protection, and information) when comparing
strengths and determining the forces necessary to accomplish the mission.
2-18. Commanders must also assess the proper mix of heavy and light forces
that capitalizes on the unique strengths that each type of force can bring to
mountain operations while minimizing their limitations. While generally
complicating command and control, an appropriate mix allows commanders
more flexibility in the synchronization of their operations. Additionally, the
difficulty providing combat support and combat service support for mountain
operations must be evaluated to determine if the proportion of support troops
to combat troops is sufficient.
2-19. Prior to and throughout an operation, commanders must continually
assess the effect that the rugged mountain environment and sustained com-
bat operations has on the ability of their soldiers to accomplish the mission.
• Ability to achieve surprise
• Vulnerability to attack from
surrounding heights
• Ability to provide mutual support to
forces on other avenues of approach
• Effect on rates of advance
• Effect on command and control
• Potential to accommodate deception
operations
• Ability to support necessary CS and
CSS operations
• Access to secure rest and halt sites
• Potential to fix the enemy and reduce
the possibility of retreat
Chapter 2
Commanders may need to slow the pace of their operation, transition to the
defense for short periods, or rotate units to ensure that their soldiers are
physically capable of striking effectively at decisive times and locations. Too
often, commanders consider only the operational readiness (OR) rate of
equipment and logistics levels when determining their overall ability to con-
tinue offensive actions. Failure to consider this intangible human aspect may
result in increased loss of lives and mission failure.
2-20. Vertical operations are an integral part of mountain operations and are
one means to improve the success of decisive engagements. Commanders
must review the state of training of their units to ensure they are adequately
prepared to maneuver and fight at various elevations. Increased require-
ments for aviation support require aviation units to be capable of operating in
the specific mountain environment. Units must also have sufficient numbers
of pathfinders and trained air assault personnel to select and mark landing
zones (LZs) and prepare sling loads.
TIME AVAILABLE
2-21. In the mountains, proper tim-
ing is fundamental to creating oppor-
tunities to fight the enemy on favor-
able terms. Restrictive terrain,
weather, the accumulation of chance
errors, unexpected difficulties, and
the confusion of battle increase the
time necessary to assemble, deploy,
move, converge, and mass combat
power, effectively decreasing the
amount of time available to plan and
prepare. To optimize the time avail-
able, commanders must continuously
evaluate the impact of reduced mo-
bility caused by the weather and ter-
rain. At times, commanders may need to conduct a tactical pause to facilitate
the concentration of combat power at a decisive point. However, they must
consider time with respect to the enemy as time available is always related to
the enemy's ability to execute his own plan, prepare, and execute cycle. Fig-
ure 2-4 summarizes the time considerations that are different from or greater
than those encountered on flatter terrain.
CIVIL CONSIDERATIONS
2-22. Generally, civilian population centers will be located at the lower eleva-
tions of Level I close to sources of water and along major lines of communica-
tions. Refugees and displaced civilians may increase congestion on the al-
ready limited road and trail networks normally found in mountainous envi-
ronments, further complicating maneuver and sustaining operations.
2-23. Commanders must also consider the impact of operations on the often-
limited civilian resources available in the mountains. The wisdom of using lo-
cal resources to lighten in-theater supply requirements must be balanced
• Adaptability of plans to the
terrain and varying weather
• Increased time needed to
conduct reconnaissance,
execute movements, and
synchronize events on the
battlefield
• Significant variance in the
number of hours of
visibility with season and
elevation
Figure 2-4. Factors Affecting
Time Available
2-9
SECTION
against the impact on civilians and their local economy. While the purchase of
goods and services from the local economy is generally welcomed, it may
serve to inflate prices and make it impossible for local civilians to purchase
their own scarce and needed supplies.
2-24. In mountainous regions, commanders often encounter a populace of di-
verse political and ethnic orientation that may support, oppose, or be am-
bivalent to US operations or the presence of US forces. Depending on friendly
force objectives, commanders may conduct public relations, civil affairs, hu-
manitarian assistance, and psychological operations (PSYOP) to influence
perceptions and attitudes of neutral or uncommitted parties. Even if com-
manders choose not to commit resources to enlist civilian sympathy and sup-
port, they must still adjust their operations to minimize damage and loss of
life to innocent civilians.
- LEADERSHIP
2-25. To help ease their anxiety in combat, soldiers must have confidence in
their leaders. This confidence may diminish rapidly unless leaders demon-
strate the ability to lead over formidable terrain and under the most difficult
weather conditions. Superficial knowledge of mountain warfare and igno-
rance or underestimation of mountain hazards and environmental effects
may result in mission failure and the unnecessary loss of soldiers’ lives.
2-26. Effective leadership in mountain operations combines sound judgment
with a thorough understanding of the characteristics of the mountain envi-
ronment. Commanders must first develop flexible and adaptable leadership
throughout the chain of command. They must then be able to understand and
exploit the operational and tactical implications of the mountain environ-
ment, as well as its effects on personnel, equipment, and weapons. The keys
to meeting this challenge are proper training and operational experience in
the mountains. To fight effectively, leaders creatively exploit the opportuni-
ties offered by the mountain environment while minimizing the adverse ef-
fects it can have on their operations.
2-27. Leadership rapidly becomes the primary element of combat power on
the mountain battlefield. Commanders must recognize the distinctive effects
created by decentralization of command, develop a depth of leadership that
forms the vital link to unity of effort, and organize and direct operations that
require minimum intervention. While specific situations require different
leadership styles and techniques, the nature of mountain warfare generally
necessitates that commanders embrace the philosophy of command and
control known as mission command (see EM 6-0). This type of command and
control requires subordinates to make decisions rapidly within the framework
of the commander's concept and intent. Commanders must be able to accept
some measure of uncertainty, delegate, and trust and encourage subordinate
leaders at all levels to use initiative and act alone to achieve the desired re-
sults, particularly when the situation changes and they lose contact with
higher headquarters.
Chapter 2
SECTION III - COMMUNICATIONS
2-28. The communications means available to support operations in moun-
tainous regions are the same as those to support operations in other regions
of the world. However, rapid and reliable communications are especially diffi-
cult to achieve and maintain in mountainous areas. The mountainous envi-
ronment requires electronic equipment that is light, rugged, portable and
able to exploit the advantages of higher terrain. The combined effects of ir-
regular terrain patterns, magnetic and ionospheric disturbances, cold, ice,
and dampness on communications equipment increase operating, mainte-
nance, and supply problems and require precise planning and extensive coor-
dination.
COMBAT NET RADIO
SINGLE-CHANNEL GROUND AND AIRBORNE RADIO SYSTEMS (SINCGARS)
2-29. The Single-channel Ground and Airborne Radio System (SINCGARS)
family of frequency modulation (FM) radios is good for the control of battalion
and smaller-sized units operating in a mountainous environment (see FM 6-
02.32 and FM 6-02.18). If available, hands-free radios, such as helmet-
mounted radios, are an excellent means of communication for small unit tac-
tics and close-in distances, particularly while negotiating rugged terrain. In
colder environments, shortened battery life greatly reduces the reliability of
manpacked systems that rely on constant voltage input to maintain maxi-
mum accuracy.
2-30. Since even a small unit may be spread over a large area, retransmission
sites may be needed to maintain communications and increase range. These
sites require extensive preparation and support to ensure the survival of per-
sonnel and the continued maintenance of equipment. Retransmission systems
are often placed on the highest accessible terrain to afford them the best line-
of-sight; however, through simple analysis, these locations are often predict-
able and make them more vulnerable to enemy interdiction. The importance
and difficulty of maintaining adequate communications in mountainous ter-
rain requires commanders to devote additional resources for the protection of
these limited assets and operators skilled in the proper use of cover and con-
cealment, noise and light discipline, and other operations security (OPSEC)
measures.
2-31. Physical range limitations, difficulties in establishing line-of-sight
paths due to intervening terrain, and limited retransmission capabilities of-
ten make it difficult to establish a brigade and larger-sized radio net. How-
ever, commanders can, if within range, enter subordinate nets and establish a
temporary net for various contingencies. In the mountains or if the mobile
subscriber equipment network is not yet fully developed, commanders should
consider the increased need for the improved high frequency radio (IHFR)
family of amplitude modulation (AM) radios and single-channel tactical sat-
ellite communications terminals for extended distances.
2-11
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS (SATCOM)
2-32. Satellite communications
(SATCOM) terminals are light,
small, portable ground termi-
nals that are able to communi-
cate in spite of rugged terrain.
During operations in mountain-
ous areas having little or no in-
frastructure to support com-
mand and control, satellite
communications become the primary means of communications. Single chan-
nel SATCOM are currently transmitted over the ultrahigh frequency (UHF)
band and readily support forces operating in the mountains, while providing
worldwide tactical communications, in-theater communications, combat net
radio (CNR) range extension, and linkage between elements of long-range
surveillance units (LRSUs) and Army special operations forces (ARSOF).
SATCOM can network with multiple users, communicate while enroute,
penetrate foliage while on the ground, and has several other advantages
making it an ideal system for mountain communications (see Figure 2-5).
However, limitations include restricted access, low-rate data communications,
and lack of antijam capability. Commanders should review FM 6-02.11 for
further information on the employment of SATCOM.
COMMAND AND CONTROL (C2) AIRCRAFT
2-33. Using C^ aircraft can assist the commander in overcoming ground mo-
bility restrictions and may improve communications that would otherwise
limit his ability to direct the battle. In the mountains, terrain masking, while
making flight routing more difficult, may provide the degree of protection
needed to allow an increased use of aircraft. To avoid radar or visual acquisi-
tion and to survive, C^ aircraft must use the same terrain flight techniques
employed by other tactical aviation units. This flight method often degrades
FM communications and reinforces the requirement for radio relay or re-
transmission sites.
ANTENNAS AND GROUNDS
2-34. Directional antennas, both bidirectional and unidirectional, may be
needed to increase range and maintain radio communications. Although easy
to fabricate, directional antennas are less flexible and more time-consuming
to set up. Positioning of all antennas is also crucial in the mountains because
moving an antenna even a small distance can significantly affect reception.
2-35. Antenna icing, a common occurrence at high elevations, significantly
degrades communications. Ice may also make it difficult to extend or lower
antennas, and the weight of ice buildup, combined with increased brittleness,
may cause them to break. Antennas should have extra guy wires, supports,
and anchor stakes to strengthen them to withstand heavy ice and wind load-
ing. All large horizontal antennas should be equipped with a system of coun-
terweights arranged to slacken before wire or poles break from the excess
pressures of ice or wind. Soldiers may be able to remove wet snow and sleet
that freezes to antennas by jarring their supports, or by attaching a hose to
• Greater freedom from siting
restrictions
• Extended range, capacity, and
coverage
• Mobiiity and rapid empioyment
• Extremeiy high circuit reiiabiiity
Figure 2-5. SATCOM Advantages
Chapter 2
the exhaust pipe of a vehicle and directing the hot air on the ice until it melts.
However, soldiers must exercise great care to ensure that the antenna is not
damaged in their attempts to dislodge the ice.
2-36. Ground rods and guy wires are often difficult to drive into rocky and
frozen earth. Mountain pitons are excellent anchors for antenna guys in this
type of soil. In extreme cold, ropes can be frozen to the ground and guys tied
to these anchor ropes. Adequate grounding is also difficult to obtain on frozen
or rocky surfaces due to high electrical resistance. Where it is possible to in-
stall a grounding rod, it should be driven into the earth as deep as possible or
through the ice on frozen lakes or rivers. Grounding in rocky soil may be im-
proved by adding salt solutions to improve electrical flow.
