Document text
WAR DEPARTMENT BASIC FIELD MANUAL
FM 10-15
This manual supersedes FM 31-15^ IS September including C 16 April ■
1942y and C2^ 29 September^ 1942,
OPERATIONS IN SNOW
AND EXTREME COLD
WAR DEPARTM ENT • NOVEMBER 1944
United States Government Printing Office
Washington: 7944
WAR DEPARTMENT
Washington 25, D.C., 4 November 1944.
FM 7o-' 15, Operations in Snow and Extreme
Cold, is published for the information and guid-
ance of all concerned.
[A. G. 300.7 (31 Sep 44) .]
By order of the Secretary of War:
G. C. MARSHALL
Chief of Staff.
Official:
J. A. ULIO,
Major General,
The Adjutant General.
Distribution:
Continental: As prescribed in paragraph 9a,
FM 21-6; Oversea; T of Opns (2) ; Base
C (2) ; Island C (2) ; Def C (2) ; Base Sec-
tors (2) ; Depts(2); SvC (2) ; in addition
to the foregoing oversea distribution,
troops located in Alaskan Dept and NW
SvC will be distributed to on the follow-
ing basis: Armies (5) ; Corps (5) ; D (5) ;
B(5);R(5);Bn(5);C(5).
For explanation of symbols, see FM 21-6.
I!
CONTENTS
Paragraphs Page
CHAPTER 1 . GENERAL I
CHAPTER 2 . RATIONS AND THEIR PREPARATION.
Section I. General 3-9 5
II. Rations 10-11 10
III. Preparation of rations 12-14 12
CHAPTER 3 . CLOTHING 15-19 H
CHAPTER 4 . SHELTER AND HEAT.
Section I. Shelter 20-23 17
II. Shelter in timber 24-25 18
III. Shelter without timber 26-27 23
IV. Heat 28-31 27
V. Establishment of camps in
extreme cold 32-36 31
CHAPTER 5 . SNOWSHOES 37 - 4 « 4 i
CHAPTER 6. SKIING 41-42 45
CHAPTER 7 . OVERSNOW VEHICLES.
Section I. General 43-45 47
II. Oversnow motorized vehicles .. . 46-51 48
III. Nonmotorized vehicles 52-61 50
CHAPTER 8. ANIMAL TRANSPORT.
Section I. General 62 63
II. Types of animals, uses, and
equipment 63-67 63
III. Care and management 68-69
CHAPTER 9 . EQUIPMENT.
Section I. Packs 70 68
iii
Paragraphs Page
II. Rucksacks 7 i -73 68
III. Packboards 74-77 69
IV. Sleeping equipment 78-81 71
V. Miscellaneous equipment 82-92 72
CHAPTER 10. SPECIAL CARE OF WEAPONS
AND EQUIPMENT.
Section I. General 93 -io 3 76
II. Winterization of automotive
equipment 104-106 83
CHAPTER 11. TACTICAL OPERATIONS.
Section I. Influencing factors 107-109 84
II. Organization and equipment .. 110-113 86
III. Arms and services 114-124 89
IV. Leadership and command 125-128 95
V. Reconnaissance and intelligence 129-132 97
VI. Security 133-^37 i^l
VII. Movements 138-145 104.
VIII. Offensive operations 146-150 i20
IX. Defensive operations 151-155 123
X. Retrograde movements 156-157 126
XI. Special operations 158-164 127
XII. Airborne operations 165-167 131
XIII. Supply and evacuation 168-171 132
APPENDIX 1 . COLD WEATHER FIELD ENGINEERING
EXPEDIENTS 135
II. SKIING 160
INDEX 254
IV
This manual supersedes FM 31-15, 18 September 1941, including C 1, 16 April
1942; and C 2, 29 September 1942.
Chapter 1
GENERAL
1. Basic Principles.
а. Military operations conducted under condi-
tions of snow and extreme cold follow the same
basic principles as do operations under other con-
ditions. The differences lie in the tactical and logi-
stical limitations imposed by the adverse climatic
conditions and in the special equipment, training,
and procedures necessary to overcome these limita-
tions. Failure to equip and train troops properly
for operations in extreme cold before beginning
operations leads directly to failure of the operations
themselves.
б. The principles and doctrine described in this
manual are applicable to operations conducted
under conditions of snow and extreme cold in any
type of terrain. They are not limited to operations
in those portions of the world which are usually
designated as “Alpine” or “Arctic.”
c. Additional information on operations in ex-
treme cold is contained in TM 1-240.
d. All temperatures cited in this manual are
expressed in degrees Fahrenheit.
2. Major Problems.
Four major problems present themselves for solu-
tion in operations in snow and extreme cold: keep-
ing men and animals warm; moving troops across
snow and ice; transporting and preserving supplies
For military terms not defined in this manual, see TM 20-205.
1
and equipment; and preventing the malfunction-
ing of weapons and equipment.
a. Keeping Men AND Animals Warm, (i) Men
are subject to chilling, frostbite, freezing, and snow
blindness. When cold, they are less alert. Without
proper shelter and covering they lose sleep and
weaken. Their fingers may become numb from
cold, resulting in poor handling of their weapons.
They seek sheltered locations and huddle together
for warmth. There are occasions requiring violent
exertion which result in their becoming over-
heated, followed by periods of inactivity during
which they may freeze. They lose articles of equip-
ment in deep snow. When the air is still and dry,
they are likely to consider the temperature higher
than it actually is and become careless in their pre-
cautions against frostbite.
(2) Animals suffer from cold and frosted lungs.
They may require hot food, warmed water, pre-
pared beds and shelter, although sled dogs survive
without these items. Animal food consumption
rises. Horses need nose shields and frequent rub-
downs.
b. Moving Troops Across Snow and Ice. Deep
snow and drifts impede progress both on and off
roads. Movement of even a few feet from cleared
areas becomes impossible without the use of snow-
crossing equipment. Ordinary wheeled vehicles are
useless, and armored track-laying vehicles experi-
ence difficulty, in operating in snow over 18 inches
deep. Troops unable to cross snow and ice are
caught in a continuous defile on cleared roads or
trails. Snowshoes, skis, crampons or ice creepers,
and oversnow vehicles—snow tractors and motor-
ized toboggans— are essential if personnel are to be
employed advantageously in executing tactical de-
cisions.
2
c . Transporting and Preserving Supplies and
Equipment, (i) Supplies and equipment assume
a relatively greater importance in cold than they
normally do, as life is more immediately dependent
upon their adequacy and uninterrupted delivery.
The bulk of supplies, particularly fuel, rations and
forage, becomes greater in cold weather, while at
the same time the means for handling this bulk
are more narrowly limited.
(2) The same restrictions which deep snow
places on the movement of troops are equally ap-
plicable to the movement of supplies and equip-
ment. Rear area roads and railroads must be main-
tained and cleared. Roads in forward areas, if they
exist, form dangerous defiles. Carrying parties and
man-drawn sleds exhaust man power and are in-
efficient.
(3) Certain items of supply freeze in extreme
cold. Means of prevention must be devised.
d . Malfunctioning of Weapons and Equip-
ment. Motors require special starting and main-
tenance techniques; lubricants stiffen; gasoline and
chemicals vaporize less readily; condensation of
water in fuel tanks and carburetors occurs; oil and
fuel fail to flow through pipes; water jackets freeze;
springs become brittle and difficult to compress;
steel breaks more easily; frost fogs windshields and
the lenses of optical instruments; rubber sometimes
cracks; batteries fail; ice collects in bores of weap-
ons; mechanisms improperly lubricated do not
function properly; the ballistics of weapons are
modified; explosives become unstable; frost and
ice form on aircraft wings; gears and unions of dis-
similar metals bind.
e . Solution of Problems. For a solution of the
above problems, upon which the success of opera-
tions in snow and extreme cold depends, the fol-
3
lowing conditions must obtain: First, there must
be available an adequate quantity of clothing,
equipment, and supplies suitable for use under
such conditions; second, officers and men must be
thoroughly trained in taking care of themselves
and their supplies and equipment, keeping them-
selves and their transportation mobile, and keep-
ing their weapons functioning. Training should be
conducted under field conditions similar to those
to be encountered in later tactical and logistical
operations.
4
Chapter 2
RATIONS AND THEIR PREPARATION
Section I. GENERAL
3. Importance of Food.
Troops lose military efficiency when they .are un-
comfortably cold. Regular sustaining hot food
and drink are prime factors in maintaining body
warmth. Food supplies both heat and energy. More
food is required by the body in extreme cold
weather than in a temperate climate for the fol-
lowing reasons:
a. More energy must be expended to maintain
normal body warmth.
b. More energy is used as the result of increased
activity.
c. More energy is needed because of the addi-
tional weight of arctic clothing and equipment.
d. More energy is required to overcome the in-
creased obstacles^ caused by snow and ice.
4. Heat Generating Foods.
From a fuel or energy standpoint there are three
principal nutrients: protein, carbohydrate, and fat.
a. Protein. Protein is present chiefly in meats,
fish, eggs, and milk. It supplies heat and energy in
about the same amount as carbohydrate, but it is
used primarily as a builder and repairer of muscle
tissue. It is needed by the body in about the same
amount in frigid as in temperate climates.
b. Carbohydrate. Carbohydrate is found in
such foods as sugars, cereals, fruits, and vegetables.
The energy supplied by carbohydrate is produced
speedily because of the readiness with which the
5
body consumes sugars and starches. In extremely
cold weather, the body requires increased quanti-
ties of carbohydrates.
c. Fat. Fat is^ supplied by animal foods such as
meat, milk, butter, and lard, and by vegetable
foods such as cottonseed, corn, and olive oils. Fat
requires a longer time to digest than carbohydrate
or protein, but gives off about twice as much heat.
Fat is extremely important in the arctic diet be-
cause when stored in the body it can be used as a
source of future heat and energy. It has good heat
insulating qualities, and it tends to delay the sen-
sations of hunger.
5* Food Deficiency Diseases.
Scurvy and beriberi are two diseases caused by defi-
ciency of necessary nutrients and may develop after
a number of months, if they are not guarded
against. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is considered a
specific for the prevention and cure of scurvy, as
is Vitamin Bi (thiamin) for beriberi. When these
vitamins are lacking from the diet, the synthetic
substitutes should be provided.
6. Water.
Obtaining sufficient water for cooking and drink-
ing purposes is an important consideration in cold
regions. Running water is used whenever available.
Glacier water is usually clean enough if the sedi-
ment is given a little time to settle. Frequently,
however, snow or ice will have to be melted to ob-
tain water. Ice is preferred because it is denser than
snow and hence yields more water for a given
volume. When snow must be used, wet or frozen
snow is better than powder snow. Unless snow is
melted properly the bottom of the container may
be burned. Pack about i/^-inch of snow in the bot-
6
tom of the cooking vessel and melt it completely.
Then add additional snow from time to time in
amounts small enough so that the contents are
always slush.
a. Drinking Water. Water obtained from run-
ning streams, lakes, and ponds may ordinarily be
considered safe for drinking and cooking. How-
ever, if any doubt exists as to the purity of the
source, or if river water is used, the water must be
made safe for use by boiling, or by treating it with
halazone or iodine.
^ b. Filling the Canteen. Water is rarely carried
in the canteen at temperature much below freez-
ing. When water is carried, the canteen should be
filled only three-fourths full, leaving enough space
for the water to expand without breaking the can-
teen in the event the water should freeze solid. The
canteen may be wrapped in the sleeping bag or a
garment for insulation.
c. Eating Snow. In the absence of drinking
water small quantities of snow may be eaten while
troops are warm or on the move. It is better to
place a small piece of ice or compressed snow in
the mouth than to suck it, otherwise the lips may
become chapped. If the soldier is cold, or hot and
tired, he should not eat snow. Snow should never
be swallowed in lumps as this may chill the stom-
ach. It should never be eaten in large quantities
as it will materially reduce body temperature, and
may cause severe chafing of the lips. It is generally
better to eat a little snow often, than to wait until
one is thirsty and eat too much.
7 . Other Liquids.
a . Hot Drinks. Hot drinks, such as tea, coffee,
or cocoa should be served with meals, in addition
to hot soups. On marches it is often desirable to
7
take less frequent but longer rests than the usual
lo minutes per hour. In this way men can prepare
a hot drink of tea, coffee, or even soup while they
are resting, A 5- or 10-minute break which does
not allow time for the preparation of hot drinks
may, during vety cold iveather, do more harm
than good.
b. Alcoholic Drinks, It is dangerous to take
alcohol in any form during exposure to extreme
cold. Alcohol causes the blood vessels of the skin
to become dilated. Much blood flows close to the
surface of the body and a rapid heat loss results.
In this way a man can get a false sensation of
warmth, while actually he may be lowering his
body temperature to a dangerous degree. In an
emergency, however, as when a man is saved from
starvation or rescued from exposure, an alcoholic
» drink may start him on the road to recovery. Such
cases should be fed only with liquids, administered
frequently in small quantities. When strength be-
gins to return, solid food may be allowed in moder-
ation.
8. Heated Foods,
Whenever possible, food should be served hot.
Since cold mess equipment soon chills food it is
desirable to have mess gear made of some material
which is a poor heat conductor. However, if such
equipment is not available, the food can be eaten
at once from the container in which it was cooked.
If feasible, meals should be served in heated tents
or shelters, and arrangements made so that men
will not have to sit on the snow. If tents are used
it is desirable that a separate tent for cooking be
provided; if the men cook in the tents in which
they sleep there will be a large accumulation of
frost on clothing and equipment, with resulting
8
discomfort and possible danger. If tents are not
available, meals should be eaten in sheltered woods
•or behind ice or snow windbreaks. Preparation of
meals must always be carried out efficiently and
rapidly, or the men are likely to become chilled
while waiting.
9. Preservation of Foods.
a. The use of perishable foods under cold
weather conditions will normally be small even in
.stabilized situations. When fresh foods can be ob-
tained, however, and are to be used immediately,
they should not be frozen. Freezing and thawing
.sometimes results in giving the food an undesirable
appearance. Vegetables which are eaten without
cooking, such as tomatoes, cucumbers, celery, rad-
ishes, and lettuce should never be allowed to freeze
because freezing wilts them and makes them flabby
instead of crisp. Other perishables, such as fresh
meat, eggs, raw potatoes, and vegetables which re-
quire cooking may be allowed to freeze without in-
jury and may be stored indefinitely if kept frozen
hard. Once thawed, however, they spoil quickly,
and subsequent freezing does not restore them.
Accordingly they should be kept frozen until they
are to be used, and, when thawed, should be eaten
immediately.
b. Canned Foods. Canned foods may be allowed
to freeze without injury to the contents, but should
not be subjected to repeated freezing and thawing
because this may impair the quality of the food.
If possible, canned fruits and vegetables which have
been frozen should be thawed gradually in a warm
room 75° to 85° F. Generally, freezing of the con-
tents of a can will not cause straining of can seams
since the increase in’ bulk is somewhat compen-
isated for by the head space in the can. While the
9
bursting of cans from freezing is unlikely, most
canned items will bulge at the ends when frozen.
This does not necessarily mean that the contents
are spoiled by fermentation and decomposition.
The way to tell whether the can is spoiled is to
allow the contents to thaw in the unopened can.
If the contents are good, the can will I'eturn to its
normal shape.
Section II. RATIONS
10. Standard Rations.
Troops will normally be supplied with field ration
A or B while in garrison or under stabilized battle
conditions in rear areas, and with one of the pack-
aged rations while in combat. There is no standard
ration which is designed exclusively for operations
in snow and extreme cold.
а. Field Rations A and B. Field rations A and
B are almost identical except that non-perishable
foods are provided in B to replace similar perish-
able items in A. Menus are adapted from a master
menu supplied by the appropriate department or
theater quartermaster. These menus take into con-
sideration the extra fuel required by men oper-
ating in cold weather.
б. Packaged Rations.. Where field ration A or
B cannot be provided in rear areas, and where in-
dividual combat rations are needed, the most ap-
propriate of the packaged rations will be provided.
(1) lo-in-i ration. The lo-in-i ration is designed
for feeding small groups. It is intended that the
meals be heated, but in an emergency they can be
eaten cold.
(2) C ration. The C ration consists of food
packed in hermetically sealed cans, containing
meat products, biscuits, confections, and a bever-
age. Each ration also has an additional packet com
10
taining cigarettes, matches, chewing gum, halazone
tablets, and toilet tissue. The ration was designed
to provide a man with one meat and one biscuit
unit per meal. The ration will supply him with
3,150 calories (heat units) .
(3) K ration. The K ration consists of 3 one-
meal packages designed as breakfast, dinner, and
supper for one man. Each of the 3 units contains a
can of meat, meat and e^ product, or cheese. In
addition, each unit contains biscuits, a confection,
a beverage, chewing gum, and cigarettes.
(4) D ration. The D ration is a concentrated
emergency ration consisting of three 4-ounce choco-
late bars. It is intended" to be used when no other
ration is available. It can also be issued as a supple-
ment to other packaged rations, to be eaten as an
added confection or as a hot chocolate drink.
1 1 « Ration Increases.
The definition of a ration as food for one man for
one day should not be misconstrued to mean that if
a man requires more food than that provided by
one ration, it cannot be made available to him. The
fundamental consideration of providing for troops
is that they be adequately fed at all times. Under
conditions of extremely cold weather or hard work,
when the body requires larger quantities of heat
and energy-producing foods, it may be necessary
to supply the individual soldier with food in greater
amounts than those fixed upon as the normal re-
quirement. For example, it may be necessary to
provide a man with 4 or 5 meal units of the K
ration instead of with 3, or with 8 or 10 instead of
the usual 6 cans of C ration per day. Similarly, it
may be necessary to provide a group of only 6 or 8
men with a complete 10-in-i ration during opera-
tions in snow and extreme cold. Appropriate com-
11
manders are permitted to authorize increased issues
where the necessity for them exists.
Section III. PREPARATION OF RATIONS
12. Cooking in Garrison.
Cooking in garrison and in rear areas under cold
weather conditions will normally be similar to
cooking under any other climatic conditions. As
troops move forward toward the active battle front,
soldiers usually will be required to cook and eat in
smaller groups. Individual cooking equipment will
then be brought into use, and small group messing
technique will be employed.
13. Individual Cooking Equipment.
One-burner gasoline cooking stoves are issued for
the use of mobile troops who prepare and cook
their own food. These stoves are easy to manage,
burn little fuel, and are light to carry. Operating
instructions for these stoves, and complete informa-
tion on all individual cooking equipment, will be
found in TM 10-575 10-400. If extremely low
temperatures are anticipated it is desirable to em-
ploy some solid fuel, or a primer type of gasoline
stove. At outposts where fires are not permissible,
thermos containers are advantageous.
14. Small Group Cooking.
a. Size of Groups. Cooking should always be
done in as large a group as the situation permits,
for convenience in preparation of the meal and for
conservation of fuel. Even if there is plenty of fuel,
the pooling of a number of stoves is advantageous.
At the beginning, all of the stoves will be needed
to melt snow quickly, after which each stove can
be used to prepare a particular part of the meal, or
12
held in readiness for use as a substitute for any
stove which may fail during the preparation of the
meal. This last is especially important because the
fuel capacity of the stoves is limited.
b. Cooking Hints. The following suggestions
will be helpful:
(1) Thaw out frozen meat before cooking.
Partly frozen meat may cook on the outside while
the center remains raw.
(2) Cook vegetables only until they are tender.
Overcooking reduces their vitamin content and
wastes fuel. Use only a small amount of water to
get the best flavor from vegetables and to prevent
extensive loss of vitamins. Drink the water used
for cooking vegetables, or use it in soup. It is um
necessary to thaw out frozen vegetables completely;
simply drop the small frozen pieces into boiling
water.
(3) Heat canned foods only enough to warm
them. Cooking canned foods is unnecessary and
wastes fuel.
