1. International Labour Organization. (2023, April 14). Social dialogue promotes decent work in Kenya’s digital economy. https://www.ilo.org/resource/news/social-dialogue-promotes-decent-work-kenyas-digital-economy 2. International Trade Administration. (2024, July 5). Kenya commercial country guide. https://www.trade.gov/country- commercial-guides/kenya-information-communications-and-technology-ict 3. Ibid. 4. World Bank. (2024). Working without borders: The promise and peril of online gig work. https://documents1.worldbank. org/curated/en/099011724092026769/pdf/P1773021669c080021bb971499c18a61008.pdf 5. KICTANet. (2025, January 16). Digital divide in Kenya: ICT access and usage data reveals disparities. https://www. kictanet.or.ke/digital-divide-in-kenya-ict-access-and-usage-data-reveals-disparities/ 6. As per the International Labour Organization, decent work “involves opportunities for work that is productive and delivers a fair income, security in the workplace and social protection for all, better prospects for personal development and social integration, freedom for people to express their concerns, organize and participate in the decisions that affect their lives and equality of opportunity and treatment for all women and men”. 7. International Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations, World Bank, & World Trade Organization. (2023). Digital trade for development. https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/ dtd2023_e.pdf 8. Maslej, N., et al. (2025). The AI index 2025 annual report. AI Index Steering Committee, Institute for Human-Centered AI, Stanford University. https://hai-production.s3.amazonaws.com/files/hai_ai_index_report_2025.pdf 9. McKinsey Global Institute. (2016, October 10). Independent work: Choice, necessity, and the gig economy. https://www. mckinsey.com/featured-insights/employment-and-growth/independent-work-choice-necessity-and-the-gig-economy 10. Mordor Intelligence. (2024, September 2). Kenya ICT market: Market share analysis, industry trends and statistics, growth forecasts (2024–2029). https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/kenya-ict-market 11. ILOSTAT figure is 86.5% in 2019. ILOSTAT. (n.d.). Informal employment rate. Retrieved August 15, 2025, from https:// ilostat.ilo.org/data/snapshots/informal-employment-rate/ 12. World Economic Forum. (2017, May). The future of jobs and skills in Africa: Preparing the region for the Fourth Industrial Revolution. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_EGW_FOJ_Africa.pdf 13. UNESCO. (2023). Mapping research and innovation in the Republic of Kenya. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000386938 14. Mastercard Foundation, eMobilis Technical Training Institute, & Africa Practice. (2024). A policy guide for digital economy progress: Advocating and implementing for a stronger gig work sector. https://resources.africapractice.com/policy-guide- digital-economy 15. World Trade Organization. (2025, July). Digitally delivered services trade dataset. https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/ statis_e/gstdh_digital_services_e.htm 16. International Labour Organization. (2022). Can the African Continental Free Trade Area promote the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 8? https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40dgreports/%40inst/ documents/publication/wcms_903939.pdf 17. Office of the United States Trade Representative. (2024, September 9). United States and Kenya to hold eighth negotiating round under the Strategic Trade and Investment Partnership. https://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press- office/press-releases/2024/september/united-states-and-kenya-hold-eighth-negotiating-round-under-strategic-trade- and-investment 18. World Trade Institute. (2023). Protocol to the Agreement establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area on Investment. https://edit.wti.org/document/show/8993cb69-cbc5-4f07-a372-5ef5c74e7b78 19. International Labour Organization. (2022). Can the African Continental Free Trade Area promote the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 8? https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40dgreports/%40inst/ documents/publication/wcms_903939.pdf 20. UK Government. (2022). Digital Economy Agreement between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Republic of Singapore. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/6229f350e90e0747aa8eb6ad/ CS_Singapore_1.2002_UK_Singapore_Digital_Economy_Agreement.pdf 21. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. (2024). Kenya removes the 30 per cent local shareholding requirement in the ICT sector. https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/investment-policy-monitor/measures/4425/kenya- removes-the-30-per 22. Microsoft. (2024, May 22). Microsoft and G42 announce $1 billion comprehensive digital ecosystem initiative for Kenya. https://news.microsoft.com/source/2024/05/22/microsoft-and-g42-announce-1-billion-comprehensive-digital- ecosystem-initiative-for-kenya/Endnotes Trade and Labour: Pathways for Decent Work in Kenya’s Digital Economy 28

Trade and Labour Pathways for Decent Work in Kenya's Digital Economy 2025