MOBILE SUBSCRIBER EQUIPMENT
2-37. Like FM, mobile subscriber equipment (MSE) requires a line-of-sight
transmission path and a tactical satellite or several relay sites to overcome
mountainous terrain and maintain MSE connectivity (FM 6-02.55 contains
in-depth information concerning the deployment and employment of MSE).
WIRE AND FIELD PHONES
2-38. Wire is normally one of the most reliable means of communication. Un-
fortunately, in rugged mountains and particularly during the winter months,
wire is more difficult and time consuming to install, maintain, and protect.
Wire may be dispensed in mountain areas by tracked or wheeled vehicle, foot,
skis, snowshoes, or oversnow vehicles. As in any environment, units must pe-
riodically patrol their wire lines to ensure that they have remained camou-
flaged and that the enemy has not tapped into them.
2-39. Snow-covered cables and wire can cause the loss of many man-days in
recovering or maintaining circuits. This can be avoided by pulling the cable
from under the snow after each snowfall and letting it rest just below the sur-
face of the snow. Trees or poles can be used to support wire. Allowances must
be made for drifting snow when determining the height above ground at
which to support the lines. However, when crossing roads, it is preferable to
run the wire through culverts and under bridges rather than bury or raise
wire overhead. In addition to ease, this technique reduces maintenance re-
quirements associated with vehicles severing lines, particularly with higher
volumes of traffic on limited road networks. If long-distance wire communica-
tions are required, the integration of radio relay systems must be considered.
2-40. Great care must be taken in handling wire and cables in extreme cold
weather. Condensation and ice on connectors make connecting cables difficult
and can degrade the signal path. When rubber jackets become hard, the ca-
bles must be protected from stretching and bending to prevent short circuits
caused by breaks in the covering. Therefore, all tactical cable and wire should
be stored in heated areas or warmed prior to installation. TC 24-20 provides
more detailed information on the installation and maintenance of wire and
cable.
2-41. Field phones are useful in a stationary position, such as a mountain pa-
trol base or an ambush site, although leaders must consider the weight and
2-13
difficulties encountered in laying and maintaining wire in these sites of lim-
ited duration. The batteries that are used to operate field telephones and
switchboards are subject to the same temperature limitations as those used to
power tactical radio sets.
2-42. When used with a hands-free phone, commercially available rope with a
communication wire in it is ideally suited for mountain operations. This sys-
tem is lightweight and easy to manage, and provides an added measure of se-
curity during limited visibility operations. In addition to the standard uses,
since it functions as both a rope and a wire, it can be used to control move-
ment on all types of installations, and it can serve as a primary means of
communication for climbing teams.
AUDIO, VISUAL, AND PHYSICAL SIGNALS
2-43. Leaders can use simple audio signals, such as voice or whistles, to lo-
cally alert and warn. Sound travels farther in mountain air. Although this ef-
fect may increase the possibility of enemy detection, interrupting terrain,
wind conditions, and echoes can restrict voice and whistle commands to cer-
tain directions and uses.
2-44. Like audio signals, visual signals such as pyrotechnics and mirrors
have limited use due to enemy detection, but may work for routine and emer-
gency traffic at the right time and place. Blowing sand or snow, haze, fog, and
other atmospheric conditions may periodically affect range and reliability.
2-45. Units should use hand and arm signals instead of the radio or voice
whenever possible, especially when close to the enemy. Luminous tape on the
camouflage band, luminous marks on a compass, or flashlights may be used
as signals at night over short distances. Infrared sources and receiving
equipment, such as night vision goggles, aiming lights, and infrared filters for
flashlights, can be used to send and receive signals at night. However, an en-
emy outfitted with similar equipment can also detect active devices.
2-46. A tug system is a common method of signaling between members of a
roped climbing team. However, tug systems are often unreliable when climb-
ers are moving on a rope or when the distance is so great that the friction of
the rope on the rock absorbs the signals. Separate tug lines can be installed in
static positions by tying a string, cord, or wire from one position to the next.
Soldiers can pass signals quietly and quickly between positions by pulling on
the tug line in a prearranged code.
MESSENGER
2-47. Although slow, communication by messenger is frequently the only
means available to units operating in the mountains. Messengers should be
trained climbers, resourceful, familiar with mountain peculiarities, and able
to carry their own existence load. During the winter, advanced skiing skills
may also be required. Messengers should always be dispatched in pairs. Air
messenger service should be scheduled between units and integrated with the
aerial resupply missions. Vehicles may also be employed to maintain messen-
ger communications when conditions of time, terrain, and distance permit.
Chapter 2
SECTION IV - TRAINING
2-48. Because US forces do not routinely train in a mountain environment,
they must make extensive preparations to ensure individual and unit effec-
tiveness. Ultimate success in the mountains depends largely on developing
cohesive, combat-ready teams consisting of well-trained soldiers. To be suc-
cessful, commanders must understand the stratification of mountain warfare,
recognize the unique aspects of leadership required, and implement training
programs that prepare soldiers for the rigors of mountain fighting.
2-49. In the mountains,
commanders face the challenge of
maintaining their units’ combat
effectiveness and efficiency. To
meet this challenge, commanders
conduct training that provides
soldiers with the mountaineering
skills necessary to apply combat
power in a rugged mountain
environment, and they develop
leaders capable of applying
doctrine to the distinct characteris-
tics of mountain warfare.
2-50. The ability to apply doctrine and tactics in mountainous environments
is not as easy to develop as technical proficiency. Training, study, and garri-
son experimentation may provide the basis for competence. However, only
through experience gained by practical application in the mountains will
leaders become skilled in mountain warfare. Proficiency in the areas listed in
Figure 2-6 will provide commanders with a degree of flexibility in the applica-
tion of doctrine to a mountain area of operations.
2-51. The best combat and combat support plans cannot ensure victory unless
commanders concentrate on developing a leadership climate that is derived
from the human dimension of mountain warfare. The complexities of moun-
tain combat make it extremely important to establish training programs that
modify the traditional application of tactics so that units can reach their full
potential. Training must simulate the tempo, scope, and uncertainty of moun-
tain combat to create the versatility required to capitalize on the harsh envi-
ronment as a force multiplier.
2-52. Competent units operate effectively in mountains and focus on the bat-
tle. Unprepared units, however, may become distracted by the environment
and end up expending as much effort fighting the environment as they do
fighting the enemy. Soldiers cannot be fully effective unless they have the
proper clothing and equipment, and are trained to protect themselves against
the effects of terrain and frequent and sudden changes in weather.
• Mountaineering skiiis
• Air assauit and air movement
operations
• Deception
• Steaith and infiitration
• Limited visibiiity operations
• Patroiiing
• Reconnaissance
• Communications
• CS and CSS operations
Figure 2-6. Training Areas of Emphasis
2-15
INITIAL TRAINING ASSESSMENT
2-53. In addition to the questions applicable to every mission, commanders
must consider the following when preparing for operations in a mountainous
environment:
• What kind of mountains will the unit be operating in?
■ What elevations will the unit be operating at?
■ What are the climatic and terrain conditions of the AO?
■ Are at least two years of accurate weather reports available (see
Appendix B)?
• When must the unit be ready to move?
• What training resources are needed and available?
• Are local training areas and ranges available?
■ If not, what alternative arrangements can be made?
■ What available training areas most closely resemble the AO?
• What special equipment does the unit require?
• What training assistance is available?
■ Does the unit have former mountain warfare instructors, military
mountaineers, or others with experience in a mountainous
environment?
■ Are instructors available from outside the unit?
• What special maintenance is required for weapons and equipment?
• What is the level of physical fitness?
• What additional combat, combat support, and combat service support
units are necessary to accomplish the operational missions?
■ Can specific units be identified for possible coordinated training?
• Will allied and multinational troops participate?
2-54. As commanders get answers to these and other questions, they must
develop training programs to bring their units to a level where they will be
fully capable of operating successfully in mountainous conditions. To do this,
they must establish priorities for training. The training requirements listed
in Figure 2-7 are only a guide. Commanders should add, delete, and modify
the tasks as necessary, depending on the specific AO, the state of readiness of
their units when they begin preparations for mountain operations, and the
time and facilities available (see FM 7-10).
PHYSICAL CONDITIONING
2-55. Soldiers who have lived and trained mostly at lower elevations tend to
develop a sense of insecurity and fear about higher elevations - many are
simply afraid of heights in general. With this in mind, leaders must plan
training that accustoms soldiers to the effects of the mountain environment.
Physical conditioning must be strictly enforced, since “new muscle” strain as-
sociated with balance and prolonged ascents/descents quickly exhausts even
the most physically fit soldiers. Even breathing becomes strenuous, given the
Chapter 2
TRAINING
REQUIREMENTS
ALL
STAFF AND
LEADERS
TEAMS AND
CREW
MEMEBERS
SPECIALISTS
Physical Conditioning and
Acclimatization
a
✓
✓
✓
Mountain Illnesses and Injuries
19
✓
✓
✓
Mountain Living and Survival
19
✓
✓
✓
Mountain Navigation Techniques
19
✓
✓
✓
Mounted and Dismounted March
Planning
a
✓
✓
✓
Communications Techniques
19
✓
✓
✓
Weapons/Equipment Training
19
✓
✓
✓
Additional Maintenance
Requirements
a
✓
✓
✓
Camouflage and Concealment
19
✓
✓
✓
Obstacles
✓
✓
Above-ground Fortifications
19
✓
✓
✓
Level 1 Mountaineering
19
✓
✓
✓
Level 2 and 3 Mountaineering
✓
Driver and Pilot Training
✓
Air Assault/Air Movement
Operations
✓
✓
✓
NBC Operations
19
✓
✓
✓
Figure 2-7. Mountain Preparatory Training
thinner atmosphere at higher altitudes. Therefore, training must emphasize
exercises designed to strengthen leg muscles and build cardiovascular (aero-
bic) endurance (see FM 3-25.20). Frequent marches and climbs with normal
equipment loads enhance conditioning and familiarize soldiers with mountain
walking techniques.
MOUNTAIN LIVING
2-56. Successful mountain living requires that personnel adjust to special
conditions, particularly terrain and weather. To develop confidence, soldiers
should train in conditions that closely resemble those they will face. Lengthy
exercises test support facilities and expose soldiers to the isolation common to
mountain operations. The mountain area of operations can be harsh, and
training should develop soldiers who possess the necessary field craft and
psychological edge to operate effectively under mountainous conditions. Al-
though FM 4-25.10 and FM 3-25.76 do not specifically address mountain
environments, much of their information applies. Regardless of the level of
technical mountaineering training required, all soldiers deploying to a moun-
tainous region should be trained in the areas listed in Figure 2-8 on page 2-
18.
2-17
NAVIGATION
2-57. Navigation in the moun-
tains is made more difficult be-
cause of inaccurate mapping,
magnetic attraction that affects
compass accuracy, and the ir-
regular pace of the soldiers. It is
easy to mistake large terrain fea-
tures that are very far away for
features that are much closer.
The increased necessity for
limited-visibility operations re-
stricts the use of terrain tech-
niques as the primary means of
determining and maintaining direction. Individuals must train to use a vari-
ety of equipment, such as a compass, an altimeter, global positioning system
devices, and maps, as well as learn techniques pertaining to terrestrial navi-
gation, terrain association, dead reckoning, resectioning, and artillery mark-
ing (see FM 3-25.26).
WEAPONS AND EQUIPMENT
2-58. Nearly every weapon or piece of equipment familiar to the soldier is af-
fected to some degree by the mountain environment. In addition to honing
skills, training must focus on the specific operational area and ways to over-
come anticipated environmental impacts when using weapons and equip-
ment.