(4) Dip frozen potatoes in hot water and then
scrape off the skins for easier peeling. Before they
have tnawed drop them in boiling water one by
one so the water keeps boiling. Cut them up to
shorten cooking time.
c. Mess Gear. When the meal is finished, mess
gear must be cleaned thoroughly in boiling water
in order to remove all grease and other material
which tends to cling to the kit. Mess gear which is
not thoroughly clean may cause diarrhea.
13
chapter 3
CLOTHING
15. References.
Complete information of the use, care and main-
tenance of cold weather clothing is found in TM
10-275.
16. Principles of insulation.
Substances which offer little resistance to the trans-
ference of heat are known as good conductors;
those which resist it are said to be good insulators.
Suitable cold weather clothing is not warm in itself;
it is merely a good insulator and a poor conductor
of heat. The heat of the body is held in by the
clothing, and prevented from escaping into the
atmosphere. Since still air is an excellent insulator,
the best cold weather clothes are those which en-
trap a considerable amount of air.. The warmth of
a woolen sweater lies mainly in the thousands of
tiny air cells between the woolen fibers; fur is warm
because of the air trapped among the hairs. Several
thin layers of cloth are better than one thick, heavy,
matted piece of material, for air pockets can form
between the layers.
17. Prevention of Perspiration.
Clothing which has become damp is a poor insul-
ating agent. Perspiration is a common source of
moisture in clothing. Physical exercise will cause
perspiration even in coldest weather. To prevent
excessive perspiration, which results in damp cloth-
ing and a consequent chilling and frostbite of spe-
cific areas, precautions must be taken to insure that
troops remove or loosen outer garments at the start
14
of exercise. These garments should be kept dry in
the packs, and located so that they may be worn
during breaks and at the end of the exercise.
18. Essential Characteristics of Cold
Weather Clothing,
a. All cold weather clothing, both outer and
inner, should be—
(1) Loose-fitting.
(2) Clean.
(3) Dry.
b. Outer clothing should be—
(1) Windproofj to prevent displacement of the
insulating air held in air-pockets in the clothing.
(2) Water-repellent y to keep light rain and
snow from penetrating to the inner clothing.
Waterproof clothing should not be worn in freez-
ing weather, since the moisture from the body will
collect on the inside and turn to frost.
c. Inner clothing should consist of several layers
of some good spongy insulating material, such as
wool or pile.
1 9. Responsibility for Wear of Proper Clothing.
The types of clothing made available for wear in
cold weather in any particular area are determined
by higher headquarters as a result of previous plan-
ning. In the interests of uniformity the outer gar-
ments to be worn should be prescribed by the unit
commander. However, individuals vary as to the
amount of clothing needed for adequate warmth.
Each man should be aware of his individual needs
and govern his wearing of undergarments so as to
prevent both overheating and chilling. Unit leaders
should be aware of the danger of requiring uni-
formity of undergarments as this will cause over-
heating or chilling of certain personnel and will
15
result in ineffectives. All commanders must be alert
to the needs of the situation, and should take the
necessary steps to insure that the proper amount of
clothing is worn and is modified to avoid perspira-
tion while working, or chilling after work ceases.
16
Chapter 4
SHELTER AND HEAT
Section I. SHELTER
20. General.
The need for shelter is particularly acute in ex-
treme cold and is instinctively sought by men and
animals.
а. Cold-weather shelter should provide an ade-
quate windbreak, insulation against loss of heat
from the interior of the shelter, a source of heat
where posssible, and drying racks for clothing and
equipment.
б. Shelters should be sited to protect personnel
and equipment from drifting snow and prevailing
winds.
c. Shelters may be improvised from materials at
hand or transported. Improvised cold weather
shelters may be constructed from snow, logs,
boughs, sod, or any other material at hand in suffi-
cient quantity. Transported shelters are usually
tents, but may be prefabricated houses or huts.
They should be light, compact, durable, and easily
erected and disassembled by unskilled workers.
21. Buildings.
Where buildings are available, they should be used
to the greatest extent possible. Isolated buildings
capable of being heated can be used to good advan-
tage for drying wet or sweaty clothing and footgear.
22. Tentage.
Medium-sized tents are better than small ones,
since the body heat of a number of men together
17
raises the inside temperature. A six-man tent may
be improvised from double-ended shelter-halves.*
Such a tent provides space near the peak where
clothing can be hung to dry. Floor cloths should be
provided to keep bedding off the ground. The two-
man mountain tent, which has a fixed floor cloth,
is a very satisfactory tent, and is quickly and easily
erected. The pyramidal tent of the type normally
issued is not entirely satisfactory for operations in
cold weather because of its weight.
23. Prefabricated Shelters.
Prefabricated shelters are made in sections and are
readily erected. They are made of composition
board, plywood or galvanized steel. They usually
accommodate six to eight men, and may be heated
by wood, coal, or oil stoves.
Section II. SHELTER IN TIMBER
24. General.
a. The location of a bivouac area in timber gives
protective concealment unless the timber area
stands by itself so obviously as to indicate to the
enemy that it is the probable location of the
bivouac. Timber containing a high percentage of
evergreen trees is the most desirable type, as the
trees themselves provide the maximum amount of
shelter, as well as the best source of building mate-
rials, fuel, and bedding.
h. For small or widely dispersed units, it is
usually practicable to cut sufficient boughs for bed-
ding without materially reducing the overhead
cover provided by the timber. Wherever possible,
lower branches only should be removed. Small
branches may be stripped from boughs too large for
bedding. When sufficient boughs cannot be safely
18
removed, straw, hay, newspapers, pasteboard from
ration and ammunition containers, or similar mate-
rial, can be used to good advantage.
25. Types of Shelter.
a. Snow Shelter Trench (fig. i). (i) This
form of shelter is easy to make and to conceal, and
is fairly comfortable. A snow trench larger than the
sleeping bag is excavated below the surface of the
snow, but not to the ground. Boughs are cut in
sufficient quantity to provide a layer several inches
thick after compression by the sleeper’s weight. The
bough bed should be thick enough to prevent the
sleeping bag or any other equipment from touching
the snow at any point. The boughs are covered by
a shelter half, any extra clothing is placed evenly
on top of the shelter half, and the sleeping bag is
placed upon the layer of clothing. An access pit
will prevent loose snow from being knocked into
the sleeping bag upon entering or leaving.
(2) The snow shelter trench may be made more
elaborate by the addition of a roof of boughs, or an
SIDE
Figure i. Snow shelter trench.
19
improvised stove placed at one end of the trench.
6. Lean-to (fig. 2) . (1) The lean-to is the stand-
ard timber shelter. It is of considerable value when
the tactical situation permits the use of open fires.
It may be constructed in various sizes to house two
or more men and their equipment. The small lean-
to permits the use of a small fire and it is warmer
than a large one. Snow is first tramped down or
cleared from the selected site. Two large uprights
(AA) are erected or selected in place, and one
large transverse piece (C') laid in their forks or
lashed to them. Back pieces (B) are placed at in-
tervals along the transverse member (C') with
their ends resting on the snow or ground. These
pieces should have several inches of their branches
left on them to support the cross members (C) .
Boughs are then placed on the cross members by
hooking their branches to the cross members, and
the roof thatched. Side members (D) may be
leaned against the roof and the sides thatched.
(2) The shelter can be improved by the use of
a fire (and fire base, if in deep snow) and a reflector
(fig. 3) . The fire base should be formed of two
layers of green logs larger than the fire itself. These
will keep the fire from sinking into the snow. The
'D^
Figure 2. Single lean-to,
20
side of
t will r
e 3.
Figure 3 . Fire base and reflector.
(3) Two lean-tos may be built facing one an-
other or at right angles to one another with a fire
between; or with two facing each other and two
others facing each other across the open ends of the
space between the first two.
c. Fallen Tree Shelter (fig. 4) . A tree pur-
posely cut, or a fallen dead tree, may be thatched
to make a low tent-like shelter. Using a newly cut
evergreen, the branches on the under side should
be trimmed off and an excavation made in the
snow to provide necessary space. The trimmed
branches may be used to prepare a thick bough lin-
ing. Branches and boughs from the upper side can
be used to thatch the sides. Fallen dead trees ot
hard consistency, and not rotted, can be made into
a shelter by wattling and thatching the sides.
Wattling is the making of a framework by inter-
weaving twigs. Ji
Figure Fallen tree shelter^
d. Standing-tree Shelter (fig. 5) . Standing
evergreen trees may be used for shelter by wattling
and thatching the sides. Snow may be cleared and
the interior lined with boughs. In deep snow this
type of shelter provides exceptionally good conceal-
ment.
22
e. Other Types. Other types of shelter, or modi-
fications of those already described, such as double
lean-tos, hillside huts, wigwams, and tree tents, may
also be constructed, according to the ingenuity of
the builder and the materials available.
Section III. SHELTER WITHOUT TIMBER
26. General.
a. On treeless terrain or on terrain in which
trees and woods must be avoided for tactical rea-
sons, shelters must be constructed without timber.
In such cases, shelters may be provided by the use
of snow, sod, earth, rocks, vehicles, canvas and
other equipment, and excavation.
b. Snow is a very good insulator and when avail-
able should be used as a means of keeping shelters
warm. It is, however, a poor ventilating agent. All
snow or snow-covered shelters should have some
provision for ventilation. This is particularly neces-
sary if a light or fire is to be used in the shelter.
c. In many areas of North America and Asia
extreme cold without snow or with very scanty
snow is found. This condition obtains in the arid
and semiarid deserts, steppes, and plains where
vegetation is scant. Winds are apt to be very strong,
and vehicles and equipment must be used as com-
ponents of shelters and as windbreaks whenever
possible.
27. Types of Shelter.
a . Tentage. Tents should be dug into the snow
when pitched in open country. Tents without floors
must be banked to prevent entry of wind under
them thus causing their collapse by ballooning.
When the mountain tent is used* the door should
remain open, in order to avoid condensation of
23
moisture inside of the tent. Tents should be pitched
so that the entrance is at right angles to the direc-
tion of the wind in order to keep the doorways free
from drifts. All available appropriate material
should be used to build insulating sleeping pads
inside the tent.
b. Snow Caves (fig. 6) . Snow caves can be made
easily where the snow blanket is deep and has lain
in place long enough to become compact. Caves are
frequently made in the sides of roads or trails; when
entered from a flat surface, they are provided with
access pits. If a source of heat is placed in a snow
cave, the latter is likely to become damp and the
roof may fall in. A vent in the roof at its highest
point provides ventilation and retards melting. In
order to maintain a higher inside temperature, all
caves should have sleeping benches above the level
of the entry. When possible, the entrance should
slope upward to help keep in the heat. This is most
easily done when the cave is dug into a hillside.
c. Snow Houses. For a description of snow
houses (igloos) , see section III, appendix I.
d. Windbreaks, (i) Snow walls (fig. 7) . Blocks
cut from compact snow can be made into a wind-
break. Such windbreaks are practical only when
24
the snow is very hard; otherwise bad drifts will pile
up. Sleeping bags will wet through if the sleeper is
in the open. Tents are likely to collapse from the
weight of the snow.
(2) Vehicles and sleds (fig. 8) . When camp is
made, motor vehicles and sleds can be parked to
form windbreaks. The open spaces under a motor
vehicle may be filled with snow blocks, and tar-
paulins erected, using the vehicle as the support for
one side. Sleds turned on edge and covered by tar-
paulins make excellent shelters from the wind. If
vehicles and tarpaulins are used as shown, individ
ual tentage may be used for a sleeping pad.
e. Sod Houses. In stabilized situations, construc-
tion of sod houses may be desirable. One type of
construction is shown in figure 9.
25
Figure p. Sod house: cut and cover type.
/. Snow Hole. The snow hole is. an individual
burrow in snow with loose snow plugging the en-
trance. It may be used by soldiers halted by enemy
fire in severe weather or by units advancing by
night over open country which is under enemy
observation by day. Unless troops using the snow-
hole method have good water-repellent clothing,
use of the hole will be dangerous.
g. Snow-shelter Trench (fig. lo) . The most
quickly built and most easily concealed individual
shelter is the snow shelter trench. The method of
construction is in general the same as in timber.
The difference lies in the absence of boughs for
insulating the sleeping bag. In lieu of boughs, the
packboard or rucksack should be placed where it
supports the hips and torso. Snow shoes or skis,
placed upside down with air space between them
and the snow, will insulate the legs. Folded packs,
waterproof bags, etc., are placed under the should-
ers. The tentage and insulating pad, if carried, are
placed over these and the sleeping bag placed on
top.
26
SLCEPrNG BAG
h. Other types. Where tarpaulins, skis, ski poles,
or similar items of equipment are available, other
types of shelter may be improvised.
Section IV. HEAT
28. Fire Making.
a. Water-resistant matches are items of issue. In
order to keep ordinary matches in a usable condi-
tion, they should be dipped halfway in heated par-
affin and allowed to cool. The paraffin will protect
the heads and stick from moisture. Chemical fire-
starters may be available and should be saved for
emergency use. These are described in TM 3“300.
b. (i) Fires made in snow need bases of green
timber (fig. 3) . Without such bases, fires will sink
into the snow, which melts and extinguishes them.
Fire-building material should be carefully prepared
in advance. Splinters and shavings obtained from
the inside of the split timber should be used to ig-
nite the fire. Inexperienced personnel usually do
not secure a sufficient amount of small kindling for
starting the fire.
(2) For successful fire building, it is necessary
to remember that fire burns upward, and needs air.
Large sticks may be arranged in a rectangle as
shown in figure 11 ©. The kindling is piled in
the center. Small pieces, slightly larger than the
kindling splinters, are placed on the kindling paral-
27
lei to one pair of the large base pieces. Another
layer is placed at right angles to it, and alternate
layers are placed corresponding to the original two
until a thickness of about three inches is reached
The pieces can become progressively larger with
each layer. Several pieces are placed on the top
layer and the kindling ignited.
(3) Another method is to chop small logs into
about two'foot lengths; on one side make a series
of closely spaced cuts at an angle of about 45°.
Make a small tepee with the logs, scored sides faced
in, and ignite kindling (fig. 11 (2)) . This method
is not as sure as the first. As the 1oq:s burn, addi-
tional ones are stacked against the pile. Any plan
will succeed which insures plenty of small inflam-
mable kindling to start the fire and enough
medium-sized wood to make a bed of coals before
the addition of large logs. Candle ends are fre-
quently of value in starting fires.
Figure ii. Fires and fire making.
c. (1) Making fires without matches is most
easily accomplished with firearms. Remove the bul-
let and some powder from the cartridge and loosely
place a small oily rag or other tinder in its place.
Have kindling prepared for the fire with loose
powder on the kindling. Fire the piece into the
air, retrieve the rag or tinder, blowing on it to keep
28
it smoldering and apply it to the powder and kind-
ling, blowing until flames appear.
(2) In bright sunlight, fire also may be made
without matches by focusing the sun’s rays by
means of a lens or an improvised lens made of bot-
tle glass.
(3) The best way to produce fire by friction is
by bow, thong, drill, press, and tinder board. The
process is extremely difficult, even with good equip-
ment.
(4) Chemical firestarters are large and can be
lighted even though the hands are stiff. They pro-
duce an intense flame and will kindle wet wood.
d. Fires should be small, and should be used by
small groups. A small fire allows closer approach
than a large one, requires less fuel, melts less snow
around it, and is less readily discovered by the
enemy.
e. The use of bases and reflectors (fig. 3) magni-
fies the usable heat of a small fire and should be
utilized wherever possible.
/. In extremely cold weather sentries should be
designated to keep fires burning in the shelters of
men and animals to prevent freezing.
g. Fires and stoves should always be placed in a
trench below the level of side benches. The trench
should also serve as an entry way. All cold air will
then flow to the bottom of the trench and leave the
benches remaining at either side comparatively
warm from the circulation of heated air over them.
h. Shelters must never be airtight when a fire or
lamps are burning inside, as incomplete combus-
tion produces carbon monoxide. This is particu-
larly true of shelters with high insulating values,
such as snow houses or snow-covered structures.
29
29. Fuel.
a. Open Fires, (i) The most common form of
fuel is wood. Soft wood makes a quick hot fire, but
burns out rapidly. Hard wood makes a hot, steady
fire. Firewood should be selected from standing
dead timber. It should be felled and sawed into
proper lengths, and then split. Charcoal makes an
excellent fire, since it is smokeless.
(2) In countries with plains, such as the western
Unitecl States, and certain parts of Canada, China,
and Siberia, wood may be almost nonexistent. Sub-
stitutes for wood are dried animal dung (buffalo
chips) or twisted, coarse grasses and hay,
(3) An oil fire, if it can be protected from the
wind, can be made with sand as a wick (b below) .
h. Enclosed Fires, (1) Gasoline burned in lan-
terns provides some heat. The one-burnet gasoline
stove provides great, though localized heat. Candles
in inverted tin cans (fig. 12) will take the chill off
a small enclosure.
Figure 12. Tiri'Can candle stove.
(2) Diesel-engine fuel may be used as a substi-
tute in stoves designed to use solid fuel. Fill the
bottom of the stove with a layer of sand and pro-
vide a constant, slow flow of fuel oil. The sand acts
as a wick allowing the oil to burn evenly on the
surface.
30
30. Stoves.
a. The folding Yukon type or the large, stand-
ard tent stove may be issued. These are designed for
burning wood; however, twisted grass, animal dung
(buffalo chips) , or fuel oil may be substituted.
b. When stoves are not issued they may be im-
provised from kerosene, gasoline, milk, coffee, or
candy cans.
c. Fireplaces may be contrived in a number of
ways. Stone is the best material to use, since it re-
tains heat the longest, and radiates heat long after
the fire is extinguished. Stones may also be piled
around stoves on three sides; an exceedingly hot
fire is maintained in the stove until the stones are
heated.
d. In emplacements or dugouts, fireplaces may
be cut into the frozen earth of the sides. The life
of such a fireplace will be prolonged if it is lined
with tin from large cans.
31. Cold Comps.
When, for any reason, it is impossible to have fires
in camp or bivouac a few minutes of calisthenics
or similar physical exertion will raise the body
warmth enough to withstand the chili of undress-
ing in a shelter. Huddling of men together in shelt-
ers will raise the temperature. However, crowding
sufficient to provide warmth usually creates a heavy
concentration of carbon dioxide and vapor, or con-
densed vapor (frost) , from the breathing of the
men.
Section V. ESTABLISHMENT OF CAMPS
IN EXTREME COLD
32. Selection of Comp Site.
a. Water supply is particularly important in a
cold weather camp because of the extreme^dehydra-
31
tion of the men after several days' operations in
snow, and because the extensive use of dehydrated
foods necessitates an unusual amount of water for
cooking. Since ice yields more water than snow,
the camp should, if possible, be located near a
source of ice. Streams are sometimes open even in
temperatures as low as 6o° below zero; if such a
stream is available the camp should be located
near it. (See app. I.)
b. Camps should be placed on the downwind
side of hills. When practicable they should be
placed about halfway or two-thirds up the slope
since cold lies at the bottom of valleys.
c. Camps should be placed in timber when pos-
sible, as timber affords a good windbreak and, if it
is dense, gives some insulation.
d. If in hilly or mountainous terrain, snow on
slopes above should be examined to avoid danger
from avalanches.
e. The camp should be pitched in the deepest
snow available, so that full use of snow insulating
properties can be made. Dry powdery snow is the
best insulator; compact wet or wind-hardened snow
is best for water supply.
/. Camps should be planned in advance. Unit
areas, garbage and latrine sites, and command post
locations should be designated and marked, and
paths taped before construction of the camp begins.
Wherever, the tactical situation permits, the mark-
ing and taping should be done by an advance party.
g. Troops should, if possible, be halted before
darkness, and before they are exhausted. Tired
troops making camp in darkness and extreme cold
neglect measures necessary for their safety; this
leads to a gradual reduction in effective personnel
strength.
32
h. Firewood should be located at or near the
camp site.
i. While tactical situations may prevent the
selection of an ideal camp site, it should possess as
many as possible of the- above characteristics.
33. One-man Bivouacs.
a. One-man bivouacs will often be necessary
because of the value of small unit harassing opera-
tions in snow warfare. Although the preparation of
such bivouacs is not difficult, individuals should
have had cold weather training and experience
before they are sent out alone.
