The Global Risks Report 2024

nature.com/articles/s43017-021-00230-3. 38. Lemieux, Audr ée, et. al., “Viral spillover risk increases with climate change in High Arctic lake sediments”, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 19 October 2022, https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/ rspb.2022.1073; Miner, Kimberley, et. al., “Emergent biogeochemical risks from Arctic permafrost degradation”, Nature Climate Change, vol. 11, October 2021, pp. 811-819, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01162-y.epdf?sharing_token=1IQrLZoEAZpmBtUsUpUBotRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0Pjhsh49EkPfNM8CfwtqRog4DeRF4tchrda O9TbkQzrpKzauUxHOoaBSK_B3rBXK__e9elk7NvOLd1-LydkUP0w4J6TSV0Mr5KsOOzegbKfzPS-SJEF3wyR-4_ewU8hIrwWPLVaYgr0fjQqL9jBw9cttuljuSfDFl9DIB4gBFn3pw_beEV1FNI49ztDNfe2iAE%3D&tracking_referrer=edition.cnn.com. 39. Bor en, Zach, “The permafrost pandemic: could the melting Arctic release a deadly disease?”, Unearthed, 3 July 2020, https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/2020/07/03/arctic-permafrost-pandemic-life-uh-finds-a-way/. 40. Defined as the intentional, large-scale manipulation of an envir onmental process on Earth to counteract the effects of climate change. See: Grisé, Michelle, et. al., Climate Control: International Legal Mechanisms for Managing the Geopolitical Risks of Geoengineering, Santa Monica: Rand Corporation, 2021, https://www.rand.org/pubs/perspectives/PEA1133-1.html; Kulkarni, Sanjana, “Reversing Climate Change with Geoengineering”, Harvard University, 3 January 2022, https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2022/reversing-climate-change-with-geoengineering/. 41. T echnologies that would reduce or stop global warming by increasing the amount of incoming sunlight that is reflected by the atmosphere back to space, such as stratospheric aerosol injection, the release of highly reflective fine particles into the stratosphere, and marine cloud brightening. See: Felgenhauer, Tyler et. al., Solar Radiation Modification: A Risk-Risk Analysis, Carnegie Climate Governance Initiative, March 2022, https://www.c2g2.net/wp-content/uploads/202203-C2G-RR-Full.pdf. 42. U.S. Department of Energy, Biden-Harris Administration Announces Up To $1.2 Billion For Nation’s First Direct Air Capture Demonstrations in Texas and Louisiana, [Press release], 11 August 2023, https://www.energy.gov/articles/biden-harris-administration-announces-12-billion-nations-first-direct-air-capture, accessed 30 October 2023; Bloomberg, “Carbon Capture Investment Hits Record High of $6.4 Billion”, BloombergNEF blog, 15 February 2023, https://about.bnef.com/blog/carbon-capture-investment-hits-record-high-of-6-4-billion/. 43. W alsh, Alistair, “Solar geoengineering — climate-solution or Pandora’s box?”, DW, 24 July 2023, https://www. dw.com/en/solar-geoengineering-the-controversial-climate-change-solution/a-66240255; Abatayo, Anna Lou, “Solar geoengineering may lead to excessive cooling and high strategic uncertainty”, PNAS, vol. 117, no. 24, 1 June 2020, pp. 13393-13398, https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1916637117. 44. Sovacool, Benjamin and Chad M. Baum, Ensuring the environmental sustainability of emerging technologies for carbon dioxide removal, EPFL International Risk Governance Center, 2022, https://www.epfl.ch/research/domains/irgc/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/IRGC-2022-Ensuring-the-environmental-sustainability-of-emerging-technologies-for-carbon-dioxide-removal.pdf. 45. Swiss Re, Solar radiation management – risks from reversing climate change, 14 June 2023, https://www.swissre.com/ institute/research/sonar/sonar2023/solar-radiation-risks-climate-change.html. 46. Smyth, Jamie and Aime W illiams, “California accuses Big Oil of covering up climate change risks in lawsuit”, Financial Times, 17 September 2023, https://www.ft.com/content/3b655443-5721-4524-9e8f-ffbf314b06a7?desktop=true&segmentId=7c8f09b9-9b61-4fbb-9430-9208a9e233c8#myft:notification:daily-email:content; Sands, Philippe, “A momentous climate case could force countries to do more”, Financial Times, 1 September 2023, https://www.ft.com/content/9da70dde-5904-4469-90bf-1248e906b721?desktop=true&segmentId=7c8f09b9-9b61-4fbb-9430-9208a9e233c8#myft:notification:daily-email:content. 47. Grisé, et. al., 2021. 48. Felgenhauer , et. al., 2022, Swiss Re, 2023. 49. Climate Overshoot Commission, Reducing the Risks of Climate Overshoot, September 2023, https://www. overshootcommission.org/_files/ugd/0c3b70_bab3b3c1cd394745b387a594c9a68e2b.pdf. 50. T emple, James, “A startup says it’s begun releasing particles into the atmosphere, in an effort to tweak the climate”, MIT Technology Review, 24 December 2022, https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/12/24/1066041/a-startup-says-its-begun-releasing-particles-into-the-atmosphere-in-an-effort-to-tweak-the-climate/; europorter, George Soros: ‘We must refreeze the Arctic to save civilisation’, 16 February 2023, https://www.eureporter.co/world/germany/2023/02/16/george-soros-we-must-refreeze-the-arctic-to-save-civilization/. 51. For example, see Surminski, Swenja, et. al., “Flood Risk Index”, Marsh McLennan, https://www.marshmclennan.com/ insights/publications/2021/september/marsh-mclennan-flood-risk-index.html , accessed 25 November 2023. 52. Richar dson, Katherine, et. al., “Earth beyond six of nine planetary boundaries”, Science Advances, vol. 9, iss 37, 13 September 2023, https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adh2458. 53. T aeihagh, Araz, “Governance of artificial intelligence”, Policy and Society, vol. 40, iss 2, 4 June 2021, pp. 137-157, https://academic.oup.com/policyandsociety/article/40/2/137/6509315. 54. Feldstein, Steven, “Evaluating Eur ope’s push to enact AI regulations: how will this influence global norms?”, Taylor & Francis, 27 April 2023, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13510347.2023.2196068. 55. Y e, Josh, “How Huawei plans to rival Nvidia in the AI chip business”, Reuters, 7 November 2023, https://www.reuters. com/technology/how-huawei-plans-rival-nvidia-ai-chip-business-2023-11-07/; Leswing, Kif, “Meet the $10,000 Nvidia chip powering the race for A.I.”, CNBC, 23 February 2023, https://www.cnbc.com/2023/02/23/nvidias-a100-is-the- Global Risks Report 2024 79