2-59. Individual marksmanship training must emphasize the effect of wind
and include practical training in wind measurement techniques and adjusted
aiming points (holdoff). Practical training in range estimation techniques,
combined with using laser range finders, M19 binoculars, target reference
points, and range cards, helps to overcome difficulties in range estimation.
2-60. In the conduct of their preparations, commanders should strive to in-
crease the number of qualified snipers within their units, as they are ideal in
the mountains and can be used to adversely affect enemy mobility by deliv-
ering long range precision rifle fire on selected targets. They can inflict casu-
alties, slow enemy movement, lower morale, and add confusion to enemy op-
erations. A single sniper team in well-concealed positions, such as mountain
passes, can severely impede enemy movement (see FM 3-21.20 and FM 3-91.2
for further information on sniper employment).
CAMOUFLAGE AND CONCEALMENT
2-61. The basic principles of camouflage and concealment also apply in
mountain operations (see FM 3-24. 3j. However, certain elements must be
adjusted for snow. With snow on the ground, standard camouflage nets and
paint patterns are unsuitable. In areas where snow cover is above 15 percent
of the background, winter camouflage nets should take the place of standard
nets and temporary white paint should be used over the green portions of ve-
hicles. In terrain with more than 85 percent snow cover, the vehicles and
• Temperature extremes and
clothing requirements
• Bivouac techniques and shelter
construction
• Elevation and rarified air effects
• Hygiene, sanitation, and health
hazards
• Locating and purifying water
• Food-gathering techniques
Figure 2-8. Mountain Living
Training
Chapter 2
equipment should be solid white. However, with less than 15 percent snow
cover, standard patterns should be maintained.
2-62. Snow provides excellent conditions for threat thermal and ultraviolet
sensor detection. To counter these types of sensors, soldiers must be trained
to utilize the terrain to mask themselves and their weapons and equipment
from enemy detection. The mountainous terrain often limits the access routes
to and from selected positions. Commanders must take appropriate measures
to conceal vehicle tracks and limit movement times to periods of limited visi-
bility. Snow presents a significant problem, making movement discipline an
absolute requirement. When moving, leaders should be trained to follow the
shadows along windswept drift lines as much as possible. Drivers should
learn to avoid sharp turns, which are easily recognizable in the snow, and
follow existing track marks where possible.
FORTIFICATIONS
2-63. Fighting and protective positions in the mountains do not differ signifi-
cantly from other environments, except in areas of snow and rock (see FM 3-
34.112 for more information on common survivability positions and FM 3-
97.11 for positions created in snow). Digging positions in rocky ground is dif-
ficult and often impossible. If demolitions, pneumatic drills, and jackham-
mers are available, positions may be blasted or drilled in the rock to afford
some degree of protection. More often, it will be necessary to build above-
ground positions by stacking boulders, stones, and gabions. If possible, exist-
ing rock formations should be used as structural wall components.
2-64. If above-ground positions are to be used, considerable care should be
taken to avoid siting them in view of any likely enemy avenues of approach.
Even a two-man position is difficult to conceal if it is above the timberline.
Camouflage nets and the use of background rocks are necessary to break up
the outline of the position and hide straight edges.
2-65. Positions should be built of the largest rocks available, wedged securely
together. Extreme care should be taken that the walls are stable and not
leaning or sloping downhill. An unstable wall is more of a liability than an
asset, as the first impact may cause it to collapse onto the defenders. Rocks
and gabions should be stacked to systematically overlap each joint or seam to
help ensure stable construction. Larger rocks or stones can be used to help
bond layers of rock beneath. If possible, a layer of sandbags should be placed
on the top of and around the inside of the wall. Substantial overhead cover is
normally required in rocky areas. The effects of artillery bursts within and
above a protective position are greatly enhanced by rock and gravel dis-
placement or avalanche. Figure 2-9 on page 2-20 shows simple examples of
the right and wrong way to build these positions.
MILITARY MOUNTAINEERING
2-66. The skills required for movement are often difficult to learn and usually
very perishable. Commanders must understand the application and mechan-
ics of technical mountaineering systems needed for mobility and movement of
soldiers and equipment. In the mountains, a unit may be ineffective unless it
has the prerequisite technical training. However, some mountains may
2-19
feature terrain that is relatively benign, requiring minimal specialized tech-
niques. Other areas will mandate the need for more advanced mountaineer-
ing skills. One key to quickly determining the type and extent of training re-
quired is to analyze and classify the level of individual movement required
according to the dismounted mobility classification table introduced in Chap-
ter 1. Once commanders have determined the specific level and tasks re-
quired, TC 90-6-1 will provide them with detailed information on specific
mountaineering techniques and equipment (described below).
2-67. Military moun-
taineering training pro-
vides tactical mobility
in mountainous terrain
that would otherwise be
inaccessible. Soldiers
with specialized train-
ing who are skilled in
using mountain climb-
ing equipment and
techniques can over-
come the difficulties of
obstructing terrain.
Highly motivated sol-
diers who are in supe-
rior physical condition
should be selected for
more advanced military
mountaineering train-
ing (Levels 2 and 3)
conducted at appropri-
ate facilities. Soldiers
who have completed ad-
vanced mountaineering
training should be used
as trainers, guides, and
lead climbers during
collective training. They
may also serve as su-
pervisors of installation teams (see Chapter 4) and evacuation teams (see
Chapter 5). Properly used, these soldiers can drastically improve mobility and
have a positive impact disproportionate to their numbers. Units anticipating
mountain operations should strive to achieve approximately ten percent of
their force with advanced mountaineering skills.
LEVEL 1: BASIC MOUNTAINEER
2-68. The basic mountaineer, a graduate of a basic mountaineering course,
should be trained in the fundamental travel and climbing skills necessary to
move safely and efficiently in mountainous terrain. These soldiers should be
comfortable functioning in this environment and, under the supervision of
qualified mountain leaders or assault climbers, can assist in the rigging and
use of all basic rope installations. On technically difficult terrain, the basic
Chapter 2
mountaineer should be capable of performing duties as the “follower” or “sec-
ond” on a roped climbing team, and should be well trained in using all basic
rope systems. These soldiers may provide limited assistance to soldiers un-
skilled in mountaineering techniques. Particularly adept soldiers may be se-
lected as members of special purpose teams led and supervised by advanced
mountaineers. Figure 2-10 lists the minimum knowledge and skills required
of basic mountaineers.
Characteristics of the mountain
environment (summer and winter)
Mountaineering safety
Use, care, and packing of
individuai coid weather ciothing
and equipment
Care and use of basic
mountaineering equipment
Mountain bivouac techniques
Mountain communications
Mountain travei and waiking
techniques
Hazard recognition and route
seiection
Mountain navigation
Basic medicai evacuation
• Rope management and knots
• Naturai anchors
• Famiiiarization with artificiai
anchors
• Beiay and rappei techniques
• Use of fixed ropes (iines)
• Rock ciimbing fundamentais
• Rope bridges and iowering
systems
• individuai movement on snow and
ice
• Mountain stream crossings (to
inciude water survivai techniques)
• First aid for mountain iiinesses
and injuries
Figure 2-10. Levei 1 : Basic Mountaineer Tasks
2-69. In a unit training program, level 1 qualified soldiers should be identi-
fied and prepared to serve as assistant instructors to train unqualified sol-
diers in basic mountaineering skills. All high-risk training, however, must be
conducted under the supervision of qualified level 2 or 3 personnel.
LEVEL 2; ASSAULT CLIMBER
2-70. Assault climbers are responsible for the rigging, inspection, use, and
operation of all basic rope systems. They are trained in additional rope man-
agement skills, knot tying, belay and rappel techniques, as well as using spe-
cialized mountaineering equipment. Assault climbers are capable of rigging
complex, multipoint anchors and high-angle raising/lowering systems. Level 2
qualification is required to supervise all high-risk training associated with
Level 1. At a minimum, assault climbers should possess the additional
knowledge and skills shown in Figure 2-11 on page 2-22.
LEVEL 3; MOUNTAIN LEADER
2-71. Mountain leaders possess all the skills of the assault climber and have
extensive practical experience in a variety of mountain environments in both
winter and summer conditions. Level 3 mountaineers should have well-
developed hazard evaluation and safe route finding skills over all types of
mountainous terrain. Mountain leaders are best qualified to advise com-
manders on all aspects of mountain operations, particularly the preparation
and leadership required to move units over technically difficult, hazardous, or
2-21
• Use specialized mountaineering
• Movement on moderate angle
equipment
snow and Ice
• Perform multipitch climbing:
• Establish evacuation systems
- Free climbing and aid climbing
and perform high angle rescue
- Leading on class 4 and 5
• Perform avalanche hazard
terrain
evaluation and rescue
• Conduct multipitch rappelling
techniques
• Establish and operate hauling
• Familiarization with movement
systems
• Establish fixed ropes with
Intermediate anchors
on glaciers
Figure 2-11. Level 2: Assault Climber Tasks
exposed terrain. The mountain leader is the highest level of qualification and
is the principle trainer for conducting mountain operations. Instructor expe-
rience at a military mountaineering training center or as a member of a spe-
cial operations forces (SOF) mountain team is critical to acquiring Level 3
qualification. Figure 2-12 outlines the additional knowledge and skills ex-
pected of mountain leaders. Depending on the specific AO, mountain leaders
may need additional skills such as snowshoeing and all-terrain skiing.
Figure 2-12. Level 3: Mountain Leader Tasks
DRIVER TRAINING
2-72. Driving in mountains is
extremely difficult. To be suc-
cessful, drivers must know their
equipment’s limitations and ca-
pabilities. Training should cen-
ter on practical exercises in
mountainous terrain that
gradually introduce drivers to
more complex terrain and
weather conditions. The exact
nature of the mountainous ter-
rain determines the training
(see Figure 2-13).
• Identification and recognition of
potential dangers
• Movement along steep grades
combined with:
- Narrow roads and sharp curves
- Loose rock and gravel
- Ice and snow (to Include using
tire chains for wheeled vehicles)
- Towed loads
• Increased cold weather
maintenance requirements
Figure 2-13. Driver Training
Chapter 2
ARMY AVIATION
2-73. The mountainous environment, particularly its severe and rapidly
changing weather, affects aircraft performance capabilities, accelerates crew
fatigue, and influences basic flight techniques. These techniques can be ac-
quired only through a specific training program for the particular type of
mountainous terrain. Additionally, limited visibility operations in the moun-
tains are extremely hazardous and require extensive training for those avia-
tion units involved. Common problems associated with mountain operations
become much more complex at night, even when using night vision devices.
Few Army aviation units regularly train for mountain operations, so it is
critical to alert them as soon as possible to facilitate the required training to
ensure safe and successful mission execution.
RECONNAISSANCE AND SURVEILLANCE
2-74. Training in reconnaissance and surveillance should focus on traffica-
bility (route, mobility, and bridge classification), potential drop zones or
landing areas, likely defensive positions, and potential infiltration routes. In-
filtration and exfiltration are relatively easy in mountainous terrain and con-
stitute a significant threat to the maneuver elements and their support units.
TEAM DEVELOPMENT
2-75. The decentralized nature of mountain combat and the need for the ex-
ercise of a mission command philosophy of command and control involve as-
signing missions to independently operating small teams that may be isolated
from their higher headquarters. The disruptive influences of the environment
and sustained physical stress further increase the perception of isolation (see
FM 4-02.22). The most important factor that sustains a soldier in combat is
the powerful psychological support that he receives from his primary group,
such as a buddy team, squad, or platoon. He is less likely to feel the stress of
loneliness under the isolated conditions of mountain warfare if his primary
group maintains its integrity.