When the mountain tent is not issued, the
snow shelter trench is the most satisfactory form
of one-man bivouac.
34. Making Camp.
Upon arrival at the camp site, cooks should imme-
diately begin preparing hot food. Since shelter
from the wind and insulation of sleeping equip-
ment are necessary under all conditions of operation
in extreme cold, the remaining men are divided
into groups and put to work to make the camp
habitable.
a. In Timber. If it is practicable to use bough
for beds (par. 24a) , a large proportion of the men
should be sent to gather them as such beds must be
quite thick to be effective. Only lower boughs or
isolated trees should be cut, in order to avoid undue
reduction of overhead concealment. Groups are
detailed to erect the framework of shelters. Other
groups supply them with timber. Others wattle and
thatch the shelters and bank them with snow. Bough
cutting details should bring boughs to a unit dis-
tribution point; no boughs should be removed
from this point until all men are present and
33
shelters are completed. No one should be permitted
to perform detailed work on individual shelters
until all shelters are completed. The hot meal
should be served, boughs for bedding drawn, and
a check of adequacy of all shelters made before dis>
missal of the men. A standing operating procedure
will greatly facilitate the speedy and orderly com-
pletion of such work.
b. Without Timber, (i) In open country,
snow may be used as described to provide shelter.
Often it is better to use tentage and tarpaulins as
bedding pads than for their primary purpose, al-
though all cooking should be done in shelter. Since
the dispersion necessary to locate units near fire-
wood and bough sources in timber is not necessary
in open country, units .may be concentrated in
snow shelters if the tactical conditions warrant. The
concentration of units will insure more efficient
use of cooking facilities and will conserve fuel
used to thaw snow for water supply. The grouping
of men will help to warm the snow shelters by body
heat.
(2) Wooden tent ^ pins cannot be driven into
frozen ground. Holes for them may be driven with
a steel spike, pins inserted in the holes and water
poured around them. This is a wasteful method,
however, since pins will be broken in attempts to
remove them. Iron or steel pins are better. Forty-
penny or larger nails make excellent pins for small
tents, or rocks may be substituted for pins. The use
of pins may be avoided by fastening the guy ropes
of tents to poles buried in the snow. Tundra, being
moss covered, is suitable for driving wooden pins.
(3) Tents must not be pitched on the down-
wind side of large sheltering objects. Snow drifts
deeply in such places and is likely to bury the tent-
34
age. In the woods, this precaution is usually un-
necessary.
(4) To provide, protection for animals on
wind-swept terrain, such as prairie country, canvas
shelter should be provided. The animal shelter
should be 6 to 6i/^ feet high, banked around the
bottom, and with the entry opening on the down-
wind side. Horses should be tied on one side of the
picket line only. If a heater is used, it should be
placed on upwind side inside of the shelter.
35. Sanitation.
a. The necessity for sanitation in camps and
bivouacs is not lessened because of cold weather,
though cold weather and frozen ground make appli-
cation of normal sanitary methods difficult. Troops
operating in mountains will often find it necessary
to procure drinking water by melting snow. Sani-
tary discipline must be rigidly enforced to prevent
indiscriminate pollution of this source of water by
human excretion. Large quantities of burlap, neu-
tralizing chemicals, and oil or gasoline, are needed
for adequate disposal of wastes during winter.
Where transportation permits, large cans may be
used as receptacles in latrines. Latrines and garbage
dumps may be constructed as shown in figure 13.
Hammocks should be made of burlap. Spoil is
deposited in the hammocks and collected when
frozen.
b. Chemicals such as cresol are spread thickly
under the hammocks to neutralize spoil in liquid
state. If no chemicals are available, sawdust or shav-
ings should be spread thickly . under the hammocks,
collected daily, .and burned by use of gasoline or
oil. Hammocks should be changed daily and burned
in a similar manner.
c. If burning is impossible, ground pits should
35
CHEMICALS
(D LATRINE
Figure r^. Garbage and latrine hammocks.
be excavated. I£ the ground is frozen so hard that
this is impracticable, snow pits in hollows and val-
leys not adjacent to water sources should be used,
and the site marked and covered with brush. Lib-
eral sprinkling with neutralizing chemicals, if pos-
sible, should be effected daily. Spoil should be
buried at the first thaw.
d. In cold, windy weather, latrine screens or
tents should be erected. Good paths to latrine sites
should be cleared. Constant supervision must be
exercised to see that all personnel use latrines. If
screens or tents are not available, snow holes large
enough to pi^otect individual? from the wind should
be excavated.
e. Mess gear should be wiped with swabs made
of toilet tissue twisted around bough tips before
grease and scraps freeze to it. Boiling water should
then be used to clean the gear. In addition, germi-
cidal rinse may be used. The use of toilet tissue
and boughs will cut down the amount of boiling
water needed for cleaning, an important considera-
tion when snow is melted for water supply. Crusted
snow may also be used for partial scrubbing of
gear. Mess gear should again be dipped in boiling
water before subsequent use.
/. Measures for control of lice are of great im-
portance in cold weather because of the difficulty
of bathing. Dusting powders should be used as
directed by the unit surgeon. Lice are especially
apt to be present during a winter campaign where
buildings are used as bivouacs. An examination of
all personnel for lice infestation before commence-
ment of a winter campaign and frequently there-
after will prevent the spread of lice, particularly if
the operations are conducted in a locality where
there are no settlements.
g. Shaving in cold weather is difficult but neces-
sary. Growths of beards should be discouraged be-
cause faces may freeze under a beard without detec-
tion. Moisture from the breath collects in the beard
and plays a part in freezing the face. Shaving should
be performed at night before retiring. The beard
may also be clipped close with hair clippers. These
measures will reduce chapping of the skin. Razors
and clippers must have the chill removed by heat-
ing before being used.
h. Bathing is difficult in extreme cold; however,
37
bathing as well as laundry facilities should be pro-
vided. Dirty clothing and dirty bodies are danger-
ous in cold weather because dirt destroys the in-
sulating qualities of clothing and dirty skin does
not function efficiently in controlling body heat.
Steam baths are very good in extreme cold. Steam
baths may be improvised in a closed shelter by
heating stones and sprinkling water over them.
After bathing, a quick snow rub followed by vigor-
ous toweling and dressing in a warm place are
ideal. A dry rub is better than nothing at all; feet,
crotch, and underarms need particular attention.
36. General Precautions.
a. When conditions permit, camp should be
made before dark, security detachments posted, and
ally available firewood collected at once.
b. Since men are less alert when cold, double
sentinels should be posted and relieved at short
intervals, often every half hour. Frequent inspec-
tion of sentinels by officers and noncommissioned
officers will be necessary.
c. In deep snow, paths leading to kitchens,
latrines, picket lines, and other places habitually
used should be cleared. Necessary paths are also
cleared to facilitate movement to, and between,
various elements of the outpost.
d. At overnight bivouacs which are not to be
occupied later, straddle trenches can be dug in the
snow, and when abandoned, covered with brush
and marked. Latrines should be protected from
the wind by brush, snowbanks, or canvas.
e. For instructions on care of animals see para-
graph 68.
/. Snow banked around the lower edge of the
tent wall will keep wind from blowing in. Sleep-
ing bags must not be allowed to rest against the
38
tent walls. Insulating material should be used be-
neath sleeping bags.
g. Cold hietal sweats when brought into a warm
tent or building. Therefore, firearms are not taken
into tents, but are stacked in a secure and orderly
manner outside.
h. If there is any frost in the outer layers of
clothing, the frosted garments must be removed
at once before they thaw. If facilities for thorough
drying of garments are not available, it is best to
leave them outside and beat the frost out of them ,
immediately, and again before they are put on next
morning. Most inner clothing should be removed
for drying. Socks and insoles are always damp after
a day’s march. Under no circumstances should any-
thing be left in the shoes when they are removed.
If fires are available, everything should be dried
out thoroughly. Care should be taken not to burn
the clothing. If fires are not available damp under-
clothing and socks can be dried by taking them into
the sleeping bag. Though the likelihood of arising
in the dark in tactical situations may necessitate
the wearing of some clothing when in the bag,
heavy outside clothing should not be so worn.
Wearing frosted clothing in a sleeping bag is a sure
way of becoming chilled. It must be remembered
that the presence of moisture in any form is the
main cause of chilling. Clothing may also be dried
by putting it inside clothing near the body while
on the move, or still. Sun and wind also help; cloth-
ing may be hung in a place where sun and air
strike it, or may be hung securely tied to the pack
on the march.
i. A heavy fall of damp snow will often break
down tents. This can be prevented by having de-.
tails shake the snow off the tents from time to time.
/. Charcoal burners and incomplete combustion
39
in gasoline or oil stoves produces monoxide gas
poisoning and suffocation in unventilated shelters;
for this reason, heated shelters must always be ven-
tilated. Incomplete combustion usually occurs
when a top covering touches or is placed down over
the flame. '
k. Wood or coal stoves must not be placed di-
rectly on the snow, otherwise they will soon melt a
hole and the fire will be flooded.
L Care should be taken not to wade in the slush
around campfires with shoes that are not water-
proof. Frozen feet may be the result.
m. Warming the feet or drying shoes by placing
them too close to the fire causes leather to dry and
crack. Since leather is tanned skin, it will stand
little more heat than a man's hand without damage.
40
Chapter 5
SNOWSHOES
37. General.
Of the three means of oversnow movement of
troops— snowshoe, ski, and oversnow vehicles— the
snowshoe will be the most common. For untrained
troops the snowshoe is better adapted for normal
tactical procedure than the ski. It is also better
adapted for use in that type of terrain which pro-
vides maximum cover and concealment. Men can
pull loads and carry heavy packs better on snow-
shoes than on skis. Very little special equipment is
needed for snowshoe maintenance. For a complete
description of issue types of snowshoes, their use,
care and maintenance, see TM 10-275.
38. Instruction.
a. Learning to use the snowshoes in marching is
not so much a matter of learning a definite tech-
nique as it is a matter of continuous use to harden
the feet and condition the seldom used muscles
that do not come into play in ordinary marching.
Two weeks’ instruction will usually make troops
proficient enough to participate in oversnow opera-
tions. Training may be given during the course of
operations’ which are already under way.
b. One period of instruction in the use of snow-
shoes followed by several periods of extended order
drill on snowshoes at quick and double time and a
few cross-country marches with packs will prove
adequate instruction for snowshoe troops. Stiffness
and soreness of muscles can be expected at first; for
this reason, initial training should not be too severe.
Progressive increase of loads carried and distance
41
covered should be made until full proficiency is
reached. Hardening can be accomplished during
maneuvers if mobility is of secondary importance.
39. Standards of Proficiency.
Minimum performance should be the ability to
carry ’50-pounds on a packboard, 10 to 12 miles
per day over easy terrain, breaking camp before
departure and making camp on arrival. Oversnow
vehicles, when available, should be used for trail
breaking. Since trail breaking by man power is
fatiguing work, trail breakers should be changed at
frequent intervals. It is important that men have
sufficient reserve energy for bivouac construction at
the end of a march.
40. Use of Snowshoes.
a. General. Snowshoes should always be worn
when snow is more than 12 inches deep; they should
not be worn when it is less than 3 inches deep. In
shallow snow, the webbing of snowshoes will be
damaged by rocks, sticks, and clods and mobility
on foot is greater without snowshoes. Except in
shallow snow, snowshoes are suitable for use in all
but the densest wooded and brush areas. The bear-
paw type is suitable for use around crew-served
weapons and animals, or in very rough or steep
terrain.
&. Soft Snow or Breakable Crust. (1) In soft
snow or snow with a breakable crust, a trail snow-
shoe should be worn, as a man wearing a bearpaw
snowshoe sinks in quite a distance, sometimes to
the knee.
(2) To conserve energy and to cover a maximum
distance, a long stride is best. The development of
the proper stride requires a considerable amount
training. The foot is lifted straight up and then
42
thrust forward. Before lifting the foot, it is pulled
backwards an inch or so before stepping ahead*
This frees the tip of the.snowshoe and enables it
to clear the snow on the forward movement.
c. Hard or Packed Snow. In hard or packed
snow, a shorter stride is more effective. Because the
hard snow supports the foot, the spring-like tension
on the webbing is lost and a long “heel and toe’'
stride is very hard on the knees. The fastest and
least fatiguing method of traveling is to use a loose-
kneed, rocking gait.
d. Rugged Terrain. After a man has learned to
use snowshoes on level land, he should be advanced
to practice in negotiating rugged terrain. A steep
hill can be traversed with trail shoes. The shoe is
not turned flat against the slope of the hill, but a
trail is beaten down by stamping the inner shoe at
each step and by placing as little weight as possible
on the outer one. However, care should be taken
to avoid cutting a trail across an avalanche slope.
While a snowshoe trail is less likely to start an
avalanche than a ski trail, a snowshoe party is on
the slope for a longer period due to the difficulty
of making the traverse. On crusted or packed snow,
the slope can best be climbed direct. When travers-
ing on hard snow the snowshoe will necessarily be
placed flat on the surface but the toe should point
diagonally up hill for better application of fric-
tion. When the crust is strong enough, it is often
profitable to remove the snowshoes on a traverse.
The spikes on the bear-paw snowshoe permit climb-
ing any degree of slope that can be climbed with-
out step cutting.
e. Obstacles. Logs, ditches and small streams
can be jumped. Care should be taken to prevent the
tail of the snowshoe from falling downward. If the
tail is in a vertical position upon landing, it will
43
strike the snow first and perhaps throw the user.
/. Turning About. To turn, about on a trail, a
kick turn is used. The right leg is lifted, swung
back and kicked forward and up. At the top of the
kick, as the trailing edge of the snowshoe clears the
snow, the foot is turned outward, the turning of
the foot continuing as the leg is lowered, when it
will be iSo"^ opposed to its original facing. The
weight is gradually shifted to the right foot as it is
lowered, until the left foot can be raised and
brought over the trailing edge of the right snow-
shoe, now at rest on the snow, and faced in the
direction of the right foot.
44
chapter 6
SKIING
41 « General.
a. Trained ski troops have a high degree of over-
snow mobility, and are capable of brilliant and
daring small unit actions. Scouts and reconnais-
sance units should be accomplished ski troops when-
ever possible. A good portion of the infantry com-
ponents should be capable of using skis, if necessary.
Ski troops are also suited for special missions against
enemy supply points and columns.
For a description of issue types of skis, their
use, care, and maintenance, see TM 10-275.
42. Training.
а. Units engaged in ski training should have
completed unit and combined training,
б, Training highly proficient skiers for such
duties as reconnaissance, carrying messages, and
patrolling in the mountains, is a lengthy process.
The training period can be shortened considerably
if men with previous training are utilized,
c. Training should begin with physical training
to include ski conditioning exercises, followed in
order by elementary skiing, cross-country skiing,
and advanced technique. Only limited instruction
in downhill skiing should be given until extended
cross-country marches with full military equipment
on level or rolling terrain have been accomplished.
Roads and trails should be avoided whenever pos-
sible. Since hill climbing ability is important, this
45
phase of training should be emphasized. At the
conclusion of training, the soldier should be able
to travel safely with a pack and as a member of a
unit, over ail sorts of rugged, snow-covered terrain.
d. For additional information on skiing, see
appendix II,
46
chapter 7
OVERSNOW VEHICLES
Section I. GENERAL
43. General.
The use of oversnow vehicles enables transport to
be independent of roads and to operate across
country, and turns snow-covered terrain into an
asset rather than a liability. Motorized oversnow
vehicles should be characterized by an extremely
low track or runner pressure, high power, dura-
bility, and ease of maintenance. Wheeled-vehicle
transportation becomes useless in deep snow and,
as road clearance is not possible in forward areas
and as the road net may be sparse, or even non-
existent, the substitution of oversnow vehicles for
wheeled vehicles in forward areas is imperative.
Oversnow vehicles should augment wheeled trans-
port in rear areas during winter months. Most
track-laying types of oversnow vehicles are suitable
for cross-country operation all year round and in
all weather. ^
44. Types.
Oversnow vehicles are usually track laying or run-
ner borne. Track-laying types are usually slower
than runner-borne, but capable of heavier duty.
Runner-borne types may be best utilized in damp
snow and open, smooth, or rolling terrain, while
track-laying types are best for rough terrain. The
powdery nature of snow in extreme cold necessi-
tates greater flotation than that required in ordi-
nary snow.
45. Load Factors.
a. The variables of load, terrain, vegetation, and
condition and depth of the snow modify perform-
47
ance of all oversnow vehicles. Loads should be as
light as possible, clear routes should be selected by
liaison aircraft, and towed sleds or toboggans should
be narrower than the towing vehicles.
b. Speed of operation should be kept as low as
consistent with the tactical situation if excessive
mortality of vehicles is to be prevented.
c. Oversnow vehicles designed for reconnaissance
and rapid oversnow movement should not be used
to haul loads. Medium load-pulling or carrying
equipment should never be substituted for heayy
tractors.
Section IL OVERSNOW MOTORIZED VEHICLES
46. Types.
There are several types of oversnow motorized
vehicles. One standard type is illustrated in fig-
ure 14.
Figure Cargo carrier M2p.
47. Motor Winterization.
For winterization of vehicles, see section II, chapter
10 and the winterization sections of appropriate
technical publications.
48. Track Adjustment.
Extreme cold contracts metals and makes rubber
brittle. Tracks should be adjusted in the tempera-
ture in which they are to be used. A track which is
48
tight in a warm garage will break easily after being
in a temperature of 40° below zero for a short time.
49* Care.
Track-laying oversnow vehicles are not tanks, and
should never be used to crush obstacles. Engines
should not be raced nor tracks spun. Route recon-
naissance should be thorough; drivers must be on
the alert to select routes which will save wear on
their vehicles. Care of runners on runner-borne
oversnow equipment is the same as for sleds. Run-
ner-borne equipment should not be operated at
high speeds unless it is known that the snow is
uniform throughout the route, and that the route
is free from obtacles.
50. Driver Training.
a. Drivers should be trained in basic driving,
maneuvers, hill climbing, towing loads, selecting
routes, freeing bogged vehicles, replacing tracks,
first echelon maintenance, and, when time and
facilities permits, second echelon maintenance. The
training should be concluded with a series of prac-
tical tests.
b. Drivers are taught to avoid obstructions of all
kinds, rather than to rely on the characteristics of
the vehicles in overcoming such obstacles. Racing
of engines is to be avoided^ as this is a particularly
injurious practice at low temperature. Each driver
should be carefully checked for proficiency in oper-
ating the type of vehicle which is to be assigned
to him. Once so assigned, the vehicle should remain
in his care and under his operation.
5T* First and Second Echelon Maintenance.
First and second echelon maintenance are more
important in extreme cold than under normal con-
ditions. Proper driving technique and engine care
49
are absolutely essential to prevent early ruin of
motors in cold weather. Proficiency in winteriza-
tion of vehicles should be stressed. Technical pub-
lications applying to the type of oversnow vehicles
issued should be on hand and carefully adhered to,
as mechanical failure is likely and the resupply of
parts is difficult.
Section III. NONMOTORIZED VEHICLES
52. General.
a. The availability of manpower and possible
shortage of motorized oversnow equipment may
require the use of man-drawn sleds and toboggans
for transport of supplies for short distances.
h. Men hauling loads should work on foot if the
snow depth is less than i 2 inches and on snowshoes
if it is over 12 inches.
c. Tandem harnessing is necessary when off
roads. With this type of harnessing the energy of
only one man is dissipated in breaking the trail.
The harness should be of hip harness type. On
toads other types of harness may prove advan-
tageous.
d. The employment of one man behind a sled,
using handlebars for pushing and steering, and a
rope for braking the sled is of great advantage, even
though the pulling team is thereby diminished in
size. In rounding curves, all men in harness swing
wide to the outside of the curve to prevent the
teams and sled from slipping off the road to the
inside. Skis, unless equipped with skins, do not
possess sufficient traction to be used in hauling.
53. Sleds and Toboggans.
a . Combination Sled-toboggan (fig. 15). This
sled is standard and is the type most likely to be
issued for operations in snow and cold. It can be
used as a sled when the snow offers a firm bearing
50
surface or the load is light. It can be used as a
toboggan when the snow is light and powdery, or
when the load is heavy.
6. Standard Military Toboggan (fig. i6) .This
toboggan can be tractor drawn or man hauled.
51
c, Akja (figs» 17, 18, 19) . The akja may be used
for the removal of wounded from the firing line
and for transport of supplies to forward units. For
short distances (approximately 200 to 300 yards)
it can be pulled by one man crawling or creeping.
It can readily be improvised from plywood panel-
ing, as shown in figure 18.
BRAKING ROPE
© Weapons akja.
@ Akja.
0 Plywood akja.
Figure 77. Akja sleds.
52
METHOD OF LOOPING TOWROPE
FOR CRAWLING OR CREEPING
Figure /p. Use of akja in combat.
d. Tractor-drawn Cargo Sled (fig. 20) . Trac-
tor-drawn cargo sleds are capable of carrying loads
up to 1,400 pounds. Figures show the standard
cargo sled fitted with wooden adapters carrying the
105-mm howitzer broken into separate loads and
being drawn by an M2 9 cargo carrier. The trail
should be broken by one unloaded cargo carrier
when cargo sleds are heavily loaded. Slopes up to
20 percent have been negotiated by use of this
equipment. The prime mover should always be
wider than any sled or toboggan.
53
54. Improvised Sleds and Toboggans.
When improvising sleds, the runners must be
of such size as to support the sled and its load a
sufficient distance above the snow surface to pre-
vent the body of the sled from touching the surface.
The runners must be turned up enough to prevent
burying or plowing of the front end. It is usually
simpler to adjust the load to the sled than to at-
tempt to build the sled to fit the load. A sled may
be improvised from skis and ski poles as well as
from lumber. (See fig. 21.)
U
u u
Figure 21. Sled improvised from ski equipment.
b. Toboggans may be most easily improvised
from sheet metal, although combinations of wood
and sheet metal are lighter. The sheet metal should
55
be used for the curved portion only. The standard
toboggan may be used as a guide for improvisation.
c. A travois, or drag, may be used for light loads.
It is readily constructed as shown in figure 22.
Figure 22 . Travois or drag.
d. Sliding troughs (fig. 23) are effective for
transportation of heavy weapons; one trough is
placed under each wheel. A trough is constructed
of planks, preferably ash, placed side by side. Planks
should be steamed and bent over a form while hot.
Bearing surfaces should be waxed. (See par. 55.)
Approximate load capacities for troughs of various
sizes are as follows:
Load Capacity Table for One Trough
Load
Length
Width
Pounds
Feet
Inches
330
m
13
660
12
16
1750
17
19
56
I
i
55. Adjustment of Bearing Surfaces.
Bearing surfaces of sleds, troughs and toboggans
require waxing to suit snow conditions. (See sec.
IV, app. II.) At extremely low temperatures snow
offers almost as much friction to sliding as sand; at
such temperatures waxes are no longer efficient.
Metal or metal shod runners may be covered with
wood when snow begins to impede progress.
Wooden runners and toboggans may be iced at
low temperatures by pouring water over the bear-
ing surfaces; their subsequent freezing is an effec-
tive expedient. Sleds and toboggans will freeze to
the snow surface if left standing in one spot loaded.
They may be broken out by tapping runners stead-
ily with a mallet or stick of wood, and then moving
the sled. Toboggans are more difficult to break out,
and snow frozen to the bottom will make them
hard to pull until friction removes it.
56. Adjustment of Combination Sled-
Toboggans.
a. When loads are light and snow is compacted,
57
crusted or wet, the combination sled toboggan
should be employed as a sled, since its frictional
resistance is less in this position; in addition, with
the load remaining constant, greater speed is pos-
sible as a sled than as a toboggan.
b. With soft powdery snow, a weak crust, wet
slush, or heavy loads, sled runners bury themselves,
and the sled will plow through, rather than glide
over, the snow. When these conditions exist it will
be necessary to adjust the combination sled- tobog-
gan to form a toboggan. As a toboggan the pressure
per unit area of bearing surface is less than the
sled will not bury nor plow.
57. Tarpaulins.
Tarpaulins used to cover loads become stiff in ex-
treme cold. They should not be sharply creased
when stiff or the threads will break; they will also
wear out quickly if continually creased at the same
point.
58. Loads.
a. Wood becomes very brittle in extreme cold.
Furthermore, concentration of the load over the
front or rear portions of a sled reduces the elasticity
of the runner at that point. Hence, unless the load
is centered on the sled the danger of breaking run-
ners is increased. Centering of loads is best accom-
plished by placing heavy articles, particularly those
whose weight is concentrated, slightly to the rear
of the center of the sled and loading lighter articles
on top and at either end. This makes the sled easier
to steer than when the load is exactly centered.
Overloading should be avoided since a small
amount of additional strain on runners whose elas-
ticity has been impaired by cold is sufficient to
break them.
58
b. Loads should be placed low upon the sled.
Certain items comprising the load— bedding rolls,
sleeping bags, and tentage— may be compacted and
wedged firmly in the sled. The load is then com-
pletely covered by a tarpaulin and lashed to the sled.
Equipment likely to be needed on the trail should
be stowed in waterproof bags and lashed on the
load outside of the tarpaulin. Lashings should per-
mit no movement between load and sled in any
direction. After traveling awhile, it will again be
necessary to tighten the lashings.
59. Lashings.
a. The beds of sleds and toboggans should have
a row of loops of rope or metal eyes through which
lashings may be passed. A good method is to make
these loops long, yet not long enough to meet when
the load is compacted and covered. A center rope
is tied to a loop or eye at the stern and tied loosely
on the bow. Lashings are tied to the rear loop on
either side and passed alternately around the center
rope and through loops as shown until they are
fastened to the bow. These lashings, one on either
side, hold the load in place and should be drawn
taut. In order to permit later adjustment, the center
rope is not taught originally. The center rope
should be pulled taught after the load has settled.
(See fig. 24.)
b. Cotton or linen rope is more pliable and re-
tains more strength at low temperatures than that
made from hemp or sisal and is therefore superior
to the latter as lashing material.
c. Lashings should be padded at points of chaf-
ing, since a sled is flexible and the constant moving
of a lashing over a sharp or rough surface will wear
it out.
59
CENTER ROPE
CENTER ROPE
Figure 2^. Loop, lashings, and their equipment.
d. Lashings and other ropes should be coiled
when not in use, as abrupt kinks at low tempera-
tures break the threads.
60* Maintenance and Field Repair*
a. Sleds. The breaking of runners is the most
common form of damage to sleds. When a runner
breaks, the edges of the break should be matched
together. A block is then nailed or screwed on top
of the runner covering the joint. A ski can then be
fastened to the running surface of the runner.
b. Toboggans. Holes in toboggans may be
mended by nailing a flattened can on the under
side of the toboggan and covering the hole. A ski
is frequently fastened over the mended point to
reinforce it,
c. Materials. Nails, bolts, tacks, screws, ham-
meis, wrenches, screw-drivers, and rawhide thongs
60
should be kept in a small bag fastened to each
sled or toboggan for ready use in localities where
damage to oversnow equipment is most likely to
occur.
61. Time and Space Factors. ^
а . General. Because of the variables affecting ■
oversnow movement, rates of travel are difficult to
determine. Packed or crusted snow on level ground
free from brush, stumps or rocks, and with a me-
dium load at zero temperature, is ideal for over-
snow movement. The delay caused by the darkness,
when traveling at night, is frequently compensated
for by the presence of a firm crust of snow which
may be absent in the daytime because of the solar
thawing which occurs even at low air temperatures.
б. Average Daily Run. (i) The length of the
daily run depends on many variable factors, such
as the use of power and manhauling, stops for dry-
ing, establishment of bivouacs along the route, sup-
ply difficulties, and delays incident to river cross-
ings. The use of light equipment will increase the
length of the run; the use of heavier equipment
correspondingly decreases it.
(2) For oversnow marches across terrain lack-
ing shelter and road nets, many unscheduled halts
will occur. Failure to halt for drying will result in
early incapacitation of the command. The daily run
can be increased by the use of winter-trained engi-
neers to keep the routes in good condition, proper
cargo sleds and other oversnow vehicles, extensive
use of liaison aircraft for route reconnaissance, and
the elimination of all but essential equipment.
c. Loads. (1) For the combination sled-tobog-
gan drawn by four men and steered by one man
300 pounds is the load recommended for opera-
tional use. This figure is for loose powdery snow;
61
the load will vary under different snow conditions.
These loads can be increased on a well broken
trail or on good snow.
(2) One man can pull 200 pounds in an akja for
short distances. For long distances a one-man sled
load should not exceed 75 pounds.
d. Speed. Speed of hauling by sled is less than
that of packing by packboard. To obtain speed,
men must be hardened to pulling by progressively
increasing loads and distances until maximum
performance is obtained.
62
Chapter 8
ANIMAL TRANSPORT
Section I. GENERAL
62. Limitations.
Animal transport is not recommended because
animals must be fed whether working or not and
the transportation of their food, bulkier than en-
gine fuel, will overload supply facilities already
strained by increased demands. Animals, particu-
larly mules, suffer from cold and require corres-
pondingly more attention than motors, and are
often noisy. Horse-drawn and mule-drawn vehicles
on wheels are moved with difficulty over roads
when the snow is as much as a foot deep. During
subzero temperatures, wheeled vehicles are harder
to pull through snow than when the weather is
warmer. (See FM 25-5.) Deep snow prevents the
use of heavy draft animals. At times, the lack of
motorized equipment and the availability of ani-
mals and their food will outweigh these general
objections. Under these conditions, native animals
are preferable since they are hardened to the local
climate.
Section II. TYPES OF ANIMALS, USES, AND
EQUIPMENT
63. Horses and Mules.
A snow depth of 1 foot or less permits the use of
horses and mules. They can be used as pack animals
or as draft animals for sleds, toboggans or travois.
Heavier loads can be drawn on sleds than can be
carried by packs.
63
64. Reindeer.
a. Reindeer are found in arctic regions of North
America, Europe, and parts of Asia. Chiefly because
of their availability, they should be used if ppera-
tions in these regions occur. Their use away from
their natural habitat should not be considered as
their care and equipment are specialized, and their
limited possibilities preclude the training of han-
dlers; this last condition necessitates the hiring of
natives accustomed to the use of reindeer. The rein-
deer is a sturdy draft animal and requires less
attention in cold than does a horse.
b. Reindeer can be used to draw light sleds and
travois.
65. Camels.
Ill Central Asia, the Bactrian camel is used as a
cold weather draft or pack animal. If the camel is
available, it should be used with native handlers
and equipment.
66. Dogs.
а. Dogs are best used for hauling operations on
a fixed route between established supply points at
which dog food has been placed. This obviates the
necessity for carrying more than a small supply of
dog food, and permits a corresponding increase in
the amount of other supplies carried.
б, In addition to their hauling power, dogs are
also very valuable as aids to sentinels in cold
weather operation. The winter hours of darkness
are long, the cold induces lethargy in sentinels, and
dogs can detect an enemy force before a man can
do so. Dogs may also be used as scout dogs and
messenger dogs. For further details, see FM 25-6.
c. Skiers may use dogs to assist in hauling sleds.
When using well-trained dogs, the skier may pre-
cede them to break trail.
64
67. Horses and Mules as Pack Animals.
a. Horses and mules can carry packs in deep
snow easier than they can draw sleds. Horses serve
better in snow than mules, because the latter, with
their small hoofs, sink into the snow more readily.
b. The length of the day’s march for pack ani-
mals depends on many variable factors. With no
other pay load> a pack animal can carry approxi-
mately lo days’ forage supply for one animal.
c. When the standard pack saddle is not avail-
able, a light pack for horse or mule may be impro-
vised as shown in figure 25. •
Section III. CARE AND MANAGEMENT
68. Horses and Mules.
a. Shelter and Bedding. Cold weather shelters
with fires and bedding must be provided for horses
and mules. Blankets should also be provided and
should be kept clean and dry. Bedding should be
thick; if the shelter is not heated, sentinels should
examine animals periodically to see that they do
not freeze. Unless adequate bedding is available,
animals must not be permitted to sleep lying down
during extremely cold weather.
b. Care in Watering and Feeding, (i) Water
and feed should, if possible, be warmed before
consumption.
(2) Frequently normal watering methods are
inadequate or unsuitable in cold weather. Holes
cut into the ice on streams or lakes provide prac-
ticable water troughs from which animals can drink
without difficulty. Holes should be about 18 to
24 inches square at the top, and shaped like an
inverted truncated pyramid about 6 inches square
at the, bottom. The basin thus cut will fill with
water, especially as the animals approach the edge.
The edges should be roughened for a distance of
about 2 feet to provide better footing to prevent
the animals from slipping into the hole.
(3) To prevent warm animals from drinking
too fast, bits should be left in their mouths, or
straw, twigs, leaves, etc. should be thrown into the
water,
c. Care While Working. (1) Horses and mules
should not be forced to exert themselves in tem-
peratures lower than 20° below zero because, in
such temperatures, deep breathing from, exertion
subjects them to frosted lungs. Balls of ice often
form in their nostrils and prevent breathing. Both
66
of these conditions can be avoided to some ex-
tent by the use of nostril shields of burlap sackini^
made to fit loosely around the animal’s muzzle ana
having an open end hanging about 6 inches below
the nose. Bits should be warmed before use, and
should be cloth or tape covered.
(2) Animals operating over ice, or snow and
ice, should be rough shod to prevent slipping.
Hoofs should be inspected frequently and caked
snow removed from the soles. In ,snow, animals
without shoes will operate with less difficulty.
Hooves do not pack with snow and the footing
afforded is adequate. Burlap padding for hoofs may
also be necessary at extreme temperatures.
(3) On long steep pulls, half of the vehicles
should be pulled to the top with double teams, all
teams then being sent back to pull up the remain-
ing vehicles in similar fashion. In this connection,
it is well to remember that sleds at'e more easily
drawn through snow than are wheeled vehicles.
It is therefore advantageous to place runners under
the wheels of wheeled vehicles.
d. Care After Working. Animals should be
given frequent rests; at such times sweaty patches
under the harness should be wiped dry. When ani-
mals are unhitched or unsaddled they should be
wiped dry, blanketed, led until they have cooled
off, and (if possible) protected from the wind. They
should never be watered when they are hot, since
overheated animals drinking large quantities of
cold water are apt to founder.
69. Reindeer, Camels and Dogs.
. The care and management of reindeer and camels
should be left to native drivers and handlers. (See
pars. 64 and 65.) The care and management of
dogs is covered in FM 25-6.
67
Chapter 9
EQUIPMENT
Section K PACKS
70. General.
a. A good pack for operations in extreme cold
should be capable of carrying 6o pounds or more in
weight, and must be loose enough to prevent con-
striction of the arms and to allow air to circulate
between the pack and the wearer's back to permit
evaporation of perspiration. The packboard meets
all of these requirements; the rucksack meets all
except the weight carrying ability, but has the ad-
vantage for skiers 'of having a low center of gravity.
Ordinarily, a low center of gravity is highly unde-
sirable; however, it is necessary for skiing. Stand-
ard field packs are unsatisfactory for cold weather
use, partly because of their limited capacity and
partly because they allow no ventilation beneath
the pack.
&. For a complete discussion of the construction,
use, and care of rucksacks and packboards, see
TM 10-275.
Section II. RUCKSACKS
71. General.
The purpose of the rucksack is to provide a pack
capable of carrying necessities for a ski trooper or
mountain climber for a short trip away from his
base. When loaded as designed, the weight will be
concentrated low and next to the frame. The nor-
mal load for a rucksack is 40 pounds. Overloading
causes undue strain on the wearer, since a consider-
able amount of his effort must be expended in pre-
68
venting the rucksack from pulling him over back-
ward. The low center of gravity, with considerable
weight resting on the hips, is desirable for men
actually climbing steep slopes or skiing, but is un-
desirable for hiking where the weight must be
kept high on the shoulders to avoid exhaustion.
When lightly and properly loaded, the rucksack is
the most suitable pack for the ski trooper and
mountaineer. Bulky loads, even if light, tend to
destroy the balance of the rucksack. The necessity
for a ski trooper or mountaineer to keep his center
of gravity low dictates the use of the rucksack by
such troops. However, it should not be used by
troops who habitually march on foot or snowshoes.
72. Packing.
In packing the rucksack, the weight should be con-
centrated in the lower forward portion of the sack
arid the pack kept thin from front to rear. The back
of the rucksack should slant forward.
73. Use with Packboard.
The rucksack removed from its frame can be used
as one component of the load of a packboard.
Usually it is fastened about midway up on the pack-
board and a parka and tentage are rolled and fast-
ened above it.
Section III. PACKBOARDS
74. Characteristics.
Packboards have a greater weight-carrying ability
than any other kind of pack, and allow the carrying
of heavy loads or irregular shapes without discom-
fort to the wearer. Adapters and quick release straps
are also issued with packboards to make them suit-
able for transport of heavy weapons and ammuni-
tion.
69
75. Standard Packboard*
The standard packboard is the plywood type. It is
made of a rectangular back molded into a curved
edge about 2 inches deep on either side. Canvas is
stretched tightly across from one edge to the other
to keep the board away from the body of the wearer.
Sections are cut out of the back to save weight;
metal hooks are fastened to either side to provide
anchorage for lashings. The board is quite sturdy,
but should not be subjected to twisting strains
because of its laminated construction. The canvas
backing should be kept clean and tight; the board
should never be thrown to the ground when loaded
but should, instead, be lowered gently. The hooks
should not be bent. The board is loaded by lash-
ing a field pack, rucksack (less frame) , duffle bag,
or barracks bag to the back and, if necessary, by
lashing tentage and sleeping bag (in waterproof or
water repellent roll) horizontally across the top.
Weight should be kept high on the board, and
load kept thin from front to back. (See fig. 26.)
Figure 26. Plywood packboard*
70
76. Special Types*
There are many special types of packboards, but
most of them require experienced personnel to get
the best results. Army personnel using packboards
will not ordinarily have the requisite experience to
get such results, and the necessity for intensive
training in other phases of cold weather living and
operations will preclude any great length of time
being devoted to training in their use.
77. Packing.
Carrying loads of equipment and supplies by pack«
board is faster and better suited to rough terrain
and deep powdery snow than man-hauling by
sleds, but necessitates more frequent trips because
of the lighter loads carried. Man-hauling by sleds
is preferable on flat terrain under favorable condi-
tions. If the supplies and equipment can be broken
down into loads whose bulk and weight are suited
to packing, it is usually the better method of man
transport, not being as fatiguing as hauling. Pack-
boards are well suited to marching troops or troops
on snowshoes, but are unsuitable for ski troops
because their high center of gravity makes balance
while skiing difficult.
Section IV. SLEEPING EQUIPMENT
78. General.
For a discussion of various types of sleeping equip-
ment, their care and use, see TM 10-275.
79. Insulation.
Sleeping equipment must always be insulated from
the snow, not only to provide comfort to the sleeper
but also to protect the bag against wetting due to
71
melting of the show by body heat in shelters. Soft
articles of clothing should be laid smoothly under
the bottom of the sleeping bag, between the bag
and cover, to act as an insulating mattress for the
sleeper. Snow should be brushed carefully from the
surface of the bag and cover before packing. The
sleeping bag should be dried at every opportunity,
as a bag which is continually damp will eventually
lose a part or all of its insulating value.
80. Improvised Sleeping Bag.
If sleeping bags are not available, substitute bags
may be made from shelter halves and blankets, and
extra clothing used for sleeping pads.
81. Immediate Availability.
Unavoidable and long delays of unit kitchen and
baggage trains will occur frequently when operat-
ing in extreme cold weather areas. For this reason
sleeping equipment should be carried by each in-
dividual.