2-76. The soldier's ability to survive and operate in the mountains is the ba-
sis for the self-confidence needed to feel accepted by the team. Leaders must
develop small-unit cohesion down to the buddy team. Each soldier must have
a buddy to share both responsibilities and rewards. The leader must not sim-
ply assign two soldiers as a buddy team, but pair soldiers whose skills and at-
tributes complement each other. Each soldier can then learn his buddy's spe-
cialized skills adding depth to the unit if one soldier becomes disabled. Sol-
diers work with their buddies, as well as function as part of the larger squad
team. The combined strengths of buddies enhance both unit effectiveness and
combat power. FM 6-22 has more information on team development.
2-23
Chapter 3
Firepower and Protection of the Force
Employing fire support systems, which are an integral part of maneuver,
is included in this chapter. This arrangement, however, does not suggest
any change in the close doctrinal relationship between fires and maneu-
ver during mountain operations.
SECTION I - FIREPOWER
FIELD ARTILLERY
3-1. The basic tactical principles for artillery remain valid in mountains,
subject to the limitations imposed by terrain and weather.
MOVEMENT AND POSITIONING
3-2. Rugged terrain and reduced mobility increase the reliance on field ar-
tillery fire support. However, the employment and positioning of field artil-
lery systems may be severely impacted by the extreme difficulty of ground
mobility in mountainous terrain. Self-propelled artillery is often limited to
traveling on the existing
road and trail networks CONTENTS
and positioning in their Section I - Firepower 3-1
immediate vicinity. Fieid Artiiiery 3-1
Towed field artillery is Mortars 3-5
usually more maneuver- Air Support 3-6
able; it can be brought Eiectronic Warfare 3-7
into position with the aid Section ii - Protection of the Force 3-7
of trucks, tractors, and Air Defense Artiiiery 3-7
fixed or rotary-winged Engineer Operations 3-9
aircraft. Therefore, gun nBC Protection 3-10
crews should be
3-1
FM 3-97.6
proficient in equipment-rigging techniques and air assault procedures, and
possess ample sling-load equipment. Field artillery emplaced by helicopter
normally requires continued airlift for subsequent displacement and ammu-
nition resupply, and often necessitates substantial engineer support.
3-3. Light field artillery may require forward displacement of gun sections
by helicopter to provide forward troops the necessary support. Medium field
artillery may give the longer range required, but may be limited by high-
terrain crest clearance. Normally, field artillery is employed far enough to the
rear to take advantage of increased angles of fall. Flat areas, such as dry riv-
erbeds, villages and towns, and farmland, can usually accommodate firing
units, however, these positions present particular problems in the mountains
for the following reasons:
• Dry riverbeds are hazardous because of the danger of flash flooding.
• Towns and villages usually have adequate flat areas such as parks,
schoolyards, and playing fields but they are relatively scarce and of-
ten targeted by the enemy.
• Farmland is often difficult to negotiate from spring to fall. In the win-
ter, if the ground is frozen, farmland may provide good firing posi-
tions; however, frozen ground may cause difficulty emplacing spades,
base plates, and trails.
3-4. Good artillery positions, selected for cover, flash defilade, and accessi-
bility to road nets and landing zones (LZs), are difficult to find, and their rela-
tive scarcity makes it easier for the enemy to target probable locations. In
some instances, it may be necessary to by-pass the best position for one less
suitable to reduce the enemy’s counterfire effects. Commanders must ensure
that positions on dominant terrain provide adequate defilade. Positions on
commanding terrain are preferable to low ground positions because there is-
• A reduction in the number of missions requiring high-angle fires.
• A reduced amount of dead space in the target area.
• Less exposure to small arms fire from surrounding heights.
• Less chance of being struck by rockslides or avalanches.
3-5. Some weapons may be moved forward to provide long-range interdiction
fires or, in extreme cases, direct fires to engage a road-bound enemy in moun-
tain passes or along valley floors. Because of rugged terrain, higher angles of
fire, and reduced ranges, it is generally necessary to displace artillery more
frequently than on level terrain to provide continuous support. In the moun-
tains, commanders must often employ field artillery in a decentralized man-
ner because of the limited space for gun positions.
Chapter 3
ACQUISITION AND OBSERVATION
3-6. Because of high angle fire requirements, radar can be effective against
enemy indirect fire systems. In many instances, terrain masking and dimin-
ished line-of-sight may degrade its effectiveness. Sites should be selected on
prominent terrain to obtain the lowest possible screening crest. However, it is
often difficult to obtain a low and consistent screening crest in mountainous
terrain. Too low a screening crest drives the search beam into the ground. Too
high a screening crest allows the enemy to fire under the beam and avoid de-
tection. When positioning weapons locating radars, commanders should also
consider the following:
• Although time-consuming, visibility diagrams are extremely useful in
determining the probability of acquiring targets within the sectors of
search of the radar.
• To limit search areas, radars should focus on terrain that can be oc-
cupied by artillery and mortars.
• Accurate survey control is essential because of the extreme elevation
variations in mountainous terrain. Helicopters may be useful in per-
forming survey by use of the Position Azimuth Determining System
(PADS). If possible, digital radar maps may be used to minimize the
time required for height correction of the weapon system. Digital
maps allow the Firefinder systems to initially locate weapon systems
to within 250 meters. This allows the radar operator to make only two
to three visual elevation adjustments to accurately locate the weapon
system.
• Impact predict is computed at the radar’s elevation, therefore, exces-
sive errors in the impact predict can be expected.
• Firefinder radars in the same area must not face one another and ra-
diate at the same time. This causes interference and emissions burn-
out, resulting in equipment failure. If radars need to face one another
to accomplish the mission, commanders must coordinate to ensure
that they do not radiate at the same time.
• Computing track volume may become a critical task in determining a
radar’s effectiveness for a proposed position (see FM 3-09.12 for com-
putations).
• Units will use more shelling reports (SHELREPs) to determine enemy
firing locations.
3-7. The majority of all field artillery fires in mountains will be observed, es-
pecially close support and defensive fires. Unobserved fires are frequently
unreliable because of poor maps and rapidly changing meteorological condi-
tions that cause registration corrections for high angle fire to be valid for only
short periods of time.
3-3
FM 3-97.6
TARGETING
3-8. Generally, field artillery observation posts should be emplaced on the
highest available ground to increase observation. Low clouds or fog may re-
quire moving them to preplanned emplacements at lower elevations. Observ-
ers must be prepared to perform assault climbing to reach the most advanta-
geous observation site. Commanders may use aerial observers or unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs) to detect long-range targets and complement forward
observers by adjusting fires beyond terrain masks, in deep defilade, and on
reverse slopes. However, in extremely high mountains aerial observers may
be confined to valleys and lower altitudes due to altitude limitations on dif-
ferent types of aircraft.
3-9. Laser weapons demand increased emphasis on observation techniques.
Laser target ranging and designation systems help to overcome difficulties in
range estimation by providing accurate directional distance and vertical an-
gle information for use in locating enemy targets. However, when positioning
with a laser designator, an observer should consider line-of-sight with the
target, as well as cloud height. Cloud ceilings that are too low will not allow
laser guided munitions enough time to lock on and maneuver to the target.
3-10. Because of the decentralized nature of mountain operations, targets
warranting massed fires may present themselves less often than in open ter-
rain. However, narrow defiles used as routes of supply, advance, or with-
drawal by the enemy are potentially high payoff targets for interdiction fires
or large massed fires. Large masses of snow or rocks above enemy positions
and along main supply routes are also good targets, because they can be con-
verted into highly destructive rockslides and avalanches that may deny the
enemy the use of roads and trails, and may destroy elements in defilade. In
the mountains, suppression of enemy air defenses takes on added importance
because of the increased dependence on all types of aircraft. Commanders
and their staffs should carefully review FM 3-60. A clear understanding of
the targeting methodology combined with the knowledge of the capabilities
and limitations of target acquisition and attack systems in a mountain envi-
ronment is crucial to the synchronization of all available combat power.
3-11. To provide accurate and timely delivery of artillery fires in mountainous
terrain, commanders must take into account the following:
• High angles of elevation and increased time of flight for rounds to im-
pact.
• Targets on reverse slopes, which are more difficult to engage than
targets on flat ground or rising slopes, requiring more ammunition for
the same coverage.
• Increased amounts of dead space that cannot be hit by artillery fires.
• Intervening crests that require detailed map analysis.
Chapter 3
• When the five requirements for accurate predicted fire (target loca-
tion and size, firing unit location, weapons and ammunition informa-
tion, meteorological information, and computational procedures) are
not achievable, registration on numerous checkpoints becomes essen-
tial because of the large variance in elevation (see FM 3-09.40 for
more detailed information).
MUNITIONS
3-12. Terrain and weather also affect the use of field artillery munitions. Con-
siderations for munitions employment in the mountains are discussed below.
• Impact fuze, high explosives (HE) shells and dual-purpose improved
conventional munitions (DPICMs) are very effective on rocky ground,
scattering stones and splintering rocks, which themselves become
missiles. However, deep snow reduces their bursting radius, making
them approximately 40 percent less effective. The rugged nature of
the terrain may afford added protection for defending forces; there-
fore, large quantities of HE may be required to achieve the desired ef-
fects against enemy defensive positions.
• Variable time (VT) or time fuzes should be used in deep snow condi-
tions and are particularly effective against troops on reverse slopes.
There are some older fuzes that may prematurely detonate when
fired during heavy precipitation (M557 and M572 impact fuzes and
M564 and M548 time fuzes).
• Smoke, DPICM, and illuminating fires are hard to adjust and main-
tain due to swirling, variable winds and steep mountain slopes.
Smoke (a base-ejecting round) may not dispense properly if the canis-
ters become buried in deep snow. In forested mountains, DPICMs
may get hung up in the trees. These types of munitions are generally
more effective along valley floors.
• Using the artillery family of scatterable mines (FASCAM) and Cop-
perhead is enhanced when fired into narrow defiles, valleys, and
roads. FASCAM may lose their effectiveness on steep terrain and in
deep snow. Melting and shifting snow may cause the anti-handling
devices to detonate prematurely the munitions, however, very little
settling normally occurs at temperatures lower than 5 degrees Fahr-
enheit. Remote antiarmor mine system (RAAMS) and area denial ar-
tillery munitions (ADAM) must come to rest and stabilize within 30
seconds of impact or the submunitions will not arm, and very uneven
terrain may keep the ADAM trip wires from deploying properly.
MORTARS
3-13. Mortars are essential during mountain operations. Their high angle of
fire and high rate of fire is suited to supporting dispersed forces. They can
deliver fires on reverse slopes, into dead space, and over intermediate crests.
3-5
FM 3-97.6
and, like field artillery, rock fragments caused by the impact of mortar
rounds may cause additional casualties or damage.
3-14. The 60mm mortar is an ideal
supporting weapon for mountain combat
because of its portability, ease of
concealment, and lightweight ammunition.
The 81mm mortar provides longer range
and delivers more explosives than the 60mm
mortar. However, it is heavier and fewer
rounds (usually no more than two per
soldier) can be man-packed. The 120mm
mortar may be more desirable in some
situations, since they can fire either white
phosphorous (WP) or HE at greater ranges
than lighter mortars and have a
significantly better illumination capability.
However, because of the weight of these mortars and their ammunition, it
may be necessary to transport fewer of them into mountainous terrain and
use the remaining gun crews as ammunition bearers, or position them close
to a trail network in a valley or at lower elevations. The second technique
may be satisfactory if the movement of the unit can be covered and sufficient
firing positions exist.
AIR SUPPORT
3-15. Air interdiction and close air support operations can be particularly ef-
fective in mountains, since enemy mobility, like ours, is restricted by terrain.