Section V. MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT
82. Insulating Pad.
The insulating pad is a necessity when operating
in nonwooded areas of extreme cold. It is also con-
venient in wooded areas, in that its use enables the
individual to use fewer boughs, with a consequent
saving of time and effort. It may be conveniently
placed in a rucksack. To place it in the rucksack,
lopsen the rucksack drawstring, bend the pad in a
U shape and insert it in the open rucksack, the
open portion of the U toward the front. Press on
the pad so that its shape conforms to that of the
rucksack. It is bent around the curved back por-
72
tion of the sack with its longitudinal axis hori-
zontal.
83. Snow Goggles.
Sunlight in snowy areas, especially when diffused
by haze or clouds, can seriously injure the eyes.
Goggles prevent snowblindness.and improve vision
in unbroken snow and sunlight.
84. Mountain Brush.
The mountain brush has a value in operations in
snow out of proportion to its small size. Frequent
brushing of snow from clothing and equipment
prevents accumulation of moisture from melting
snow. Every individual should have one of these
brushes in his possession.
85. Extra Tent Ropes.
Extra tent ropes are invaluable for the construc-
tion of shelters, for use as drying racks, arid for
tying or lashing improvised equipment. They are
valuable for supplementing or replacing lashings
and bindings of all kinds.
86. Machetes.
A machete or bolo is useful in operations in wooded
terrain for trimming boughs, felling small trees, and
clearing brush.
87. Hatchets, Axes, Saws.
This equipment is necessary in wooded terrain for
the procurement of firewood, building material,
and bedding.
88. Combat Knife.
In addition to its use in combat, the combat knife
has many other uses in cold weather bivouacs. It
is used to prepare fuel for fires and to fashion im-
73
provised equipment. It is also used for preparing
and cooking food as well as in eating it.
89. Tent Stoves.
Some large tent stoves are necessary to provide
drying facilities to units rotated to the reserve. The
heat from large stoves quickly dries equipment and
clothing; the use of such stoves in shelters is neces-
sary if fighting efficiency is to be maintained.
90. Wannigans and Houses.
A wannigan is a small movable house, usually on
large runners. Wannigans can be used as operating
rooms, command posts, and similar installations.
If prefabricated houses are not available, wannigans
may be improvised by building light frameworks^
covered with tarpaper, on the drag or runners.
91. Availability of Equipment.
When planning an operation in a cold area, spe-
cialized equipment suitable to the area should be
obtained and proper instruction in its use given to
ail members of the command by persons competent
to do so. The type of cold, whether wet or dry,
should be anticipated, as the requirements for the
two extremes vary so widely as to be almost oppo-
site. Specialized equipment may not be available
to commanders who, through premature onset of
winter or enemy pressure, are forced to operate in
snow and cold. In these cases, the use of expedients
should be resorted to. However, expedients can
never replace anticipation and proper planning,
and a commander forced to resort to their use will
be operating at a disadvantage.
92. Expedients.
Some expedients which will help to preserve the
74
health and comfort of inadequately equipped
troops operating in extreme cold, are as follows:
a. Insoles may be improvised from blankets,
burlap sacking, dried and shredded grass, moss, or
paper. Overshoes of the cloth-topped variety used
with insoles and extra socks and foot wrappings
cut from blankets will serve as substitutes for muk-
luks. Regular shoes should not be worn inside the
overshoes; the extra space may be filled with addi-
ional socks, foot wrappings, hay, straw, grass or
dry moss.
b. Mufflers and face shields may be improvised
from old, blankets.
c. Snow goggles may be improvised by cutting
slits in a piece of wood covering the eyes. A piece
of leather having small holes cut for eyeholes is
effective. Lampblack rubbed around the eyes af-
fords some protection against glare.
d. Drying racks may be constructed in shelters
by the use of tent ropes, wooden racks, or wooden
poles covered by chicken wire. They should be
placed at the highest point of the shelter, so that
the warm air will better dry the equipment they
support.
e. Packboards may be quickly improvised by the
construction of light wooden frames, with target
cloth or other cloth sewed over them and doped
with airplane dope. Screws may be fastened into
the sides for lashings.
/. Beds may be insulated by paper, or flattened
pasteboard ammunition containers or ration boxes.
75
chapter 10
SPECIAL CARE OF WEAPONS AND EQUIPMENT
Section I. GENERAL
93. General.
At temperatures consistently below o° difficulties
such as those enumerated in paragraph are en-
countered in the care of weapons and equipment.
Extremely careful servicing by both operating and
maintenance personnel is required, if poor per-
formance and total functional failure are to be
avoided. For detailed description of the procedure
to be followed in overcoming such difficulties, refer
to the appropriate technical manual. Descriptions
of certain general procedures are contained in
paragraphs which follow.
94. Range of Low Temperatures. ^
Most equipment will function satisfactorily down
to 20° below zero with lubricants and preservatives
prescribed for +32° to 0°. Below that temperature
all materiel requires winterization. Special precau-
tions must be taken. Temperatures of 20° to 60°
below zero are the temperatures considered for the
expression '‘extreme cold” in this manual. Temper-
atures of 60° to 90° below zero, though common
to some localities, are relatively infrequent. A con-
siderable portion of the land area of the world is
subject to temperatures varying from 20° to 60°
below zero.
95. Condensation.
a. When there is an abrupt change in the rela-
tive temperatures of the air and a metallic or glass.
76
object with which it is in contact, the warm air is
chilled, causing the moisture from the air to de-
posit or condense on the cold materiel. In general,
this applies to cold materiel, such as a rifle or tele-
scope, brought indoors, and results in condensation
on the exposed surfaces. However, if equipment
with internal air spaces is assembled at warm temp-
eratures and then moved outdoors, condensation
will occur inside the air space. Condensation is
objectionable because of its injurious effects. If not
wiped off, it causes rust and corrosion; or when
moved outdoors later it freezes, sometime making
mechanisms inoperative. It also renders glass
opaque, leads to the presence of water in closed
containers such as fuel drums, and produces an
undesirable emulsion with lubricants. Condensa-
tion may be prevented by keeping arms, ammuni-
tion and equipment at the same temperature as
the air in which it is to be operated,
6. Unheated anterooms or porches should be
used for storing weapons of men living in heated
shelters. Muzzle and breech covers should be in-
stalled on the weapons and kept securely fastened,
to prevent the wind from driving snow under the
covers. Bores should be cleaned frequently; if ice
has formed, hot oil may be used to melt it for re-
moval before cleaning. After firing, weapons should
be cleaned while still warm. For large caliber
weapons, use warm water if available to make the
standard soda ash solution. If the gun has become
cold, treat the soda solution with alcohol, glycerine
or antifreeze compound, as indicated in the ap-
propriate Technical Manual, to prevent freezing.
Clean small arms bores while still warm with rifle
bore cleaner which has been protected from freez-
ing.
c. Vehicles should not be repeatedly moved be-
77
tween heated garages and cold outside air; abrupt
temperature changes of any kind should be avoided
whenever possible. Fuel tanks should be kept filled
when possible. The effect of condensation in fuel
tanks may be neutralized by the addition of i/^-pint
ethyl alcohol at each refueling, to absorb the water.
Glass enclosed electric defrosters should be used
on windshields not equipped with defrosting equip-
ment connected to the vehicle heating system. Cel-
lophane taped to the windshield may be used as a
temporary expedient.
d. Optical instruments should not be brought
directly into warm quarters when not in use and
should be protected from ice and snow while being
transported or left exposed.
(1) The lenses and prisms of cold optical equip-
ment fog up when brought indoors. This fogging,
which is due to condensation of moisture on lenses,
should be removed with lens tissue paper. Any ice
which forms on lenses when outdoors, should be
removed by use of lens tissue paper wetted with
alcohol.
(2) The exposed surfaces of optical elements
also fog up when placed close to the face, due to
condensation of moisture in the breath. The use
of a face mask is the most satisfactory method of
keeping the breath away from the oculars. The
mask should absorb the moisture from the breath
or deflect the breath from the lens. No antifog
solution has been found satisfactory for use on
lenses at low temperature. Above prevention mea-
sures are the only satisfactory remedy.
e. Condensation of breath in microphones and
telephone transmitters may be avoided by fasten-
ing tissue paper over the openings; otherwise the
diaphragm may freeze.
78
96. Freezing to Ground.
Materiel standing in the snow may freeze to the
ground. Moving it by force may cause damage to
the tires, packing cases or parts of the materiel;
loosening it by mechanical means such as chipping,
takes time. It is advisable to avoid this freezing by
preventive measures such as the use of a coating
of nonadherent material or by placing the equip-
ment on a mat of some kind. Metal parts may be
coated with grease, which will not stick to ice.
Wheels, boxes, track treads, and material affected
by grease, can be left standing on tar paper, build-
ing paper, straw, a mat of boughs or other similar
protection.
97. Fluids and Lubricants.
a. Recoil mechanisms must contain the type of
recoil fluid prescribed by the appropriate technical
publication. They should be inspected and exer-
cised more frequently as temperatures fail, to pre-
vent sticking, which may result in severe damage.
At times the recoil cycle may be slow when firing
is begun, due to thickened oil. However, continued
firing gradually heats the recoil oil until normal
recoil time is obtained.
b. Engine oil used in crankcases will be diluted
only as permitted by the pertinent technical manu-
al. Other lubricants will not be diluted, as lubri-
cants prescribed for subzero temperatures provide
satisfactory operation when applied in accordance
with instructions. Thickened or congealed lubri-
cant on the recoil slides interferes with proper
recoil action; therefore, preservative lubrication oil
(special) should be used at low temperatures. If
this oil is not available, preservative lubricating oil
(light) or aircraft and machine gun lubricating oil
may be substituted.
79
98. Coolants.
a. Antifreeze compound (ethylene glycol type)
is the only antifreeze autliorized for use in auto-
motive cooling systems. The freezing point of
water can be lowered by the addition of antifreeze,
down to 6o° below zero, at a strength of 6o percent
antifreeze and 40 percent water. The addition of
more antifreeze begins to raise the freezing point,
thus reducing its usefulness.
b. Diesel fuel oil or engine oil SAE 10 may be
used as coolant in water cooled machine guns. A
mixture of glycerin or alcohol with water may also
be used. In an emergency only, salt water may be
used as a machine gun coolant. It should be re-
moved as soon as possible as it corrodes metal sur-
face during prolonged use.
99. Precautions.
a. Field-strip rifles and remove all rust-preven-
tive compound. Lubricate all parts with preserva-
tive lubricating oil (special). When the rifle grenade
is fired with the rifle butt resting on the frozen
ground, a cloth pad may be used to absorb the
shock to the stock.
fc. Set gas ports on Browning automatic rifles to
widest opening. Wipe machine guns, pistols and
submachine guns free of compound and oil lightly
with preservative lubricating oil (special). Remove
felt oiled pads of the Thompson machine gun.
c. Emplace guns on boughs or mats for firing
and pad trail spades to reduce shock from frozen
ground and prevent damage to equipment.
d. Cover ammunition in storage and store it off
the ground. Remove ice or moisture before firing.
e. Gears must be free before use. Do not force
frozen gears. If gears are exposed remove ice with
brush. Gears that cannot be cleaned in this manner
80
should be worked gently back and forth to crack
or melt the ice.
/. For complete information on cold weather
lubrication of artillery, see appropriate technical
publications.
100. Expansion and Contraction Effects.
Metals contract or expand as the temperature is
lowered or raised; the greater the change in temper-
ature, the greater the contraction or expansion.
Lowering the temperature results in contraction.
However, all metals do not contract at the same
rate. This leads to binding in some mechanisms
and looseness in others. Therefore, adjustments
should be made at the appropriate temperature at
which the equipment is to be used for reasons in-
dicated below.
a. Binding between dissimilar metals is due to
the difference in rate of contraction. If a shaft of
one metal is mounted in a bearing of a different
metal with a greater rate of contraction, the open-
ing in the bearing will shrink faster than the shaft
and cause binding. If the bearing had a lower rate
of contraction, excessive clearance would result.
b. Expansion and contraction also effect the effi-
ciency of gear trains mounted in a frame or base of
dissimilar material. If the gears are adjusted cor-
rectly at room temperature, there will be excessive
backlash at low temperatures; in the case of a train
of gears, the accumulated backlash may prevent the
device from operating satisfactorily.
101. Batteries and Generators.
a. Dry batteries usually fail to give adequate
current at temperatures below 20° below zero.
Small flashlights can sometimes be kept warm
enough to use by carrying in an inside pocket.
b. The efficiency of storage batteries decreases
81
with decreasing temperatures. At 40° below zero
even a fully charged storage battery becomes prac-
tically inoperative. Batteries must be warmed either
by a heater or by remaining in a warm room before
they will deliver much power. Batteries should be
kept fully charged as a fully charged battery will
not freeze at temperatures normally encountered.
It is therefore necessary to check batteries frequent-
ly and maintain the charge. Do not add water to a
battery at subzero temperatures unless it is to be
charged immediately or put into use for at least
an hour. Otherwise the water will remain on top
and freeze.
c. Congealed warm weather oil in the bearings
of hand generators and other electrical devices re-
duces their efficiency. Improved performance will
result when bearings are lubricated with prescribed
subzero lubricants. Greater ease of operation will
be obtained by keeping the equipment in heated
tents or vehicles.
T02. Drying Clothing.
Shoe leather becomes stiff and cracks if dried in too
close proximity to the fire. Wet shoes may be dried
by filling them with warm oats, corn, or gravel. If
the filling is hotj stiffness and cracking of the
leather will probably result. Maintenance of cloth-
ing and shoes in an excellent state of repair is
especially important. The necessity for drying
clothing after it has become wet cannot be over-
emphasized. For details on care of clothing see
TM io-*^75.
103. Snowshoes and Skis.
For care and maintenance of snowshoes and skis,
see TM 10-275.
82
Section II.
WINTERIZATION OF AUTOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT
104. General.
The starting and operation of motor vehicles in
extreme cold involves many problems. Certain
special equipment is provided to insure proper
vehicle protection and satisfactory operation. In
addition, proper winter lubricants and lubricating
procedures must be used.
105. Winterization Kits.
a. Information concerning winterization kits is
available in appropriate technical publication (see
FM21-6).
b. All command and liaison vehicles should be
inclosed. Plywood and shipping cases should be
saved for this purpose.
106. Lubrication and Lubricants.
For complete information on cold weather lubri-
cation and service of combat vehicles and automo-
tive materiel, see applicable technical publications.
83
Chapter 1 1
TACTICAL OPERATIONS
Section I. INFLUENCING FACTORS
107. Generoi.
a. Tactical operations in snow and extreme cold
do not vary in principle from those under any
other conditions. There are, however, certain differ-
ences in their application resulting from these
peculiar conditions, which are described in this
manual. For a discussion of tactical principles and
their general application, see FM 100-5 the
appropriate Field Manuals of the arms and services.
b. References have been made continuously
throughout this manual to expedients, methods,
and special equipment to be used in areas of snow
and extreme cold. In the paragraph 108 their di-
rect application to tactical operations are briefly
covered.
1 08. Influence of Snow and Extreme Cold.
a. Rates of travel for troops and transportation
are greatly altered by winter conditions. Deep snow
stops cavalry and wheeled vehicles. It also prevents
the movement of troops on foot, as well as in
armored vehicles, other than those of special de-
sign. In open terrain and under favorable snow
conditions, infantry on skis has greater mobility
than foot troops operating on roads. Oversnow
vehicles properly used give units greater cross-coun-
try mobility than they would otherwise possess.
b. Snow acts as either an obstacle or an avenue
of approach, depending on the equipment and
84
training of the command. Frozen ground makes
passageways, instead of obstacles, of swamps, streams,
and lakes. Deep snowdrifts and icy slopes restrict
movement. Emplacements and field works are diffi-
cult to construct, necessitating the use of thawing
or explosives.
c. Tracks and installations are more apparent to
aerial observers and camouflage is both more diffi-
cult and of greater importance than usual. Unless
wheeled vehicles are supplanted, or supplemented
by oversnow vehicles, supply routes will be canal-
ized to roads and trails. Some canalization will
occur in any case, because trails must be used for
oversnow equipment, snow shoers, and skiers if
speed of movement is to be maintained.
d. For troops who have completed their unit and
combined training, considerable training in snow
and cold is necessary before a unit is proficient
under such conditions; during this training, cross-
counti:y movements without shelter in buildings
during halts must be practiced. On the march, in-
dividuals should be equipped to be self-sustaining,
carrying their own food and shelter.
e. While friendly personnel are weakened in
strength and morale by cold, fatigue and hunger,
this is equally true of the enemy. Whenever possi-
ble, the enemy should be denied the use of towns
or buildings. Patrols, aircraft and harassing fire
should be used against him in bivouacs, and con-
stant raids should prey on his supply system*. Every
possible means should be employed to deprive him
of food, rest, and shelter. He will make correspond-
ing efforts against our troops, and means of repuls-
ing these efforts must be employed.
85
1 09. Estimate of Weather and Terrain.
a. The commander is responsible for gathering
all data pertinent to the weather, climate, and ter-
rain of the area in which he expects to operate.
This information may be obtained from the wea-
ther division of the Army Air Forces, weather re-
ports, maps, conversation with friendly natives and
with troops who have operated in the area, or other
available sources. Specially trained meteorological
personnel either organic or attached to the larger
units, are extremely valuable.
b. Anticipation of the lowest possible tempera-
tures for the region will be of great importance in
the planning of winterization measures, the requisi-
tion of proper supplies and equipment, and train-
ing of troops. Evaluation of snow depth to be en-
countered will determine types and amounts of
equipment to be employed and will be important
in determining the arms and services to be em-
ployed, and the proportion of each.
c. Compass declination is greater and more vari-
able in higher latitudes, and is affected by local
conditions. Check points should be selected, at
which the degree of declination can be verified.
Section II. ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT
110. Special Organization.
Most units of the Army are organized for operation
in the weather and terrain usually encountered in
temperate zones. Changes of organization are neces-
sary for operations over snow in cold weather. A
large part of the troops will operate on snowshoes,
but a substantial portion of specially trained ski
troops is necessary. Each rifle company will need at
least one platoon of ski troops, with larger units of
86
ski troops for the battalion and regiment. Recon-
naissance troops of divisions should be replaced by
ski troops. The proportion of engineers and service
troops will be higher than normal because of the
increased need for supplies, and because of the
more immediate consequences of supply failures.
Troops, native to the region or to a similar region,
should be used as scouts and guerillas, since they
are able to live, in a large measure, off the country.
111. Storage of Excess Equipment.
Much of the equipment normally used will be
burdensome in overs-now operations, particularly
away from road nets. Only the bare essentials should
be taken into the field. Heavy tentage and stoves
for drying and warming should be restricted to the
amount and number sufficient to warm about one-
third of the troops at a time. In addition to drying,
company cooking will be possible only for units
in reserve or behind the lines; field ranges in excess
of absolute needs should not be taken into the
forward areas. Motorized equipment having little
oversnow mobility should not be taken into for-
ward areas. Individual and organizational equip-
ment should be carefully checked to eliminate all
excess weight. It may be necessary to reduce the
number of heavy weapons. It is better to have a
few weapons with sufficient ammunition than to
have large numbers with insufficient ammunition.
Excess organizational and individual equipment
should be left with the rear echelon. Training and
careful planning will determine the required equip-
ment and avoid wastage of equipment.