Airborne forward air controllers and close air support pilots can be used as
valuable sources of information and can find and designate targets that may
be masked from direct ground observation. Vehicles and personnel are par-
ticularly vulnerable to effective air attack when moving along narrow moun-
tain roads. Precision-guided munitions, such as laser-guided bombs, can
quickly destroy bridges and tunnels and, under proper conditions, cause
landslides and avalanches to close routes or collapse on both stationary and
advancing enemy forces. Moreover, air-delivered mines and long-delay bombs
can be employed to seriously impede the enemy’s ability to make critical
route repairs. Precision-guided munitions, as well as fuel air explosives, can
also destroy or neutralize well-protected point targets, such as cave entrances
and enemy forces in defilade.
3-16. Low ceilings, fog, and storms common to mountain regions may degrade
air support operations. Although, global positioning system (GPS) capable
aircraft and air delivered weapons can negate many of the previous limita-
tions caused by weather. Terrain canalizes low altitude air avenues of ap-
proach, limiting ingress and egress routes and available attack options, and
increasing aircraft vulnerability to enemy air defense systems. Potential tar-
gets can hide in the crevices of cliffs and the niches of mountain slopes, and
on gorge floors. Hence, pilots may be able to detect the enemy only at short
distances, requiring them to swing around for a second run on the target and
Chapter 3
giving the enemy more time to disperse and seek better cover. Additionally,
accuracy may be degraded due to the need for pilots to divert more of their at-
tention to flying while simultaneously executing their attack.
ELECTRONIC WARFARE
3-17. The ability to use electromagnetic energy to deceive the enemy, locate
his units and facilities, intercept his communications, and disrupt his com-
mand, control, and target acquisition systems remains as important in the
mountains as elsewhere. The effects of terrain and weather on electronic war-
fare (EW) systems are often a result of the effects on the components of those
systems (particularly soldiers, communications, and aviation). Although a
number of the effects are discussed in more detail elsewhere in this manual
(and in applicable FMs and TMs), for ease some of the more common de-
grading effects of the mountainous environment on the components of elec-
tronic warfare systems are described in Figure 3-1 on page 3-8.
SECTION II - PROTECTION OF THE FORCE
AIR DEFENSE ARTILLERY
3-18. The severe mountain environment requires some modification of air de-
fense employment techniques. Suitable positions are scarce and access roads
are limited. In some instances, supporting air defense weapons may not be
able to deploy to the most desirable locations. Consequently, the man-
portable air defense systems (MANPADS) may be the only air defense
weapon capable of providing close-in protection to maneuver elements.
3-19. Mountain terrain tends to degrade the electronic target acquisition ca-
pabilities of air defense systems. This degradation makes it more difficult for
the air defense planner to locate and select position to provide adequate cov-
erage for the force, and increases the importance of combined arms for air de-
fense (CAFAD) and passive air defense measures (see FM 3-01.8). Individual
and crew-served weapons can mass their fires against air threats. The
massed use of guns in local air defense causes enemy air to increase their
standoff range for surveillance and weapons delivery, and increase altitude in
transiting to and from targets. These reactions may make the enemy air more
vulnerable to air defense artillery (ADA).
3-20. Enemy aircraft will probably use defiles and valleys in mountainous
terrain for low-altitude approaches to take advantage of terrain masking of
radar. Congested roads and trails, and their junctions, may become lucrative
targets for enemy air strikes. Enemy pilots may avoid early detection by us-
ing terrain-clearance or terrain-following techniques to approach a target.
Rugged mountain terrain degrades air defense detection, but, at the same
time, mountain ridges and peaks tend to canalize enemy aircraft. Detailed
terrain analysis, coupled with predictive analysis to identify probable enemy
air avenues of approach, aids in effective site selection.
3-7
EW
COMPONENT
ENVIRONIV
FACTO
lENTAL
IRS
REMARKS
F
0
G
1
s
N
0
w
1
I
1
Soldiers^
I
H
H
B
■ Clouds, fog, precipitation, and terrain affect
visibility and observation.
■ Precipitation, temperature, and the rugged terrain
affect soldier performance and ability to operate
systems.
Electronics and-
wire/cables^
B
1
B
■ Extreme cold, combined with rugged terrain,
increases fragility and breakage.
■ Precipitation and humidity affect electronic com-
ponents.
Antennas^
1
1
1
■ Strong winds damage or prevent erection.
■ Precipitation and cold create ice, causing break-
age (increased load and wind resistance) and
reduce effectiveness.
■ Terrain affects masking and line-of-sight
restrictions.
Aircraft^
1
■ Clouds, fog, and precipitation degrade visibility
and may prevent aircraft from flying under visual
flight rules (VFR), precluding missions requiring
aircraft landing at unimproved mountain LZs.
■ Cold and precipitation lead to icing, which im-
pedes lift.
■ Compartmented terrain affects flight routes and
target acquisition.
Vehicles
_
_
D
D
_
D
D
■ Rain, snow, and rugged terrain decrease mobility.
Radars/ Sensors
■ Wind increases background noise, reducing
efficiency.
■ Terrain affects masking and line-of-sight
restrictions.
■ Fog and precipitation decrease infrared and
electro-optical systems effectiveness.
Batteries
1
1
1
1
1
B
1
■ Terrain reduces effectiveness and battery life -
some systems may not even work under reduced
power.
1 See Chapter 1 (Effects on Personnel)
2 See Chapter 2 (Communications)
3 See Chapter 4 (Helicopters) and the Previous Section (Air Support)
Figure 3-1. Effects of the Mountainous Environment on EW Systems
3-21. Movement to and occupation of positions in mountainous terrain require
additional time. Planners must consider slope (pitch and roll), site
preparation, and access route improvement prior to movement. Bradley
Stinger fighting vehicle (BSFV) units often are unable to accompany small,
lightly equipped maneuver elements, and may be restricted to supporting
elements in more accessible areas of the battlefield. Avenger fire units can be
sling-loaded by heavy lift aircraft and MANPADS airlifted into otherwise
Chapter 3
inaccessible positions.
However, equipment
emplaced by helicopters
is resupplied and
repositioned by the
same means. When
moving dismounted,
MANPAD teams are
limited to one missile
per soldier, unless other
members of the unit are
tasked to carry
additional missiles.
3-22. Because of terrain masking of radars and the difficulty in establishing
line-of-sight communications with the Sentinel or light and special division
interim sensor (LSDIS) radar, early warning for short-range air defense
(SHORAD) systems may be limited. Soldiers must maintain continuous vis-
ual observation, particularly along likely low-level air avenues of approach.
Therefore, when possible. Sentinel or LSDIS radars should be emplaced on
the highest accessible terrain that provides the best air picture for target de-
tection and early warning, not necessarily peaks and summits.
ENGINEER OPERATIONS
3-23. Engineer combat support requirements increase in mountainous terrain
because of the lack of adequate cover, the requirement for construction of
field fortifications and obstacles, and the need to breech or reduce enemy ob-
stacles. With such an enormous multitude of tasks, effective command and
control of engineer assets is essential for the optimal utilization of these rela-
tively scarce resources (see also the discussion of engineer augmentation and
employment in the mobility section of Chapter 4).
3-24. Digging fighting positions and creating temporary fortifications above
the timberline is generally difficult because of thin soil with underlying bed-
rock. As described in Chapter 2, boulders and loose rocks may be used to
build hasty, aboveground fortifications. Well-assembled positions constructed
in rock are strong and offer good protection, but they require considerable
time and equipment to prepare.
3-25. Engineers assist maneuver units with light equipment and tools carried
in or brought into position by ground vehicles or helicopters. Bulldozers, ar-
mored combat earthmovers (ACEs), and small emplacement excavators
(SEEs) can be used in some situations to help prepare positions for command
bunkers and crew-served weapons. They can also be used to prepare positions
off existing roads for tanks, artillery, and air defense weapons. Conventional
equipment and tools are often inadequate in rocky terrain, and extensive use
of demolitions may be required. In the mountains, a greater number of engi-
neer assets will be devoted to maintaining mobility and maneuver and unit
commanders should assume that available engineer support will be limited to
3-9
assist them with their survivability efforts. To enhance survivability and mo-
bility a minimum of two soldiers per maneuver platoon should be capable of
using standard demolitions.
FM 3-97.6
NBC PROTECTION
3-26. Terrain and weather dictate a requirement for a high degree of nuclear,
biological, and chemical (NBC) defense preparedness in mountainous areas.
Due to limited mobility, viable tactical positions, and limited communication
abilities, friendly units must be self-sufficient in protecting themselves
against NBC weapon system effects.
3-27. Wearing mission-oriented protective posture (MOPP) gear at high ele-
vations, when possibly combined with altitude sickness, increased dehydra-
tion, and increased physical exertion, degrades performance and increases
the likelihood of heat casualties. Commanders should make every effort to
keep soldiers out of MOPP gear until intelligence indicators reveal that an
NBC attack is imminent or it is confirmed that a hazard actually exists (see
FM 3-11.4 for a discussion on vulnerability analysis). When precautions must
be taken against hazards, commanders must make decisions early and allow
extra time for tactical tasks. Commanders should also refer to TC 3-10 for
greater detail on tactics, techniques, and procedures necessary to operate un-
der NBC conditions.
NUCLEAR
3-28. A mountainous environment can amplify or reduce the effects of and
distort the normal circular pattern associated with nuclear blasts. The ir-
regular patterns reduce the accuracy of collateral damage prediction, damage
estimation, and vulnerability analysis.
3-29. Air blast effects are amplified on the burst side of mountains (see Figure
3-2). Mountain walls reflect blast waves that can reinforce each other, as well
as the shock front. Therefore, it is possible that both overpressure and dy-
namic pressure, and their duration will increase. An added danger is the
creation of rockslides or avalanches. A small yield nuclear weapon detonated
30 kilometers or more from the friendly positions may still cause rockslides
and avalanches, and easily close narrow roads and canalized passes. On the
other hand, there may be little or no blast effects on the side of the mountain
away from the burst.
3-30. Hills and mountains block thermal radiation, and trees and other foli-
age reduce it. Low clouds, fog, and falling rain or snow can absorb or scatter
up to 90 percent of a burst's thermal energy. During colder weather, the
heavy clothing worn by soldiers in the mountains provides additional protec-
tion. However, the reflection from snow and the thin atmosphere of higher
elevations may increase the effects of thermal radiation. Snow and ice melted
by thermal radiation can result in flash flooding.
3-31. Frozen and rocky ground may make it difficult to construct shelters for
protection from the effects of nuclear weapons. However, natural shelters
Chapter 3
such as caves, ravines, and cliffs provide some protection from nuclear effects
and contamination. In some instances, improvised shelters built of snow, ice,
or rocks may be the only protection available. The clear mountain air extends
the range of casualty-producing thermal effects. Within this range, however,
the soldiers' added clothing reduces casualties from these effects.
Figure 3-2. Effects of Mountains on Radiation and Biast
3-32. In mountainous regions, the deposit of radiological contamination is
very erratic in speed and direction because of variable winds. Hot spots may
occur far from the point of detonation, and low-intensity areas may occur very
near it. Limited mobility makes radiological surveys on the ground difficult,
and the difficulty of maintaining a constant flight altitude makes air surveys
highly inaccurate. Additionally, melting snow contributes to the residual ra-
diation pattern. After a nuclear detonation, streams should be checked for ra-
diation contamination before using them for drinking or bathing. As with the
other effects, the pattern of initial and induced nuclear radiation may be
modified by topography and the height of the burst.
BIOLOGICAL
3-33. Most biological pathogens and some toxins are killed or destroyed by the
ultraviolet rays in sunlight. Above the timberline, there is little protection
from the sun; thus, the effectiveness of a biological attack may be reduced.
Downwind coverage may be greater because of the frequent occurrence of
high winds over mountain peaks and ridges. Additionally, inversion condi-
tions favor the downwind travel of biological agents through mountain val-
leys. Typically, winds flow down terrain slopes and valleys at night and up
valleys and sunny slopes during the day. The effects of mountainous terrain
and rapidly changing wind conditions on the ability to predict and provide
surveys of contamination for biological agents are similar to that for nuclear
radiation.
3-11
FM 3-97.6
3-34. Temperatures and humidity also affect the survivability of biological
agents. Generally, cool temperatures favor survival, and higher humidity in-
creases the effectiveness of the agents. Extreme cold weather and snow de-
posited over a biologically contaminated area can lengthen the effective pe-
riod of the hazard by allowing the agent to remain alive but dormant until it
is disturbed or the temperature rises. If the use of biological agents is known
or suspected, commanders should ensure that soldiers pay added attention to
personal hygiene and consume only purified/treated water.
CHEMICAL
3-35. Wind and terrain can also cause the effectiveness of chemical agents to
vary considerably. Depending on conditions, effects can be significantly en-
hanced or almost ineffective. High winds and rugged terrain cause chemical
agent clouds to act in a manner similar to radioactive fallout. Inversions in
mountain valleys may also effectively cap an area, slowing the dissipation
rate. Because of terrain and winds, accurate prediction of the downwind
travel of toxic agent clouds is difficult.
3-36. In mountain warfare, chemical munitions are likely to be delivered by
air. The generally cooler daytime temperatures in mountainous terrain slow
the evaporation process, thus allowing a potential contamination hazard to
remain active longer. Midday temperatures favor using persistent or blister-
type agents, since nonpersistent agents dissipate too rapidly to cause any ef-
fect and unsupervised personnel are more likely to remove protective clothing
for comfort.
3-37. The actions to protect against chemical agents in the mountains are not
significantly different than from the requirements in less mountainous ter-
rain. However, in extreme cold weather, survey and monitoring is often lim-
ited to the individual team mission, the FOX system may be limited to roads
and trails, and the detection of vapor hazards is limited when the tempera-
ture falls below 32 degrees Fahrenheit. Decontamination may be more diffi-
cult due to freezing conditions, and the virulency period of contamination
hazard for persistent agents may increase.
SMOKE AND OBSCURANTS
3-38. Smoke operations in mountainous areas are characterized by difficulties
encountered due to terrain and wind. Inadequate roads enhance the military
value of existing roads, mountain valleys, and passes and add importance to
the high ground that dominates the other terrain. Planners can use smoke
and flame systems to deny the enemy observation of friendly positions, sup-
ply routes, and entrenchments, and degrade their ability to cross through
tight, high passes and engage friendly forces with direct and indirect fires.
3-39. Thermally induced slope winds that occur throughout the day and night
increase the difficulty of establishing and maintaining smoke operations, ex-
cept in large and medium sized valleys. Wind currents, eddies, and turbu-
lence in mountainous terrain must be continuously studied and observed, and
their skillful exploitation may greatly enhance smoke operations rather than
Chapter 3
deter them. Smoke screens may be of limited use, due to enemy aerial obser-
vation, to include UAVs, and observation by enemy forces located on high
ground. Smoke units may be required to operate for extended periods with
limited resupply unless petroleum, oils, and lubricants (POL) supplies are
emplaced in hide positions with easy access.
3-13
Chapter 4
Maneuver
The mountain environment requires the modification of tactics, tech-
niques, and procedures. Mountains limit mobility and the use of large
forces, and restrict the full use of sophisticated weapons and equipment.
These limitations enable a well-
trained and determined enemy
to have a military effect
disproportionate to his numbers
and equipment. As such,
mountain campaigns are
normally characterized by a
series of separately fought
battles for the control of
dominating ridges and heights
that overlook roads, trails, and
other potential avenues of
approach. Operations generally
focus on smaller-unit tactics of
squad, platoon, company, and
battalion size. Because access to
positions is normally difficult,
adjacent units often cannot
provide mutual support and
reserves cannot rapidly deploy.
Attacks in extremely rugged
CONTENTS
Section I - Movement and Mobility 4-2
Mounted Movement 4-3
Dismounted Movement 4-7
Mobility 4-8
Special Purpose Teams 4-10
Section II - Offensive Operations 4-16
Planning Considerations 4-16
Preparation 4-17
Forms of Maneuver 4-18
Movement to Contact 4-19
Attack 4-20
Exploitation and Pursuit 4-22
Motti Tactics 4-23
Section III - Defensive Operations 4-25
Planning Considerations 4-25
Preparation 4-26
Organization of the Defense 4-27
Reverse Slope Defense 4-29
Retrograde Operations 4-30
Stay-Behind Operations 4-31
4-1
FM 3-97.6
terrain are often dismounted, with airborne and air assaults employed to
seize high ground or key terrain and to encircle or block the enemy's re-
treat. While the mountainous terrain is usually thought to offer the
greatest advantage to the defender, the attacker can often gain success
with smaller forces by effectively using deception, bold surprise actions,
and key terrain.
Although mountains often increase the need to employ light forces, com-
manders should not be misled into believing that this environment is the
sole domain of dismounted units. On the contrary, the integrated use of
mounted and dismounted forces in a mountainous environment, as else-
where, increases a commander’s capabilities while reducing his limita-
tions. However, the employment of mixed forces must be based on sound
mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time
available, civil considerations (METT-TC) analysis of the specific moun-
tain area of operations (AO). The infantry, armor, and combined arms se-
ries of field manuals, at both battalion and brigade level, provide the ca-
pabilities and limitations for each type force, planning and safety consid-
erations, as well as, various concepts for employment. In all cases, com-
manders should assign complementary missions to each type force that
capitalizes on their strengths and reduces their weaknesses, and takes
into consideration the differential in operations tempo. Working together
on the mountain battlefield, armored and dismounted forces can offset
each other’s weaknesses and provide much greater lethality than any one
alone.
SECTION I - MOVEMENT AND MOBILITY
4-1. To move decisively in all directions without losing momentum in a
mountain area of operations requires meticulous planning and careful prepa-
ration. In a mountainous environment, numerous conditions exist that affect
mobility. The force that can maintain its momentum and agility under these
conditions has the best chance of winning. Reduced mobility is a primary
limitation to be considered during all phases of planning for mountain opera-
tions. Rugged terrain, the time of year, the weather, and the enemy have a
decisive influence on movement in the mountains. Commanders must ensure
that they have sufficient time and space to deploy their forces for battle by
maintaining constant security and selecting proper routes and movement
techniques. Additionally, they must closely manage limited off-road areas.
Tactical operations centers, artillery units, aid stations, air defense artillery,
battalion trains, and other supporting units will compete for limited space in
restrictive mountainous terrain.
4 - 2 . At any elevation level, movement is generally considered to be either
movement across or along terrain compartments. When moving across terrain
compartments from one ridge to another, elements should use bounding
overwatch. Lead elements should secure the high ground and provide over-
watching fires as the rest of the element crosses the low ground. When
4-2
Chapter 4
moving along a terrain compartment, forces should move on the high ground
without silhouetting themselves or, at a minimum, place an element there to
secure their flanks.
4-3. Maneuver forces should move by stealth and exploit the cover and con-
cealment of terrain. Using rough, unlikely routes and movement during lim-
ited visibility helps avoid enemy detection. All movements must exploit
known weaknesses in enemy detection capabilities. Whenever possible,
movement should be planned to coincide with other operations that divert the
enemy's attention.
4-4. Because of the narrow routes sometimes encountered, especially in the
higher elevations, formations may be compressed to columns or flies. To re-
duce vulnerability to the enemy, forces should move separated from each
other on multiple and unlikely routes. When moving dismounted along un-
likely routes, special teams construct flxed ropes, hauling systems, traverse
systems, and other mountaineering installations to provide access to higher
elevation levels and increased mobility.
4-5. The danger of surprise attack is most acute in terrain that makes de-
ployment from the march impossible. Even with well-thought-out movement
plans, maneuver elements must take both active and passive security meas-
ures at all times. Restrictive terrain facilitates templating and determining
the movement of forces, making the actions of an armored force more predict-
able. Elements may avoid detection by using planned fires to destroy known
enemy sensors and observation posts or by placing fires to divert the enemy's
attention away from an exposed area through which the element must move.
However, the placement of fires in a particular area or along a route may
compromise operational security.
4-6. When the danger of rockslides or avalanches exists, the distance be-
tween elements should be increased as much as four to six times more than
required on flat terrain. The more the conditions vary for each unit, the more
thorough the planning must be, especially if units must reach the objective
simultaneously. Often, a reserve of time must be programmed if units move
on multiple routes, over unfamiliar terrain, or during limited visibility, or if
they face an uncertain enemy situation.
MOUNTED MOVEMENT
WHEELED AND TRACKED VEHICLES
4-7. Generally, the mountain terrain above the valley floor severely limits
movement of wheeled vehicles and is too restricted for tracked vehicles. Traf-
flcable terrain tends to run along features with steep slopes on either side,
making mounted movement vulnerable to vehicular ambushes and attack
aircraft. Recovery vehicles must always accompany mounted forces in moun-
tainous terrain to rapidly remove disabled vehicles from the limited and nar-
row trail network.
4-8. Tanks and other armored vehicles, such as infantry fighting vehicles
(IFVs), are generally limited to movement in valleys and existing trail net-
works at lower elevations. Even at these levels, the trails may require exten-
sive engineer work to allow tracked vehicles to pass over them. Tanks,
4-3
FM 3-97.6
Bradley fighting vehicles (BFVs), and cavalry fighting vehicles (CFVs) can
support by fire if accessible firing positions are available; however, it will
rarely be possible for them to accompany dismounted infantry in the assault.
In such cases, commanders may seek to use their increased firepower to iso-
late the objective for the dismounted assault. If employed above Level I, ar-
mored vehicles are forced to fight in smaller numbers, yet a single tank at a
critical point may have a decisive effect. Although antitank weapons em-
ployed from higher elevations can easily penetrate the top of armored vehi-
cles, in many situations, the inability to elevate the weapon system’s main
gun sufficiently to return fire may further increase its vulnerability.
4-9. Low atmospheric pressure considerably increases the evaporation of wa-
ter in storage batteries and vehicle cooling systems, and impairs cylinder
breathing. Consequently, vehicles expend more fuel and lubricant, and en-
gine power is reduced by four to six percent for every 1,000-meter (3,300-foot)
increase in elevation above sea level. This translates to a fuel and oil increase
of approximately 30 to 40 percent or more.
4-10. Figure 4-1 contains questions that are part of any mounted movement
plan. Limited road networks and restricted off-road mobility significantly in-
crease their importance. In the mountains, failure to address these questions
in detail may seriously jeopardize the overall mission.
HELICOPTERS
4-11. Utility and cargo helicopters
are key to the rapid movement of
soldiers and equipment in the
mountains. However, any operation
that depends primarily on continu-
ous aviation support to succeed is
extremely risky. High elevations
and rapidly changing and severe
weather common to mountainous
regions is very restrictive to aviation
operations and makes availability of
aviation support very unpredictable.
At high altitudes, weather that ap-
pears to be stable to the ground ob-
server may significantly affect heli-
copters. The effects of fog, frontal systems, winds, and storms are readily dis-
cernible. Additionally, higher altitudes may restrict aircraft lift capabilities
and decrease aircraft allowable gross weight in mission profile. Aircraft icing
is common at high altitude and may occur suddenly. De-ice/anti-ice capabili-
ties exist for rotor blades, however, icing may still decrease lift and, in severe
cases, prevent flight altogether. Therefore, commanders must become inti-
mately familiar with the conditions that may limit the full effectiveness of
Army aviation when operating in a mountain environment (see FM 3-04.203).