112. Supply.
The importance of adequate supply is increased by
87
cold weather, when maintenance of life is more ^
immediately dependent upon the uninterrupted
supply of food and replacement articles of clothing,
and shelter. Men can survive for comparatively
long periods in the field in mild weather \yithout
adequate food and without clothing replacements;
however, at 40"^ below zero food must be supplied
and defective clothing replaced immediately, or
casualties will result. The bulk of supplies and the
need therefor increases while the means for trans-
porting them decrease. In addition to the usual
impediments to supply, enemy action will more
often be directed at supply systems than during
operations under ordinary conditions. These condi-
tions require the maintenance in forward establish-
ments of the highest level of supply, the dispersion
and special protection of supply points, and the
existence of alternate and supplementary supply
plans. All forms of ground supply should be used;
in addition, aerial supply of front-line units may
frequently be necessary,
113. Weapons.
a. In selecting weapons for oversnow operations,
light weapons, and ammunition should be substi-
tuted for heavy weapons and ammunition wherever
possible. The organizational heavier weapons can
be left with the rear echelon, and brought forward
if needed. In heavily wooded terrain, carbines may
be substituted for rifles. Mortars and pack howitzers
may be substituted for regimental and divisional
artillery when operating in rough snow-covered
terrain. Automatic antiaircraft weapons may be
substituted for the heavier guns, automatic rifles
for light machine guns, and light machine guns for
'heavy machine guns.
b. Ammunition supply will usually be difficult.
88
but can be aided by reducing the number of weap-
ons used and utilizing all personnel thus released
as carrying parties. Inclusion of oversnow vehicles,
drawing sleds and troughs for artillery transporta-
tion is important. Lack of suitable oversnow trans-
port will force guns to be emplaced near roads;
this leads to their early discovery and neutraliza-
tion. During lulls in work, all available service
troops should be sent forward carrying ammuni-
tion, to avoid the depletion of front-line units em-
ployed for this purpose.
Section III. ARMS AND SERVICES
114. Infantry.
a. Aside from its normal employment, infantry
properly trained as ski troops becomes a highly
mobile fighting force. Because of frequent use of
ski units on patrols and operation behind enemy
lines, these units should have better than average
military training and should be picked for such
missions with particular regard to their physique
and condition (ch. 6 and app. II). Ski troops
should be especially proficient in map reading,
sketching, orientation, observation, demolitions,
and scouting and patroling. Maintenance of con-
stant march rates should be stressed.
b. Infantry troops using snowshoes will comprise
the bulk of the forces. Properly trained and hard-
ened they should be capable of nearly the same
daily marches as foot troops on roads, even though
carrying heavier loads. They are not capable, how-
ever, of making forced marches of as great duration
as foot troops in temperate zones. In addition, their
daily rate of march' may be reduced by the neces-
89
sity for personnel to break trail when oversnowr
equipment is not available for the purpose.
c. Infantry units will operate more patrols than
normally. Small units will frequently operate with-
out support. Great stress on individual and small
unit training is necessary.
115. Cavalry.
When the snow depth is less than 12 inches, horse
cavalry can be used. In extreme cold, precautions
must be taken to prevent horses from freezing their
lungs. Horse cavalry is not an arm recommended
for use in extreme cold and snow because of its
limited oversnow ability, the weight and bulk of
its forage and the excessive amount of care needed
by the animals.
116. Armored Units.
Armored units move cross-country with facility
when the ground is thoroughly frozen and there is
little snow. Streams and other bodies of water can
be crossed when frozen to sufficient thickness to
carry the weight of vehicles. Vehicles of the track-
laying type can operate in snow which is packed
sufficiently to provide traction, but unless they are
equipped with extra wide treads and have a high
clearance and smooth underbody, their use is re-
stricted to snow of 24 inches or less in depth.
117. Artillery.
a. Oversnow vehicles drawing troughs are a rec-
ommended means of transporting artillery in snow-
covered terrain. Deep snow prevents the movement
of wheeled prime movers or of wheeled carriages.
Self-propelled guns are valuable in snow of little
90
depth. Snow plows will be useful, no matter how
the guns are propelled. Sleds or toboggans should
be available to carry ammunition and lay wire.
Special tools and explosives should be in readiness
to prepare emplacements. Camouflage measures
should accompany each step of leconnaissance, se-
lection, and occupation of position. Since trails
cannot be concealed, they should lead to dummy
positions located in a logical position. Tape for
marking paths should be put up before the arrival
of troops. Mortars may be employed by artillery
units as substitute equipment.
b. In addition to firing data for normal targets,
data for every ice-covered body of water within
range should be calculated. Fire on ice-covered
bodies of water, particularly by mortars, is very
effective in trapping troops crossing the ice or in
su idenly converting a frozen body of water into an'
oLstacle. Long-range harassing fire against enemy
supply systems and bivouacs will be normal.
118. Antiaircraft Artillery.
The canaliza-tion of supply and communication
routes, and the dependence of troops on shelter,
make air attack probable and profitable. Roads are
continuous defiles for wheeled vehicles. Antiaircraft
weapons should accompany trains and convoys and
be capable of being fired while moving. In addi-
tion supply points and bivouacs need protection.
Automatic weapons should be employed whenever
possible, as their oversnow mobility is greater than
that of antiaircraft guns, and their ammunition is
lighter.
119. Engineers.
Engineer troops usually constitute a greater pro-
portion of the total force than is normal for opera-
91
tions in temperate zones. They should be proficient
in bridging ‘open streams at temperatures lower
than 40^ below zero, clearing roads and railroads
of snow,’building winter roads and trails, using ice,
constructing emplacements, and erecting obstacles
in frozen earth and snow-covered terrain. The rate
of cross-country movement of the command will be
chiefly governed by the proficiency of the attached
engineers in overcoming obstacles. In making their
plans, engineer officers must know the nature of
obstacles, and the temperatures and snow condi-
tions, to be expected. Large track-laying tractors
and bulldozers are especially valuable to engineers
in cold weather operations. Frozen ground and
deep snow reduce the effectiveness of small or me-
dium tractors and bulldozers.
120. Signal Corps.
Most signal equipment can be used in low tempera-
tures if the difficulties peculiar to cold are anti-
cipated and the means of overcoming them are
known.
а. Wire laying is difficult in cold weather, and
tractor-drawn, wire-laying cargo sleds are desirable.
Hand reels should be mounted on small sleds or
toboggans. For messenger and wire inspection serv-
ice, men shbuld be trained in the use of skis. Re-
covery of wire in snow by combat troops is usually
impracticable. An extra supply must be carried for
this reason. At unheated message centers, extra
items of warm clothing should be on hand to throw
over runners and messengers while they are await-
ing further duties.
б. For operational use, electrical signal equip-
ment should be located in warm rooms or shelters.
At halts, it may be necessary to build fires to warm
92
electrical equipment. Batteries can be kept warm
under clothing or blankets. An extra supply of bat-
teries is essential.
c. Frozen soil does not make a good ground.
Grounds should be placed below the frost line in
cellars and wells where possible.
d. Colored signal panels, preferably orange, are
highly visible.
e. Because of the difficulties of messenger com-
munication, full use must be made of other avail-
able means of communication.
/. Pigeons have been used successfully in ex-
treme cold; however, large owls, hawks and eagles,
all natural enemies of pigeons, abound in most cold
weather areas. Pigeons also are hindered by the
ground fogs prevalent in still air when the temper-
ature is lower than 35° below zero.
121. Chemical Warfare.
Smoke hangs low in cold weather and is very effec-
tive. Colored smokes are particularly conspicuous
against snow backgrounds. The supply of chemicals
should be limited to those which will volatilize at
the temperatures encountered. An increase in con-
sumption of incendiaries, screening smokes, signal
smokes and fire starters is to be anticipated. Chemi-
cal emergency fire starters should be procured and
issued freely to field units.
122. Quartermaster Corps.
a. Cold and snow make the shelter of some items
of the ration imperative. Freezing alone does not
unduly harm perishable items of the ration, but
alternate freezing and thawing will quickly spoil
93
them. Underground storage bins may be necessary.
Increase of rations must be allowed for in planning
operations in snow and cold. Rations may be lost
or damaged in air dropping. Torn or damaged
clothing and equipment must be replaced without
delay. Laundry and bathing facilities are more im-
portant than in warmer areas, as fewer substitutes
for them exist, and cleanliness is necessary to pre-
serve warmth and reduce vermin infestation. Baker-
ies are more difficult to operate but, once they are
operating, bread may be frozen as fast as baked, and
stored in cold with excellent results. The bread
will remain fresh indefinitely if frozen.
b. Procurement of local varieties of draft ani-
mals and their handlers and equipment may be-
come necessary.
123. Ordnance.
a. Provision must be made for the supply, main-
tenance, and repair of oversnow vehicles which
may be substituted for wheeled vehicles. Movable
parts of weapons equipment exposed to cold and
strains may require higher replacement factors than
normal. The procurement of adequate cold wea-
ther lubricants and recoil fluids must be planned.
b. Any necessary modification of weapons and
equipment should be made before the beginning
of operations.
124. Army Air Forces.
a. Combat aviation targets remain unchanged
under conditions of extreme cold or deep snow.
Snowstorms and low-hanging fog restrict the use
94
of airplanes. Below 35° below zero, low ground
fogs are quite prevalent.
b. Increased calls for supply dropping missions
are also to be anticipated. Normally, supplies are
dropped by parachute on such missions. Free drop-
ping of supplies (dropping without parachutes) is
practical in deep snow when the dropping area is
indicated and friendly troops are present.
Section IV. LEADERSHIP AND COMMAND
1 25. Effect of Cold on Morale.
Cold produces lethargy, apathy, and slow and
clumsy reactions which are accentuated by bulky
clothing. Depression and discouragement, and a
firm conviction that they are doing more than their
share of the necessarily heavy work, are present in
the minds of many individuals. These feelings are
intensified in the cold weather of higher latitudes
where the hours of darkness are longer. Leaders
must combat these mental conditions by provision
of warming and drying facilities, and insure that
their use is rotated evenly among all troops. Hot
foods should be provided at least twice a day,
preferably morning and evening. Work for the
succeeding day should be planned ahead and work
assignments made the night before. Care must be
taken to make certain that work is rotated.
126. Advance Planning.
a. Advance planning is of great importance in
cold weather operations. Leaders should attempt to
learn everything possible about the area of opera-
tions, including such items as the type of clothing,
shelter, and transportation used by the natives of
the region.
95
b. Accurate estimates of the weather to be en-
countered and the effects of weather on the terrain
must be made and disseminated to staff officers.
The type of cold, whether wet or dry, must be de-
termined, as clothing and winterization measures
differ radically. Wet cold has not been emphasized
in this manual, as it is rarely extreme cold, although
its effect on men may be severe. In wet cold, water-
proof clothing must be worn and heavy greases and
lubricants used in quantity. Areas in which wet
cold is to be encountered are the Aleutians, the
Kurile Islands, and some parts of the Baltic and
North Sea areas.
c, A cadre of personnel having experience in
cold weather is desirable for training troops in
cold weather procedure. Visits by the commander
and his staff to places where terrain and climate are
sirnilar to those of the contemplated' area of opera-
tions are helpful. Officers and men alike must culti-
vate a thorough respect for the casualty-producing
power of cold, but should not fear it.
127. Supervision
The supervision which is always necessary assumes
even greater importance in operations in snow and
extreme cold. Wearing apparel must be prescribed
and its method of wear supervised. Camps or
bivouacs must be planned in detail, and their con-
struction supervised to insure equality of work and
comfort for all. Troops must be supervised on the
march, and told when to remove clothing and re-
place it to avoid sweating and chilling. Food and
shelter must be inspected for adequacy. As the
state of cold weather discipline and training in-
creases, much of this supervision may be delegated
to subordinates.
96
128. Administration.
Faulty administration is a greater handicap to the
operational abilities of troops in cold weather than
in temperate weather. Delays are far more serious
in cold weather, and must be avoided.
Section V. RECONNAISSANCE AND
INTELLIGENCE
129. General.
а. Snow-covered terrain makes the concealment
of activity within an area virtually impossible. Be-
cause the enemy will find it difficult to conceal
evidence of his presence, he may be expected to
make every effort to mislead our forces as to his
strength, composition, and exact location. This in-
creases the necessity for effective reconnaissance
and the importance of combat intelligence. Recon-
naissance is hindered by the ground fogs encoun-
tered at temperatures around 40"^ below zero or
lower, snow storms, drifting snow, heavy woods,
and the longer hours of darkness and poor light
characteristic of winter in higher latitudes. It is
aided by the better transmission of sound in cold
air, the manner in which smoke hangs without dis-
persion in cold clear air, the difficulty of concealing
activity in snow-covered terrain, and the value of
the long shadows cast in winter time. It must be
borne in mind that conditions affecting the opera-
tions of friendly intelligence apply with equal force
to those of the enemy.
б. For detailed discussion of reconnaissance and
intelligence, see FM 100-5, Field Manuals in
the 30- series.
97
130. Combat Intelligence.
а . Air Reconnaissance. The success of air recon-
naissance depends on clear weather. Ground haze
completely obscures enemy activity from the cam-
era, and nearly so from the eyes of the observer.
A heavy fall of snow covers all surface marks. In
clear weather, however, the detailed information
to be gained from the air makes it possible to de-
duce from tracks and installations a great deal
about the enemy’s equipment, strength, and loca-
tion. Interpretation of aerial photographs is very
important in snow operations. Photographs should
be taken frequently during periods of enemy ac-
tivity to show emplacements before muzzle blast
marks can be covered, and before signs of other
activity in suspected areas can be concealed. They
should also be taken under varying conditions of
light, snowfall, and thawing, as camouflage is easier
to detect when large numbers of photographs of
the area under different conditions are available.
Route reconnaissance may be accomplished by use
of liaison aircraft.
б. Ground Reconnaissance. Air reconnaissance
should be supplemented by giound reconnaissance.
Air reconnaissance can usually furnish negative in-
formation concerning enemy presence in a given
area by reason of lack of tracks, but if the snow
surface is broken, ground reconnaissance is needed
to ascertain definitely the presence or absence,
strength, composition, location and dispositions of
the enemy. This is also true in localities where,
aerial observation of the snow surface is prevented
by vegetation. Track-laying oversnow vehicles are
useful for reconnaissance in rough or lightly
wooded terrain and deep powdery snow; they are
useless in thick woods. Ski troops are very useful
98
for reconnaissance if they are well trained in cross-
country work. They have high mobility, are easily
hidden, and are silent. The assignment of specially
trained ski troops to units for reconnaissance
should be made.
c. Deceptive Enemy Tactics. The difficulties of
concealment may induce the enemy to attempt
deception by preparing false positions and by mak-
ing misleading tracks over large areas. Whenever
possible, the tracks made by reconnaissance parties
should be obscured, in order that the strength of
the parties may be concealed. Old tracks may be
used, but care should be taken to insure that they
are not mined. It may be advisable for a reconnais-
sance party to mine its own tracks. Whether or
not this is done, the likelihood of enemy discovery
makes it inadvisable to return by the same route.
d. Additional Duties of Ground Reconnais-
sance. In addition to securing normal tactical in-
formation, reconnaissance will be required to
establish:
(1) The condition of the snow away from the
roads.
(2) The condition and width of roads and
tracks.
(3) The thickness of ice over water obstacles
that our own vehicles may be required to cross,
and the suitability of these obstacles for delaying
the enemy.
(4) The presence of other obstacles and of con-
cealed traps.
(5) The danger of avalanches.
(6) Bivouac sites.
e. Transmission of Information. The informa-
tion obtained by reconnaissance detachments can
99
be passed back rapidly by establishing a message
center to which pairs of skiers bring reports from
the forward detachments. Information is sent back
from the message center by whatever means of
communication are available.
/. Road Marking. Reconnaissance parties may
be required to mark tracks or roads. In mountains,
they can be marked by blazing trees or with rocks,
while in open snow country poles, flags, or snow
markers can be used. Stakes are used to mark the
ends of roads.
g. Conserving Energy of Patrols. Movement
through snow is exhausting, and reconnaissance
patrols may have to travel long distances. Ski troops
should be saved fatigue whenever possible by tak-
ing them to their starting point by skijoring (tow-
ing by horses or snow ti^actors) or in vehicles.
Troops should not normally be employed on active
reconnaissance duties for more than 24 hours con-
tinuously.
131. Interpretation.
Tracks in the snow reveal the strength of the enemy
and the type of equipment used. His location may
be deduced from the smoke haze which hangs low
over fires in extremely cold weather, and by the
indications of recent use of trails. In still air, con-
versations and the noise of woodcutting will carry
long distances. In winter, shadows are longer and
make aerial photo interpretation easier. In estimat-
ing enemy capabilities it is important to realize
that the means at his disposal are not necessarily
the same as those at the disposal of our forces.
132. Countermeasures.
Since tracks cannot be concealed, they should be
100
made to mislead the enemy by leading to camou-
flaged dummy positions, logically situated. Silence
must be observed and no fires lighted if an attempt
to conceal the presence of our troops is to be made.
Wood should be sawed rather than chopped when
near the enemy. Every position should be provided
all-around security include skilpatrols when ap-
propriate. Likely avenues of approach for over-
snow equipment arM skis should be kept under
surveillance. Camouflage must be assiduously prac-
ticed.
Section VI. SECURITY
133. On the March.
Some ski troops must be assigned to advance, flank,
and rear guards. The bulk of the ski troops, be-
cause of their mobility, should be held as a reserve.
The flanks and rear of moving columns are targets
for attacks by enemy ski troops. Engineers in con-
siderable strength, should be allotted to the ad-
vance guard. Liaison aircraft may be employed if
available to observe for signs of enemy activity to
the front, flanks, and rear. Advance and flank
guards should be relieved frequently, since their
missions are fatiguing. Advance guards should be
relieved by leap-frogging at halts; flaiik guards
should be assigned phase lines between which they
must cover the main body, and then rejoin.
134. Halts and Bivouacs.
a. Units in bivouacs in snow or extreme cold
should be dispersed as in any operations. Bivouacs
are prime targets for small enemy ski detachments.
Ski detachments approaching to just within mortar
range of a bivouac and firing mortar shells into it
are especially troublesome; every effort should be
made to prevent such close approach.
101
b. Ski patrols should visit outguards by circular
routes, identifying themselves by the proper chal-
lenge, password, and reply at each sentry post on
each visit. Patrols should check for trails breaking
across the circumference of their route; entry and
exit should be at one point only. Sentry posts
should consist o|sfi,three men, with a sentinel con-
tinuously posted; Sentries should be relieved at
frequent intervals. The two Aen not on post can
be in their sleeping bags. In bivouacs, it may be
necessary to sleep in the sleeping bags fully clothed,
as it would be fatal to be driven from sleeping
bags partially dressed in extremely low tempera-
ture. The practice of sleeping clothed is ordinarily
inadvisable, but is necessary in proximity to the
enemy.
€, Patrols should operate not only on the out-
guard circumference, but also between the out-
guards and the bivouac area. Offensive patrols
should also be sent out toward the enemy, leaving
and returning from definite places. Surrounding
areas should be carefully checked from the air just
before dark to discover any enemy movement
toward friendly areas.
135* Antimechonized Security.
a. In extreme cold, streams, swampy ground,
and lakes may cease to be antitank barriers. Swampy
ground becomes firm, and water barriers may be
crossed at some or all points, depending on the
stream. Deep, powdery snow forms the best barrier.
Snow on slopes forms a greater obstacle than do the
slopes, themselves. Slopes can be iced to form good
antimechanized barriers. Special type tanks having
extra wide treads, of light weight, and with good
clearance can, however, traverse deep snow. Woods
102
and snow combined provide excellent antimechan-
ized security. Snow covering makes antitank mines
harder to detonate. Gasoline incendiary grenades
are very inefficient, as are frangible gas grenades,
because the low temperature prevents rapid vapori-
zation of the contents on which the action of these
grenades depends.
b. Antitank guns usually will be fewer in num-
ber and of lighter types under conditions of deep
snow because of difficulty of transportation. They
can be transported by towing in troughs, or hauled
on toboggans. Light antitank guns can be mounted
in track-laying oversnow vehicles and serve both
for their primary mission against tanks, and also
for missions against miscellaneous point targets
(see FM 7-35).
136. Antiaircraft Security.
Antiaircraft security measures must be intensified
because of the greater likelihood of air attacks and
the relatively greater effect of these attacks in cold
weather. The canalization of lines of communica-
tion, the necessity for uninterrupted supply, and
the difficulty in camouflaging supply points favor
enemy air attack. The remedies for these condi-
tions are the substitution of oversnow vehicles for
wheeled vehicles and the movement of oversnow
vehicles by individual routes, dispersion of supply
points, with a relatively higher level of supply in
forward installations than normal, camouflage of
supply points and use of false trails, and the pro-
tection of columns and supply points by antiair-
craft fire. Air superiority in a given area is not a
guarantee of safety, as the profit to the enemy of
air attack on lines of communication may outweigh
his probable loss in planes.