4-12. Additionally, commanders must consider the effect of altitude on sol-
diers when planning air assault operations (see Chapter 1). If possible, com-
manders should use soldiers acclimatized at or above the elevation level
• How fast can the march be
conducted?
• Will there be other traffic on
the route?
• Are there potential areas that
offer covered, off-road
positions?
• Are there any locations along
the route that could be used
for resupply?
• Are there alternate routes?
Figure 4-1. Mounted Movement
Planning
4-4
Chapter 4
planned for the air assault. Depending on the situation, it may be better to
have troops walk in rather than fly them to the necessary elevation level.
4-13. Rugged, mountainous terrain complicates flight route selection and
places an additional navigational load and strain on the entire crew, as they
have little margin for error. Direct routes can seldom be flown without ex-
posing aircraft to an unacceptable risk of detection and destruction by the en-
emy. Tactical flight routes follow valley corridors, where it is possible to ob-
tain cover and concealment while maintaining the highest possible terrain
flight altitude. Terrain flight in the mountains may preclude using closed
formations. Multi-helicopter operations are normally flown in "loose" or
"staggered trail" formations with increased spacing between aircraft.
4-14. Terrain suitable for multiple helicopter landing zones (LZs) in moun-
tainous regions is limited. Level areas that are suitable for mountain LZs fre-
quently require little
preparation beyond the
clearance of loose material,
since the ground is usually
firm enough to support
helicopters. Conversely, if
LZs must be developed,
clearing may be difficult
due to the rocky ground.
Stand-off space from rock
wall faces must be cleared
and a level landing surface
must be created.
Demolitions may be
required to clear large rocks but care must be used to prevent rockslides or
avalanches started by the explosive shock. During the winter, snow must be
packed to prevent whiteouts. Similarly, sandy or dusty LZs should be damp-
ened with water to prevent brownouts.
4-15. When only single aircraft landing zones are available, in-flight spacing
between helicopters must be significantly increased. Although helicopter LZs
should be located on the windward side of ridges or peaks to take advantage
of the more stable winds, concealment from enemy observation and the mis-
sion are the most important factors in site selection in forward areas. When it
is impossible for helicopters to land, personnel may rappel and light equip-
ment may be sling-loaded into a LZ or, in some situations, lowered by rope
while the helicopter hovers. However, this may increase turnaround time and
aircraft vulnerability. Since available landing sites are often limited, the en-
emy can be expected to target all likely locations. Personnel should secure
terrain that dominates a landing site before using it. They must extensively
suppress enemy air defense weapons during air assault or supply operations.
4-16. Attack helicopters can be well suited for a mountain environment; how-
ever, commanders must be continuously mindful of weather and elevation ef-
fects on their employment. They can be the commander's most mobile ma-
neuver forces in mountain warfare, enabling him to concentrate combat
power quickly and exploit enemy weaknesses. During stable weather condi-
tions, attack helicopters equipped with a variety of ordnance can rapidly
4-5
FM 3-97.6
engage targets beyond the range of other weapons or those masked by inter-
vening crests. As discussed earlier, higher altitudes and icing conditions af-
fect lift and subsequently armament loads. Ice can also prevent attack heli-
copters from firing their weapons altogether.
4-17. Employment time and fuel consumption increases because of the few
direct routes. Terrain compartments provide excellent terrain masking and
radar and visual acquisition avoidance, and allow for rapid movements to the
flanks and rear of an isolated enemy force. However, these same compart-
ments may limit aircraft maneuverability and necessitate smaller flight for-
mations, which, in turn, may affect target engagement techniques. The com-
partmented terrain, combined with extended distances, may require engage-
ment without the support of other combined arms. If terrain precludes
placement of fuel and arming points in the forward area, turnaround time in-
creases and on-station time decreases. Since ground-to-air communication is
often degraded by intervening terrain, in-flight operational control over ex-
tended ranges may be difficult.
4-18. Enemy motorized and mechanized forces may be slowed and canalized
as they move up steep grades, down narrow valleys, and along mountain
trails. These types of conditions allow attack helicopters to engage slower
moving targets that have little room to maneuver or hide. However, these
same conditions also make it difficult for pilots to select positions that allow
line-of-sight to the target, sufficient tracking distance, acceptable standoff
range, and adequate cover and concealment. Positions located high on a
ridgeline may support successful target acquisition, tracking, and standoff,
but create dangerous silhouettes and look-down angles (the angle from the
aircraft to the target) that exceed aircraft weapon constraints. Lower posi-
tions, possibly in draws or saddles, may provide concealment to the flanks
and an extensive backdrop to help conceal positions, but can decrease a pilot’s
ability to locate and track targets. Intervisibility lines may mask targets, and
extreme terrain relief within the aircraft’s optics field of view may inhibit
tracking.
4-19. Remote Hellfire
engagements avoid
most of these problems
(see Figure 4 - 2 ), but
they may increase the
time of flight of the
missile. A remote en-
gagement limits the
number of aircraft ex-
posed for tracking and
lasing targets. When
engaging with remote
fires, a designating
team is placed in a po-
sition overwatching
the enemy’s route of march. The remaining aircraft position themselves in
covered and concealed battle positions oriented on the engagement area. If
possible, these battle positions should be located below the reverse military
Figure 4-2. Remote Hellfire Engagements
4-6
Chapter 4
crest or the counterslope of the ridgeline paralleling the engagement area.
Aircraft in these battle positions will act as remote platforms by providing
missiles to the designators without unmasking. This tactic prevents the en-
emy from achieving line of sight on the firing aircraft.
4-20. The AH-64D Longbow Apache will provide an even greater killing ca-
pability for the mountain commander. It is able to detect, classify, prioritize,
and engage targets with Longbow Hellfire missiles without visually acquiring
the target. The commander of the AH-64D Longbow Apache utilizes the its
fire control radar and mast-mounted site to target all of the vehicles in the
enemy’s march formation. A data transfer handover is then executed to all
other AH-64D Longbow Apaches within the company. After the data transfer
has been completed, the company can then engage the enemy march column
without exposing the remote platforms. When employing the AH-64D Long-
bow Apache with radar guided Hellfire missiles, engagement times are
greatly reduced and aircraft exposure to the enemy is limited. Regardless of
the type of helicopter, a thorough terrain analysis and early involvement of
aviation operational planners are key to successful application of Army avia-
tion assets in mountainous terrain.
DISMOUNTED MOVEMENT
4-21. Dismounted movement is often extremely slow and arduous, and may
require the skills of technical mountaineering teams to secure the advance.
For example, movement in Level II may dictate that elements secure the high
ground in Level III. As with any type of movement, proper movement tech-
niques and formations and constant security to avoid unplanned enemy con-
tact are some of the keys to successful dismounted movement.
4-22. Foot marches in the mountains are measured in time rather than dis-
tance. When making a map reconnaissance, map distance plus one-third is a
good estimate of actual ground distance. One hour is added for each 300 me-
ters of ascent or 600 meters of descent to the time required for marching a
map distance. Figure 4-3 on page 4-8 shows dismounted movement calcula-
tions for an estimated 16-kilometer march on flat and mountainous terrain.
Although not included in this example, commanders must also consider ac-
climatization, fatigue, soldiers’ loads, limited visibility, and other factors that
affect movement times (see FM 3-25.18 for additional factors influencing dis-
mounted march rates).
4-23. Commanders cannot permit straggling or deviations from the selected
route. Every aspect of march discipline must be rigorously enforced to keep a
column closed with the knowledge that the interval between individuals de-
pends on terrain and visibility.
4-24. To prevent an accordion effect, soldiers must allow enough distance be-
tween themselves to climb without causing the following individual to change
pace. In mountainous terrain, a slow, steady pace is preferred to more rapid
movement with frequent halts. Commanders must incorporate scheduled rest
halts into their movement plans based on distance, availability of covered and
concealed positions, and other factors described above. If possible, command-
ers should not conduct rest halts during steep ascents or descents. At the
start of a march, soldiers should dress lightly so that they begin slightly
4-7
chilly. However, a short halt should be taken to adjust clothing and equip-
ment after the first 15 minutes of movement. In addition, soldiers must put
on special mountaineering equipment before reaching steep terrain.
FM 3-97.6
Total
16 kilometers / 4 kilometer per
hour = 4 hours
Normal Time
16 kilometers / 4 kilometer per hour
= 4 hours
Ascent
600 meters / 300 meters per hour
= 2 hours
Descent
600 meters / 600 meters per hour
= 1 hour
Total
4 + 2 + 1
= 7 hours
Figure 4-3. Example Dismounted Movement Calculations
4-25. In glacial areas, the principal dangers and obstacles to movement are
crevices, snow and ice avalanches. Exposure to the hazards of glaciated
mountains is increased at company-level and above, and movement should be
limited to separate platoon and lower levels. When moving on glaciers, an ad-
vance element should be used. This group identifies the best routes of ad-
vance, marks the trail, and provides directions and distances to follow-on
units. A marked trail is especially important during inclement weather and
low visibility, and provides a route for retrograde. Commanders must care-
fully weigh the advantages of a marked route against the possibility of am-
bush and the loss of surprise.
MOBILITY
4-26. During mountain operations where limited mobility exists, it is critical
that units maintain security and control of available road/transportation
networks. This includes securing key bridges, fords, crossing sites, intersec-
tions, and other vulnerable choke points. These locations must be protected
against enemy air, obstacle, and ground threats. However, commanders must
carefully balance their available combat power between protecting their free-
dom of mobility/maneuver and allocating forces to critical close combat opera-
tions. Effective risk analysis and decisions are essential. Route clearance op-
erations, patrols, traffic control points (TCPs), and other security operations
aid commanders in securing routes. During offensive operations, commanders
may need to commit forces to seize key terrain and routes that afford their
forces greater mobility and tactical options against the enemy.
4-27. Engineer support in front of convoys and combat formations is often
necessary to clear and reduce obstacles, such as washouts, craters, mines,
landslides, and avalanches, as well as, snow and ice in colder regions. Re-
ducing obstacles is more difficult in mountainous areas because of reduced
maneuver space, lack of heavy equipment, and an increased competition for
engineer support. Minefields should normally be breached, since bypassing
properly sited obstacles is often impossible. In the mountains, using mechani-
cal mine plows and rollers is frequently impossible due to the lack of roads
4-8
Chapter 4
and trails, and removal of mines by hand or through demolitions is often re-
quired. Commanders must exercise extreme caution when employing demoli-
tions in the vicinity of snow and rock covered slopes because they can cause
dangerous rockslides, avalanches, and secondary fragmentation. FM 3-34.2
has information on breaching operations and synchronization required.
4-28. Creating new road systems in mountainous regions is usually impracti-
cal because of the large amount of rock excavation required. Therefore, road-
work is generally limited to the existing roads and trails often requiring ex-
tensive construction, improvement, maintenance, and repair to withstand the
increased military traffic and severe weather conditions. In certain moun-
tainous areas, materials may be difficult to obtain locally and impossible to
make full use of conventional heavy engineer equipment for road and bridge
construction or repair. In such cases, large numbers of engineers are required
and units must rely heavily on hand labor, light equipment, and demolitions.
4-29. Secondary roads and trails should be steadily improved to accommodate
trucks and infantry fighting vehicles, and, eventually, heavier vehicles. Their
selection depends on necessity and the speed with which the routes can be
put into service. Abnormal gradients on roads may be necessary to ensure
that construction keeps pace with tactical operations. Sidehill cuts are the
rule, and the same contour line is followed to avoid excessive fills or bridging.
Turnouts should be installed approximately every 500 meters to reduce traf-
fic congestion on single-lane roads or trails. Drainage requirements must be
considered in detail because of the effects of abnormally steep slopes, dam-
aging thaws, and heavy rains.
4-30. Stream and river crossing operations are difficult and must usually be
accomplished by expedient means. Bridging operations in mountainous ter-
rain are normally limited to spanning short gaps and reinforcing existing
bridges by using prefabricated materials and fixed spans from floating bridge
equipment. However, standard design or improvised suspension bridges may
still be needed for longer spans. Because existing bridges may have low vehi-
cle load classifications, standard fixed tactical bridges and bridging materials
should be on hand to quickly reinforce or replace them. In extremely rough
terrain, cableways and tramways may be constructed to move light loads and
personnel across gorges, and up and down steep slopes.
COUNTERMOBILITY
4-31. Obstacles become more important because of the compartmented ter-
rain and already limited road and trail networks. It is easy to create effective
obstructions in mountains by cratering roads, fully or partially destroying
bridges, or inducing rockslides and avalanches. Units can use antitank mine-
fields effectively to canalize the enemy, deny terrain, or support defensive po-
sitions. Commanders should remember that clearing or reducing these same
obstacles may be extremely difficult and a hindrance to future operations.
Using reserve and situational obstacles, lanes and gaps, and plans to rapidly
reduce friendly obstacles must be an integral part of all defensive operations.
Commanders must also consider the enemy's ability to create similar obsta-
cles and minefields when developing courses of action that hinge on speed of
movement or a particular avenue of approach.
4-9
FM 3-97.6
4-32. Reinforcing obstacles can be used effectively with the natural rugged-
ness of mountains to deny the enemy terrain and to delay and impede his
movement. As in all environments, the engineer and maneuver force com-
mander must site obstacles based on terrain and the availability of weapon
systems.
4-33. Antitank mines are laid along the comparatively narrow approaches
suitable for mounted attacks. Flash floods and excessive runoff may dislodge
mines from their original location; however, they normally remain armed.
Family of scatterable mines (FASCAM), particularly artillery-delivered and
helicopter-delivered mines, increases the flexibility of the maneuver unit
commander, reduces the engineer effort, and is a valuable resource in pro-
tecting rear areas from enemy envelopment and breakthroughs. Using
FASCAM should be weighed against the time in delivery, displacement of the
artillery, and the additional logistics burden that may be involved.
ENGINEER AUGMENTATION AND EMPLOYMENT
4-34. Because mountain terrain requires small-unit decentralized operations,
an engineer platoon or company should be allocated to each maneuver bat-
talion, light or heavy. Allocation in this manner may leave division and bri-
gade rear areas short of engineer support.
4-35. An additional corps engineer battalion (wheeled) and an engineer light
equipment company may be needed to augment an infantry division. Platoons
from the engineer light equipment company may be tasked to assist divi-
sional platoons with the engineer effort in each maneuver battalion area. The
corps combat engineer battalion (wheeled) provides heavy equipment and
dump trucks required to support road improvement and maintenance in divi-
sion and brigade rear areas. Also, this corps combat engineer battalion
(wheeled) can accomplish such tasks as constructing or reinforcing bridges.
To operate efficiently, additional items, such as compressors, jackhammers,
power drills, chain saws, and bulldozers, may be necessary, as well as large
amounts of explosives and obstacle materials.
SPECIAL PURPOSE TEAMS
4-36. On steep, exposed, or technically difficult terrain, soldiers with ad-
vanced mountaineering skills may be required to maintain or improve mobil-
ity. Advanced climbers may deploy ahead of maneuver forces during limited
visibility or inclement weather to erect aids that will help maneuver elements
move in difficult terrain. They may also be committed to lead forces or to op-
erate independently to strike the enemy suddenly over unlikely routes and to
occupy certain key heights that can be defended easily because of their posi-
tion. The specific employment of special purpose teams is based on the mis-
sion, tasks, and requirements of the commander.
4-37. Commanders must analyze operational terrain levels and identify the
mobility requirements necessary to obtain and maintain freedom of both tac-
tical maneuver and operational movement (see Figure 4-4). It is critical that
special purpose teams are properly organized before a mission begins. Once
movement is underway, unplanned deviations have little chance of success.
Bypassing obstacles in mountainous terrain is almost always difficult or
4-10
Chapter 4
impossible. In many
instances, the best
available bypass will
channel friendly
forces into enemy kill
zones or ambushes.
4-38. To enable a
force to move person-
nel, equipment, and
supplies on the moun-
tain battlefield with
limited delays due to
terrain, visibility, or
obstacles, command-
ers should organize
soldiers with ad-
vanced mountaineer-
ing training as guides,
lead climbing teams,
installation teams,
and evacuation teams
(evacuation teams are
covered in the combat
health support por-
tion of Chapter 5).
Figure 4-4. Relationship of Terrain to Skills
and Special Purpose Teams
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
The 10*^ Mountain Division and Riva Ridge (February 1945)
After attempts to capture Bologna in Italy’s Po Valley during the winter of
1944-1945 failed, Allied commanders focused on the possibility of wide
sweeping movements aimed at encircling Bologna and all the German armies
in the region. The plan called for using the 10*'^ Mountain Division to capture a
series of mountain peaks and ridges dominating a 10-mile section of Highway
64, one of two main routes leading from Pistoia through the northern Apenni-
nes to Bologna. This would provide the Allies with a better position before
starting the spring offensive, since seizure of this terrain would result not only
in the Germans’ being unable to protect their vital lines of communications,
but also in the Americans’ being able to observe German activity almost all the
way to the Po Valley, approximately 40 miles away. The Division’s baptism-by-
fire was to be in a region dominated by two ridges whose highest peaks rose
3,000 to 5,000 feet. One of these ridges, Pizzo di Campiano-Monte Manci-
nello, became known as Riva Ridge (see Figure 4-5).
4-11
FM 3-97.6
These heights ap-
peared to be im-
pregnable, as it was
doubtful that any
force large enough
to overwhelm the
Germans could be
massed unob-
served for an as-
sault. The Germans
had all the advan-
tages of the com-
manding heights,
and there was little
cover for troops
crossing the barren,
snow-covered
ground. It was clear
that Riva Ridge
would have to be
cleared before the
decisive attack
could advance up
Mount Belvedere
and along the ridge
towards Monte della
Torraccia. There-
fore, the plan was
for the mountain
troops to climb the
1500-foot cliff and
surprise the Ger-
mans, who would
not be expecting the
attack up the face
of the cliff.
The 86*'^ Mountain Infantry Regiment’s 1®’ Battalion and one company from its
2 "’^ Battalion were assigned to negotiate the cliff and capture Riva Ridge,
thereby setting the conditions for other assault elements to achieve their objec-
tives. Select teams of climbers assembled their ropes, pitons, and other gear.
The teams climbed in the dead of night, hammering pitons into the rock, at-
taching links to them, and fastening ropes to the links. These served as fixed
lines to assist those who followed in their ascent of the vertical face of the
ridge. The lead climbing teams reached the top around midnight, and battalion
units began their ascent in force. By 0400 on 20 February, all three of 1®’ Bat-
talion’s companies and the company from the 2 "’^ Battalion had reached their
individual objectives on top of the ridge without being seen. They attacked the
defending Germans and completely surprised them. German daylight counter-
4-12
Chapter 4
attacks were repulsed and the division’s left flank was secured on Riva Ridge -
opening the way for the rest of the division to accomplish its mission.
The capture of Riva Ridge was the only significant action in which the division
put to use its specialized stateside training. Nevertheless, no one would deny
that this single mountain operation justified all the demanding training the 10*'^
Mountain Division had undergone.
Adapted from See Naples and Die, Robert B. Ellis.
GUIDES
4-39. Mountain guides are useful for any operation, particularly on terrain
above Class 3, which requires accurate judgment and extensive technical
knowledge. They act primarily as advisors to unit commanders and assist
with planning when technical mountaineering problems affect the tactical
scheme of maneuver. They must be experienced in all aspects of mountain-
eering (usually a Level 3 mountaineer) and capable of ensuring that the force
is never beyond the margin of its operational capabilities while operating on
mountainous terrain. Mountain guides must possess the skills, knowledge,
and experience necessary to develop a true perspective of the obstacles and
conditions that must be overcome.
4-40. Mountain guides should perform the following functions for the com-
mander:
1. Conduct a terrain analysis of the assigned area.
2 . Select the best march routes
3. Identify danger areas, obstacles, and hazards.
4. Estimate the effects of elevation on force capabilities.
5. Determine the technical means necessary to employ the force.
6. Estimate the time of unit movements.
7. Develop a movement sketch indicating the azimuth, time, and mountain-
eering requirements.
8. Lead units, usually company-level and above, on difficult terrain.
9. Supervise all aspects of mountaineering safety.
LEAD CLIMBING TEAMS
4-41. As with all special purpose teams, lead climbing teams have highly
skilled soldiers qualified in advanced mountaineering techniques (normally
Level 2 mountaineers). To a lesser degree, lead climbing teams perform many
of the same functions as guides. They also accompany a unit over unprepared
routes and assist with actually conducting its mission by maintaining and
improving mobility. In some instances, lead climbing teams may operate in-
dependently of other forces to accomplish specific missions.
4-13
FM 3-97.6
4-42. These teams are capable of climbing at night with the aid of night-
vision goggles and can conduct operations over any type of terrain. Lead
climbing teams should be utilized to install fixed ropes to assist personnel
over exposed terrain. They make the most difficult climbs and act as rope
leaders. Members of the lead climbing teams must be extremely proficient in
the technical aspects of mountaineering, since they select the specific routes
to be climbed. This responsibility emphasizes the importance of accurate
judgment, since a single mistake could jeopardize the success of the unit's
mission. Commanders should consider assigning lead climbing teams to, or
developing an organic capability within:
• Ground reconnaissance elements.
• Forward observer parties.
• Air defense sections.
• Communications sections.
• Security elements.
• Assault elements.
• Sniper sections.
4-43. The number of lead climbing teams required is dependent on the mis-
sion and difficulty of the elevation level or dismounted mobility classification.
If more than one point of attack is to be used or a more mobile patrol is
needed, it may be necessary to employ additional lead climbing teams. Lead
climbing teams may also assist in the attack of very steep objectives by nego-
tiating the most unlikely avenues of approach. They can be dispatched ahead
of the attacking elements to secure the advance at night and during periods
of inclement weather. The commander’s imagination and their limited avail-
ability are the only restraints toward using lead climbing teams.
4-44. In precipitous terrain, lead climbing teams can be used alone to conduct
small reconnaissance patrols or to form the nucleus of larger patrols. They
may also be used to expedite movement of flank security elements over diffi-
cult terrain and during poor visibility. At least one team should be attached
to each element, depending on the size of flank security and the operational
terrain level in which operations take place. When the AO dictates a rate of
march on the flanks that is slower than that of the main body, flank security
elements should be located adjacent to the advance echelon. Lead climbing
teams are detached as necessary to reconnoiter and hold dominant terrain
features on the flanks of the line of march. As the trail element passes and
the security position is no longer required, the lead climbing team’s flank
outposts join the main body or proceed forward to another security location.
INSTALLATION TEAMS
4-45. Installation team members are qualified in the construction and main-
tenance of technical mountaineering systems, referred to as installations,
which facilitate unit movement. These teams deploy throughout the AO, in
any weather or visibility conditions, to erect mountaineering installations
that overcome obstacles to the movement of friendly forces and supplies.
4-14
Chapter 4
4-46. In most situations, instal-
lation teams should consist of six
qualified members, enough to
build most installations. Instal-
lation teams deploy early and
prepare the AO
…[truncated]