103
1 37. Antichemical Security.
The danger of attack by chemicals is limited by the
temperatures at which various chemicals vaporize;
the importance of chemical security drops with
the temperature, except when occupying areas for-
merly held by the enemy. When chemicals have
been used in an area, the snow surface is usually
discolored. Low temperatures make all chemicals
more persistent than normal, but less effective.
Some chemical indicators do not function in ex-
treme low temperatures, but this disadvantage is
offset by the relative ineffectiveness of chemical
agents at such temperatures.
Section VII. MOVEMENTS
138. General.
а . Marching. Marching personnel are exposed
to freezing, are slowed by snow, are fatigued great-
ly by trail breaking and carrying a heavier-than-
normal pack, and are subject to becoming lost in
snow storms. The great physical exertion required
causes dehydration and acute thirst.
б. Air. Air movements require the least exer-
tion, and are independent of snow conditions ex-
cept at points of take off and landing. If gibers are
used, troops can easily be transporte^ljto points
having no available plane landing
c. Rail. Rail movements necessita^ use of
snow plows for track clearance, the heatirjg of cars,
and the incorporation of antiaircraft units in the
train. Rolling stock should be inspected for com-
fort before commencing the movement, and a heat
source provided for each car if passenger cars are
not used.
d. Motor. Motor movements of troops in snow
and extreme cold require road clearance, winteri-
104
zation of vehicles, cover and insulation for truck
bodies, use of lugs and chains, provisions, for tacti-
cal security for the convoy, and frequent halts.
e. Oversnow. Oversnow vehicles are not well
suited to hauling large numbers of men. They are
usually best suited for short range movement. Per-
sonnel should be dressed very warmly when riding
in these vehicles.
/. Rates. Rates of movement, except for troops
mounted on skis, are much slower in snow than in
areas clear of snow. This applies to marching, rail
movements, and the movement of wheeled trans-
port. In unbroken snow, trails must be broken or
roads opened. Passing zones, parking areas on
shoulders for stalled vehicles, and turn-arounds,
must be cleared when roads are opened.
g. Halts, (i) Halts must be frequent and of
short duration when men are exposed to the cold.
Hot drinks should be served whenever possible. No
halt should be made for the preparation of the
noon meal, as this wastes the brief daylight; noon
meals of prepared rations may be eaten by person-
nel while moving. Routes should be planned to
afford the greatest possible speed between points,
and bivouac areas should be reached before men
are exhausted. Routes should also be planned to
necessitate as litle trail breaking as possible, and
to avoid defiles and steep slopes. For train and
truck movements the entire route is a continuous
defile. Snowshoes and skis should be carried with
individual equipment on such movemerts, other-
wise deployment in snow is impossible.
(2) Periods of relatively high temperatures, ac-
companied by snowfall or melting, may occur be-
tween periods of extreme cold. If clothing and
equipment become wet during a warm period, it is
imperative that the command be halted immedi-
705
ately and clothing and equipment dried complete-
ly, before continuing the march. In addition, halts
for drying of sleeping bags and clothing will be
necessary about once in five to ten days, as these
articles absorb moisture from the body more rapid-
ly than they exude it.
139. Road Marking.
a. In winter, snowfalls, fog, and snowdrifts fre-
quently make roads and terrain features unrecog-
nizable. Therefore, careful road marking is essen-
tial. If possible, through roads must be uniformly
marked prior to the first snowfall. Road designa-
tions must be known to troops who will use the
routes. Permanent routes should be designated by
durable markers.
b. In open country, poles about 8 feet high with
direction markers, snow markers, wisps of straw,
brushwood, rock cairns, and flags serve the purpose.
c. Orientation is facilitated if the markers are
numbered in the direction of march, and if they
are placed at equal distances from each other. Road
markers must be erected at least three feet off the
trail in order to avoid damage by traffic. In wooded
terrain, tree trunks are marked with blazes, plac-
ards, or paint; branches are bent; boards, paper,
or cloth remnants are fastened to trees.
d. If complete road marking is impossible, arrow
signposts should be erected at prominent points to
indicate the direction of march and distance to the
objective. For short distances, direction arrows will
be sufficient.
e. Road markers which have been in use for
long periods must be checked because their position
may be changed by the enemy. If routes are
changed, the distances indicated on the markers
must be revised.
106
/. Simple marks in the snow, snow markers, and
similar signs are adequate for the marking of tem-
porary roads, such as those used by patrols. If
strange trails cross the route, they must be obliter-
ated within the immediate vicinity of friendly
tracks so that the troops will not go astray. It is
frequently advisable to leave guards at such points
in order to keep units on the proper route.
1 40. Road Making.
a. General, (i) If an engineer unit with spe-
cial type equipment, such as bulldozers or snow
tractors, is attached to a unit, the task of building
winter roads devolves upon the engineers, assisted,
if necessary, by other troops; otherwise, road mak-
ing must be done by any available troops.
(2) In snowy terrain it is frequently easier to
construct and maintain new roads at favorable loca-
tions (for instance, to by-pass defiles) than to clear
existing roads. It will frequently be necessary to
cut new cross-country roads (for evading the enemy,
bringing heavy weapons into position and other
purposes) . Roads in snow-covered, pathless terrain
may be cut by small trail details which speed ahead
on skis to mark the route and by larger road con-
struction detachments on foot. In winter warfare
all units should organize, equip, and train trail
details and road construction detachments.
b. Routes for Tactical Purposes. In establish-
ing routes for tactical purposes, the following types
of terrain and approaches are most suitable: flat
country, plateaus, sparsely wooded land, forest
paths protected from the wind, frozen rivers, lakes,
swamps, and existing field paths. Across open coun-
try, trails should be laid preferably along telegraph
lines, fences, and similar installations. Terrain
which is exposed to snowdrifts is less suitable; for
107
this reason, routes should be established from 300-
to 500 feet from the edges of woods. Heavily
wooded terrain is difficult, and should be by-passed
whenever possible. This is also true of insufficiently
frozen swamps, patches of melting ice, snow-filled
hollows, deep ravines, gorges, defiles, and steep
slopes. Obstacles around which snowdrifts may
form (for instance, farm buildings, piles of stones,
and brushwood) must be removed or by-passed at
a distance equal to 10 times their height. On in-
clines steeper than 10 percent, trails must be cut
in serpentine fashion, oblique to the slope. Curves
must be made as wide as possible; sharp curves are
more difficult for sleds than for wheeled vehicles.
c. Development of Road. When trails are being
reconnoitered and plotted, it must be decided
whether the roadway eventually is to be a one-lane
or a two-lane artery. At first only a one-lane section
is constructed. Bypasses wide enough for two sleds
are later added; they should be at least 50 feet long.
Finally, the road may be enlarged to make a two-
lane artery. A double lane is preferable to two
separate lanes because the latter are less efficient in
case of traffic jams and snow drifts.
d. Methods. (1) The method of making roads
depends upon the type of traffic the roads will have
to bear, upon the depth of the snow, and the equip-
ment available. Ski trails cut by a trail detail will
suffice for small ski detachments which use only
man-hauled sleds. Larger units with motor-drawn
sleds will require a road-construction detachment.
Trail details should start about one hour ahead of
a marching column. Road-construction detach-
ments need a start of several hours, depending upon
the length of the road to be cut. The following
table illustrates the method of operation of a road
construction detachment of one officer and 34 men:
108
TRAIL-BREAKING DETACHMENT TABLE
109
Since newly cut roads are soon damaged at many
points by large bodies o£ marching men, it is ad-
visable to assign a road construction detachment to
the head of each column for the purpose of making
repairs.
(2) Breaking trails. In breaking trails by man-
power, the leading man in a file should break trail
for a short predetermined distance or time, then
step to one side of the trail until the tail of the
column of men breaking trail passes him; he should
then fall in at the tail of the column. The next
man in line automatically begins to break trail.
Rotation should occur at very short intervals.
Individuals should never be allowed to break trail
continuously, as their pace will slacken as they tire,
with a resultant delay in the march of the main
body.
e. Snow Plows. Snow about 20 inches deep can
be cleared with snow plows. For this purpose, the
following types may be used in sequence; breaking
plows, advance plows, widening plows, and side
plows. The breaking plow or advance plow is
pushed by horses or drawn by snow tractor. A strong
detachment of men must always be allotted to each
plow section. They must be equipped with shovels,
axes, and pickaxes for the removal of obstacles.
/. Hardening of Road Surfaces. Roads with
20 inches or more of snow which will be used by
heavy traffic can be packed solid with snowrollers.
Rollers are preferable to snow plows because they
do not create snow banks at the roadside. Another
method of hardening road surfaces is to freeze them.
Sleds with wooden water tanks are used for thi?
purpose. The tanks must have several openings on
the bottom, at the rear, for spraying the water. To
prevent the freezing of the water while it is being
no
transported, the tanks must be heated with hot
stones or by other means.
141. Winter Road Service*
a. Preparations. With the beginning of cold
weather, winter maintenance must be started on all
important roads and paths. Such service is the duty
of all troops. Civil inhabitants with horse teams,
prisoners of war, and local road services, if any,
should be used as much as possible. Regulating and
supervising traffic is an essential part of the winter
road service, which should be linked with the exist-
ing communication net. When the block system of
traffic control is used, communications must’ be in-
stalled and maintained between block points. In
order to prevent accidents and traffic jams, every
individual using the road, especially the drivers of
motor vehicles, must adhere to strict road disci-
pline, observe all traffic signs, and obey all orders
which may be issued. Posts for road guards must be
established along the road, and communication
between these posts and headquarters provided.
The road guards reconn oi ter certain sections of the
road before the first snowfall and, after the begin-
ning of freezing weather and snow, again travel
over these sections and check their condition. They
report immediately the depth of snowfalls and
snowdrifts and the location of icy surfaces. Shortly
before the first frost sets in, the surface of soft roads
is made even by the use of graders, agricultural
equipment, and heavy harrows. Later snow-clearing
work is considerably facilitated by these measures.
Markers are placed at the edge of the road, on both
sides if possible. They are attached to milestones,
to trees, and to fence rails at points where material
for road construction is stocked, and are also put
up at passages and obstacles of all kinds. Bypasses
m
are especially marked. Snow fences and antiskid
material are stored alongside the road.
h. Clearing Roads. Troops will use all available
mechanical equipment for clearing roads. Unless
sufficient equipment is on hand, a mass employ*
ment of manpower is always required after a heavy
snowfall. Clearing must be started immediately
after the first fall and must be repeated continually.
Delay makes the work more difficult. If possible,
the road must be cleared down close to its surface.
If some snow is to be left for sled traffic, a depth of
1 to 4 inches is sufficient. It is desirable, for the pro*
tection of road surfaces, to retain a firm snow cover
until the end of freezing weather. Snow cleared
from roads must be widely scattered away from road
ditches. It must not be . piled up, as piling causes
new snowdrifts. Deep-rutted snow which has been
hardened by traffic or freezing and has an uneven
surface can be leveled with .agricultural imple-
ments. Loose snow is packed into the ruts. Melting
snow must be drained far off to the side. Mud must
be removed. All traffic signs, especially warnings at
railroad crossings, must be shoveled clear and
checked continuously.
c. Snow Fences, (i) Fences must be used where
the natural contours of the terrain cause snowdrifts.
The height of fences varies from 4 to 6 feet. They
should be erected at a distance from the edge of the
road which is lo to 15 times the height of the fence.
They must be vertical and, if possible, at right
angles to the direction of the prevailing wind. In-
formation on wind conditions and drift spots
should be secured from natives.
(2) Snow fences of two types have proved effec-
tive in preventing snowdrifts on roads. When an
“accumulation’’ fence is used, snow piles up on
either side of it. “Guide” fences cause the snow to
112
be swept by the wind at an oblique angle to the
road and deposited at a distance from the thorough-
fare where it will not interfere with traffic.
(3) If wood for fences is lacking, snow walls
made of snow blocks may be substituted. Th^se
require constant repair.
d. Treatment of Slippery Surfaces. Slippery
snow and ice surfaces should be sprinkled with
sand, gravel, or crushed rock. For slippery snow
surfaces, a coarser type of antiskid material can be
used than for ice, because it is pressed into the
snow. The antiskid material must be piled in ad-
vance along the roadside. It should contain no
earth. The piles must be marked so that they may
be found after they are covered with snow. The
material is spread immediately after the surface
becomes slippery. When the ice crust is chopped or
removed, the surface of the road must not be dam-
aged. Two layers of chicken wire, with brush be-
tween, and secured with large nails, make an effec-
tive device for crossing icy roads.
€, Transition from Snow to Mud. (1) When,
during the transition period from winter to spring,
temperatures are above freezing in daytime and be-
low at night, roads are dry and hard only at night
and in the morning. Vehicular traffic must, there-
fore, be limited to these hours. Men whose duty it
is to dispatch vehicles must see to it that advantage
is taken of the most favorable hours. All drivers,
and especially drivers of motor vehicles, must strict-
ly observe traffic discipline. Driving on dirt roads
must be avoided to the greatest possible extent un-
less such roads are completely dry. Traffic during
the mud period must be directed to tracks on the
left and right of the road.
(2:) Water must be drained off the roads. Roads
must, therefore, be cleared of snow before the
113
thaw period so that ditches and culverts can func-
tion properly. The drying of dirt roads can be
expedited by grading the surfaces. The mud thu-s
removed must not interfere with drainage. Ditches
and culverts must be kept open. ^
(3) In inhabited localities, roads can be graveled
by the demolition of stone buildings and breaking
up of the stones. Large stones make the road worse;
only an even layer of small stones will serve the
purpose. Sticks and planks for the construction of
corduroy roads, prepared during -the frost period,
should be on hand along all indispensable supply
roads. This applies especially to those sections of
road which lead through depressions or valleys,
which dry later than roads on high grounds. Sources
of sand should be located. Sand should be piled in
readiness wherever it may be needed for spreading
on wet sections of roads. Lumber for the construc-
tion of small bridges should be available at the
lowest points on roads and paths.
142. Ice Crossings.
a. Capacity of Ice. The thickness of ice crusts
may vary in every body of water. Over river cur-
rents, near the banks, and under snow, the ice
crust is generally thin. This also applies to swampy
ground and warm springs. An ice crust under which
the water level has fallen breaks more easily than
one resting on the surface of the water. During the
thaw period, ice becomes dull and brittle and loses
its carrying capacity, and heavy traffic wears it
through very quickly. In determining the carrying
capacity of ice crusts, not only the thickness, but
also the nature of the ice is a factor. Only light,
clear ice is a reliable carrier. The familiar dull
upper and lower layers must not be considered in
estimating its strength. Before venturing on large-
114
scale ice crossings, ample blocks must be cut out
and checked for firmness. The load capacity of ice
is shown in appendix L These factors are depend-
able only when the proper march intervals are
observed, and they give only a general idea of the
weight which can be sustained by ice surfaces.
h . Preparations and Safety Measures. A cross-
ing must be made on an ice crust of uniform thick-
ness and, if possible, one without holes. Approach
and departure roads and some by-passes must also
be available. For measuring the thickness of the ice
along the crossing, holes are cut at distances of
about lo to i6 feet from the center of the route,
and spaced from 33 to 65 feet apart. The crossing
and a strip about 20 feet wide on both sides of it
are cleared of snow so that the condition of the ice
may be watched during the march. Crossings for
motor vehicles and foot troops are sprinkled with
sand. For sleds, a thin layer of snow should be
spread on the ice. The various crossings, roads of
approach and departure, and holes, may be marked
by small snow walls, railings or poles. The carrying
capacity of the ice and the distances to be main-
tained between vehicles should be clearly shown on
posters.
143. Wheeled Vehicle Transport.
a. Truck bodies should be insulated by packing
them with sawdust, straw boughs, or other avail-
able material. Tarpaulins are either left up with
the back curtain in place or are removed entirely
and personnel covered individually with shelter
halves. The latter measure is necessary in the pres-
ence of the enemy in order that men may not be
trapped inside trucks. Use of tarpaulins without
back flaps causes snow to cover men riding in the
truck. Safety from ambush and air attack dictates
115
the use of individual covering rather than the tar-
. pauliii, Snowshoes should be with each individual.
Antiaircraft weapons should accompany the column
and be capatle of firing while moving.
h. T urn-arounds, passing lanes, and parking areas
on roadsides for disabled vehicles are necessary. All
trucks should be winterized and should use chains.
Lugs should be available for use by the leading
vehicles in the convoy. Truck convoys should not
enter unreconnoitered defiles.
c. Motor vehicles with two-wheel drive operate
with difficulty on roads in i foot of snow. Vehicles
with four-wheel drive can usually run on the level
in snow up to about 1I/2 feet deep. Vehicles with
caterpillar treads can move through much deeper
snow. Snow plows should be available to all troops
using roads in winter. Engineer troops will ordi-
narily be charged with the duty of keeping the
roads passable.
d. Drivers and passengers should avoid direct
contact with metal. Metal seats should be well
padded. A piece of sheepskin or woolen cloth
should be sewed around the steering wheel. The
metal handles of tools should be covered with cloth
or adhesive tape.
c. Where streams and lakes are to be crossed,
open cabs are safer than closed cabs. The doors of
closed cabs should be kept open while crossing ice
to prevent the drivers from being trapped in case
of a break-through. Troops being transported
should dismount and walk across ice. When halted,
it is better, when possible, to chock the wheels
rather than to set the brakes, since cold and con-
densed moisture often cause a set brake to lock.
When stopping on snow, ice, or frozen ground,
brakes should be applied gently. A sudden applica-
tion of the brakes is likely to cause slipping, loss of
116
control, and accidents. In. driving through drifts,
the vehicle should be put in low gear and four-
wheel drive before entering the drift, and then
kept moving. Stopping or slowing up in a drift to
change gears often results in stalling.
/. At 30° below zero, Diesel oil becomes too
sluggish to flow through pipes. An improvised wood
stove made of sheet metal and built against the
fuel tank is sometimes useful in warming the oil
when starting. After starting, the fuel in most Diesel
tractors is kept warm by the engine exhaust.
g. Tractors with wide tracks are reliable and
efficient means of transportation. They are not con-
fined to roads, can run over deep snow, knock down
small trees, cross rough terrain, pull heavy weapons,
sleds or trailers, and climb steep slopes. They travel
at a rate of about 6 miles per hour. Preceded by
bulldozers, they can make their own roads and are
particularly useful where highways are scarce. Each
tractor should be equipped with a power-operated
winch and heavy duty cable 250 to 300 feet long
to move tows over otherwise impassable gi^ound
and to lower them down steep slopes. When sleds
or other trailers are being towed by tractors, it is
usually easier to run over snowdrifts than to clear
roads through them. In going down steep slopes
with sleds in tandem, brakes may be improvised by
wrapping ropes or chains around the runners. Sleds
may also be kept from overrunning the tractor by
attaching ropes in rear and having men hold them
back.
h. Extreme cold slows up the march of motorized
or mechanized vehicles because of halts necessary
to allow personnel in open or unheated vehicles
to dismount and get warm by moving about and
restoring circulation. Cold will increase mainte-
nance difficulties which will further slow down, the
117
march. Drivers, operators, gunners, and, in fact, all
personnel must become accustomed to driving and
working on their vehicles in awkward clothing and
mittens or gloves.
i. Snow is the chief deterrent to the march of
wheeled vehicles. Long marches are , extremely
fatiguing to drivers unless the trail is well broken.
Normal distances can be maintained in snow
marching, extept in blinding snow, when distances
must be reduced. Since there is little likelihood of
air observation during a snowfall, the columns may
be shortened. The almost constant use of chains or
traction devices greatly increases the wear on ve-
hicles and the necessity for adjustments. All per-
sonnel must therefore be trained to help the driver
inspect the vehicle at every opportunity during the
march. They must be alert to detect trouble in the
traction devices. Each man should know how to use
or improvise emergency expedients to extricate
stalled or stuck vehicles. Certain personnel must be
familiar with the operation of the snow plows and
their upkeep. Heavy vehicles will break trail bet-
ter than light vehicles. Scout cars can break trail at
15 to 20 miles per hour up to a snow depth of 14
inches. Mechanical strain as well as driver fatigue
requires that the leading vehicles be changed fre-
quently. There should be at least two drivers with
each vehicle; these alternate in driving.
144. Oversnow Equipment.
The use of oversnow equipment enables the com-
mander to avoid roads and trails and to advance on
a wide front. Maximum use of the cross-country
mobility of oversnow vehicles should be made at
all times to effect deployment. Aerial route recon-
naissance will aid in the selection of wide avenues
of approach. Track-laying vehicles should tow
118
loads, rather than carry them; the loads on all
oversnow vehicles should be kept light. Ski troops
can easily be towed behind track-laying vehicles
(see app, II) . Cooling vents of oversnow vehicles
should be left open. Routes should be selected
which do not demand the maximum performance
of which a vehicle is capable.
145. Rail Transport.
а. Rolling stock should be insulated and heated,
and shelters built for the gunners, on the antiair-
craft flatcars. Tanks, trucks, and animals should be
loaded or unloaded only after loading platforms
and ramps have been sprinkled with sand. Storage
batteries should be removed from vehicles and
transported in heated cars, and radiators checked
for winterization. Windows and doors of trains
should not be allowed to stand open. If stoves are
used in train cars, one man should be detailed to
watch the stoves at all times to prevent fires or car-
bon monoxide poisoning,
б. Railroad tracks are especially vulnerable to
forays made by ski troops, and should be guarded.
A pilot flatcar pushed ahead of the train is addi-
tional insurance against placed mines and demoli-
tions. Clearance of tracks and reconnaissance for
possible avalanche areas must be accomplished.
c. Railroad transportation is often interrupted
by deep snow, drifts, and snowslides. Snowslides
occur most frequently in mountainous regions
when heavy fresh snow falls over a glazed crust, or
during thaws. In deep passes and defiles, snow will
often form in drifts 50 or more feet in depth. Dur-
ing melting weather, slides are often started by the
vibration from passing trains. They are more apt
to occur in the daytime than at night, since the-
drop in temperature after nightfall often causes a
119
temporary freeze. When thaws are likely to cause
snowslides, the safest period for running trains
through mountainous districts is between the late
hours of the night and sunrise. An ample supply
of rotary railroad snow plows should be held in
readiness, so located as to permit them to work
simultaneously on both ends of probable drifts and
slides. The cowcatchers of all locomotives should be
provided with plates for clearing light snow from
the track. The track should be kept under constant
observation so that a timely warning of obstruc-
tions may be reported.
Section VIII. OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS
146. General.
а. Oversnow mobility is the ability of a com-
mand to move cross country over snow-covered
terrain independently of roads and trails. It is at-
tained only by the employment of vehicles— snow
tractors, heavy track-laying tractors, tractor trains,
sleds— of the proper type and number; and of troops
specially trained and equipped to operate in snow
and extreme cold. .
б. Unless a unit exploits its oversnow mobility
to the fullest extent, it will be tied to roads and
trails. When a command operates in this fashion,
cross-country movements to envelop the enemy
become impossible; costly frontal attacks are the
alternative.
c. Personnel requirements for maintenance of
lines of communication are proportionately greater
when operating in snow than under normal condi-
tions. Manhauling or packing of ammunition in
snow dissipates energy rapidly. Men must be rested,
warmed, and dried periodically to keep them in a
high state of efficiency. Plans for accomplishing this
120
should be developed beforehand and adhered to in
detail, otherwise attrition losses due to extreme cold
will swell the casualty rate.
d. On the other hand, continued denial to the
enemy of an opportunity to rest, dry out, and warm
up, will swell his casualty list and result in his col-
lapse. Warming and drying facilities should be
extended to prisoners of war. Efforts should be
made to apprise the enemy of the fact that prisoners
may expect such facilities.
147, Objectives.
The importance of supply systems and sheltered
areas increases in cold weather, and many actions
will be fought to gain them for friendly use or to
deny them to enemy use. The ^destruction of the
enemy remains the paramount objective, as always,
but if he can be denied supplies, shelter, and rest,
the cold will accomplish his destruction with a
minimum of effort on the part of friendly troops.
Lines of communication are therefore primary ob-
jectives in winter warfare. These primary objectives
are vulnerable to -winter-t rained troops and the
sensitivity of the enemy to their destruction makes
their rupture or destruction particularly profitable.
Cutting his communication isolates the enemy,
and he must attack to extricate himself. This forces
him to leave his sheltered defensive system and
expose himself to the cold.
1 48. Envelopment.
Envelopment, depending on superior oversnow
mobility, is the best method of reaching enemy
lines of communications. In order to be successful,
the oversnow mobility of the enveloping force must
be greater than that of the defending force. The
necessity for a high state of training in oversnow
121
operations thus becomes apparent, and the dis-
advantages imposed upon a force operating with
partial training or makeshift equipment can be
seen. Full use of airborne troops for the seizing of
key points in rear areas should be made. The en-
veloping force should be composed of ski troops
when possible; if they are not available, then the
troops at hand having the greatest oversnow mobil-
ity for the particular type of terrain to be covered,
should be used. Envelopments should start from
the rear and be concealed until the last possible
moment. Cold camps, night movements, and ab-
sence of motorized equipment will all be conducive
to surprise. Tracks should be concealed from air
observation. Wide envelopments will usually be
possible because of the concentration of the enemy
within defensive positions,
149. Security.
a. General. Security measures are similar to
those during ordinary operations, with the addition
of those which are peculiar to cold weather condi-
tions. The silence, and in the case of ski troops, the
speed with which enemy troops may move, is a
factor which must always be borne in mind. When
the weather permits the use of aircraft, their maxi-
mum employment may be expected.
b. Antitank, Antitank security will depend on
evaluation of the enemy capabilities with respect to
the snow conditions, vegetation, and terrain of the
area. Slopes can be iced, abatis constructed, and
tank traps in snow and ice and stream lines mined
to supplement the limited number of antitank guns
which it is possible to employ in snow. Antitank
guns can be mounted on track laying oversnow ve-
hicles for ease in transportation. This expedient
allows small caliber artillery to accompany the
122
oflFensive. Light antiaircraft guns will be found
effective against enemy oversnow equipment.
150. Pursuit.
Ski troops should be used in the same manner as
that in which cavalry or light mechanized forces are
ordinarily used to maintain constant pressure on a
fleeing enemy and to cut off detachments for de-
struction. Air operations should be continuous dur-
ing pursuit because of the extreme difficulty of
moving artillery forward rapidly enough to keep
pace with the movement. Airborne troops may be
used to seize defiles in the path of the enemy. After
the enemy main force is captured or dispersed, the
remnants of the enemy force should be denied all
shelter and supplies in the area. The cold will then
aid in the complete dissolution of the enemy forces.
Section IX. DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS
151» General.
In addition to the normal considerations which
force a commander to assume the defensive, it is
sometimes advisable to go on the defensive and
conduct harassing operations against the enemy in
an effort to force him to attack under unfavorable
conditions. The defensive force, being less exposed
to the cold, suffers less attrition than a force oper-
ating away from bases, and therefore conserves its
strength. Harassing tactics hinder enemy operations
by destruction of his lines of communication. Small
offensive patrols with the mission of harassing
enemy bivouacs, destroying supplies, and breaking
communication routes should be dispatched for
deep penetration of enemy areas. These units
should be composed of men proficient in skiing or
snowshoeing, woodcraft, demolition work, and tac-
123
tics of small units. They should travel with the
absolute minimum of equipment.
152* Reconnaissance, Selection, and
Occupation of Position.
Enemy capabilities in relation to his equipment,
and to the terrain, vegetation, and snow conditions
of the area, should be evaluated. Reconnaissance
should include reconnaissance from the direction of
the enemy to insure blending of the friendly posi-
tion with the background. Prior to the arrival of
troops, routes to be followed in occupation of the
position should be laid out and taped, and the ex-
tension of the routes to logically located dummy
positions should be made in-order to avoid reveal-
ing of the position by trampled snow areas. If air-
craft are available to fly over the position during its
occupation to report on the visibility of installa-
tions from the air, remedial action should be taken
immediately on the basis of these reports.
153. Organization of Position.
a. The position should consist of mutually sup-
porting areas capable of all-around defense.
b. Outer and inner trails should be guarded con-
stantly by shuttling ski patrols. Patrols and mes-
sengers should use only prescribed cross trails.
Broken surface of the snow at unauthorized points
forms the best warning of hostile infiltration.
Troops are alerted and investigation made of any
trails crossing those of the prescribed network.
Communication between outposts and the main
body may be by radio, telephone, or pyrotechnics.
Outposts should have warm shelters.
154. Obstacles.
a. 'Wire. Wire entanglements installed before
snowfall may be surmounted with concertina wire.
124
the combination being very effective. Concertina
wire may be used on the surface of the snow, but
danger of tunnelling under it will exist if the snow
is deep. Wire as high as 12 feet to 13 feet may profit-
ably be employed for deep snow; installation of
such wire must be accomplished before snowfall,
b . Other Obstacles. Slopes may be iced to
form obstacles. Pitfalls for men and tanks may be
made. The ice on lakes and streams may be mined
and blown as a trap and also to form an obstacle.
Snow dampens the effectiveness of antitank mines.
Antipersonnel mines, particularly the bounding
type, are very effective, as the snow conceals the
trip wires. Abatis are effective obstacles when laid
on deep snow. The abatis make passage for a man
wearing snow shoes or skis doubly difficult, and the
deep snow delays men not wearing skis or snow-
shoes. The weight of the tree forces branches into
the snow making tunnelling difficult. The fougasse
is especially effective in frozen ground, and can be
fired by a* concealed trip wire.
155. Special Snow Expedients.
a. Emplacements. Emplacements should be con-
structed to afford warmth for the occupants, as
well as cover and concealment. Sandbags filled with
snow, earth, or ice concrete may be used for their
construction in deep snow or frozen ground. Loop-
holes and embrasures should be covered from the
inside with white painted boards pushed to the
front, backed up with an insulation of straw or
boughs. Weapons should be sited deep within the
emplacement in order to avoid muzzle blast effect.
This restricts traverse and elevation, but aids in
concealing the gun from sight or hearing. All em-
placements must be insulated. Dummy works
should be camouflaged, but not too well. Care
125
should be taken to insure that some tracks can be
seen.
b. Shelter for Personnel. Tunnelling in snow
and the construction of trenches covered by frame-
works and snow will aid in concealing positions
and give shelter to personnel. In deep snow, vaulted
dugouts are possible. They should be lined, when
possible, to prevent cave-ins and dampness. Ven-
tilating holes are necessary.
c. Muzzle Blast. Muzzle blast may be avoided
by freezing a crust on the snow, by packing snow in
front of the position, or by covering snow with a
reversible tarpaulin white side up. These measures
avoid the blowing effect of snow or minimize it;
however, it will be necessary to spread new snow
after firing in order to cover the discoloration pro-
duced by the muzzle blast. Hanging burlap in front
of the embrasure will help to conceal muzzle blast.
Section X. RETROGRADE MOVEMENTS
156. Withdrawals.
Daylight withdrawals usually result in excessive
losses and should be avoided. Protection by cover-
ing forces on the ground, and by air forces, is, rela-
tively more important in withdrawals in snow and
extreme cold than during withdrawals under ordi-
nary weather conditions. Oversnow mobility must
be used to the fullest extent in order to avoid canal-
ization. Withdrawing troops should move straight
to the rear in deployed formation until beyond
range of hostile small arms fire. Further withdraw-
al should be made in semi-deployed formations
until beyond the range of hostile light artillery.
157. Delaying Action.
In addition to the usual methods of forcing deploy-
ment of the enemy when seeking to delay him, a
126
valuable expedient is to harass enemy columns by
small detachments possessing the greatest possible
oversnow mobility. The poorer the enemy over-
snow mobility, the greater will be the canalization
of his routes, and the better the opportunity for
the use of such harassing detachments. In brush or
woods, the use of mortar fire will enable the de-
tachments to bring sufficient fire on or near the
enemy to force his deployment. The use of mortar
fire will afford a better opportunity for escape than
would be afforded had the detachment penetrated
the woods to within effective smalharms range.
Long-range artillery fire or air attack on enemy
routes of communication are particularly valuable
in snow* operations.
Section XI. SPECIAL OPERATIONS
1 58. Attack of a Fortified Position.
a. General. Snow and extreme cold modify the
attack on a fortified position by impeding or pre-
venting the use of armored units, limiting the
effectiveness of flame throwers and chemicals, slow-
ing the advance of assault troops, and by making the
transportation to the scene of action of large quan-
tities of artillery pieces and ammunition difficult
or impossible. Cutting the means of supply of the
fortified enemy position, including the air supply
route, and forcing the enemy to leave his fortifica-
tions and fight in the open in an attempt to break
free is a desirable course of action when feasible.
b. Exploitation of Breakthrough. Ski troops
and troops carried in oversnow vehicles should lead
the exploitation of breakthroughs in snow and be
followed by snowshoe -troops for consolidation of
positions.
127
159. Operations at River Lines.
a . General. Frozen water courses constitute ave-
nues of approach, instead of barriers. However,
open water is found even at 6o° below zero and
presents great dangers to personnel. Ice is not all
of uniform thickness, and may be very dangerous.
Streams with varying water levels are particularly
dangerous, as the ice at low water will often be
weaker than it appears, and will break under
moderate pressure.
b. Forcing Crossings. Streams should be care-
fully reconnoitered by engineers, who will select
and make preparations for the best method of cross-
ing. Artillery and mortar fire or aerial bpmbard-
ment of ice by the enemy is an ever present prob-
ability. Troops caught on the ice by this type of
enemy action are extremely vulnerable; crossing
on a wide* front will minimize the effects of such
interference. Crossing techniques are discussed in
appendix I.
c. Defense Against Crossing. Dams under the
control of friendly forces can be manipulated to
burst the ice or to lower the water level sufficiently
to reduce the bearing power of the ice cover. Ice
can be mined for controlled demolition; bombard-
ment by mortar and artillery fire or from the air
may be employed. The icing of river banks is effec-
tive in hindering crossings. Traps may be built
in the^ ice itself. In any case, the usual defense
measures are necessary, as none of the means men-
tioned can do more than hinder a crossing.
160. Night Combat.
a. General. Night combat increases in impor-
tance in winter operations because of the relatively
greater length of winter nights in general and the
extreme length of such nights in high latitudes. If
128
the surface of the snow has thawed during the day^
it is apt to freeze into a crust at night, making
movement easier than by day. Night operations
provide concealment from hostile air reconnais-
sance and reduce the effectiveness of harassing
bombing, and shelling, and long-range small-arms
fire. The habitual use of night operations in winter
campaigning is extremely probable and should be
anticipated in the training period.
b. Effectiveness. If the enemy can be forced to
abandon his shelters quickly while improperly
clothed and to operate for a considerable time with-
out the clothing and equipment left in his bivouac
area, he will suffer numerous casualties from ex-
posure and the morale and efficiency of his forces
will be seriously impaired. Such action should be
forced on him whenever possible.
161* Combot in Towns and Woods.
а. (i) The damage to shelter facilities necessi-
tated by bombardment of a town may be avoided if
infiltration into the town can be effected prior to
opening the attack. Surprise must be utilized to the
highest degree to prevent needless destruction.
(2) The methods described in FM 31-50 are
applicable.
б. Woods, particularly if dense, form an obstacle
to oversnow vehicles of all kinds. Powerful bull-
dozers are necessary to open roads through thick
woods. Small units, equipped with necessary sup-
porting weapons and operating under mission type
orders, can be employed to advantage.
162. Mountain Warfare.
a. Units should be specially organized, trained,
and equipped to operate in mountains if the double
obstacles of mountainous terrain and low tempera-
129
ture are to be surmounted successfully. Extreme
cold, coupled with the high altitudes encountered
in mountain warfare, weakens men and animals
and makes their work output much less than at
lower altitudes and temperatures. Snow slows move-
ment in mountains, inhibits aerial activity, and
presents the dangers of avalanches. Mobile detach-
ments capable of seizing and holding mountain
heights are needed to insure movement of main
bodies through the valleys.
6. For additional information on mountain war-
fare, see FM 70-10 (when published).
163. Combal* a\ Defiles.
a. General. Snow in itself forms a continuous
defile for organizations not having or not utilizing
oversnow equipment; it also increases the effective-
ness of woods or rough terrain as obstacles to cross-
country progress. In deploying from columns, over-
snow equipment should be regarded as the means
for utilizing the entire snow surface as a potential
road, rather than an obstacle.
b. Offensive Against Defiles. Full utilization
of oversnow mobility should be made to envelop
defiles. Defiles should be seized as far as practicable
in advance of the main body, using light forces,
extremely mobile equipment, and boldness. Air-
borne troops are suitable for advance seizure of
defiles.
c. Defense of Defiles. The reserve of a defen-
sive force at a defile must be extremely mobile in
order to counter any envelopments attempted by
the enemy. Flank outposts should be established
and should be in communication with the reserve.
If no delaying action is contemplated, the holding
force at the defile may be deprived of oversnow
equipment to augment the mobility of the reserve.
130
164. Partisan Warfare.
a. Partisan warfare against enemy supply and
communication lines is especially valuable in opera-
tions in snow and extreme cold. Hunters and trap-
pers are ideal partisans in sparsely settled country.
b. For more complete discussion, see FM 100-5.
Section XIK AIRBORNE OPERATIONS
165. General.
a. Airborne troops should be employed wherever
and whenever possible because the snow does not
limit their strategic mobility, as it does that of
ground troops. They should be used to seize and
hold key points until the slower moving ground
troops can arrive.
b. For employment of airborne troops, see FM
71-30.
166. Parachute Troops.
Individual oversnow equipment should accompany
jumpers. If, in snow-covered areas, snowshoes and
skis are dropped separately by parachute, the men
will be immobilized for a considerable length of
time. In deep snow, they will be almost helpless.
Organizational oversnow equipment can be drop-
ped separately.
167. Plane and Glider Transported Troops.
If troops are transported by plane, the clearing
and compacting of snow runways must be accom-
plished before landing is possible. This may be
done by parachute or glider-borne troops. Glider
and plane transported troops must have individual
snow crossing equipment loaded in the same plane
or glider in which they ride.
131
Section XIII. SUPPLY AND EVACUATION
168. Method of Supply.
Oversnow equipment must be used for forward
supply, augmented by manhauling and animal
transport where necessary. Tractor and sled trains
should be organized. These trains can be used for
transport of heavy supplies in areas having no road
net. Organization and training must be complete
before beginning operations, as attempts to oper-
ate special equipment with inexperienced crews is
wasteful and relatively ineffective. Motor fuel con-
sumption will increase over normal due to incom-
plete combustion, idling of engines, and a propor-
tionately greater amount of low gear driving. An
increase in the amount of explosives needed should
be anticipated. Ration increases of 50 percent to
cover losses in dropping, increased consumption,
and spoiling should also be anticipated. Air sup-
ply should be used when appropriate.
169. Ammunition.
Ammunition should be stored above the ground
and kept covered. It should be carefully cleaned of
ice and frozen earth with a wooden tool before use.
170. Evacuation of Wounded.
a . General. Wounded men often freeze to
death unless promptly cared for or if they have
lost their sleeping bags. To prevent a large percent-
age of deaths among the wounded in extremely cold
weather, it is necessary to insure their prompt col-
lection on the battlefield, and their speedy evacua-
tion to places where they can be kept warm. To this
end, the size of collecting parties will have to be
increased above normal requirements and they
must be provided with enclosed sleds equipped
132
with heating devices. Advance planning is neces-
sary to provide adequate evacuation methods in
snow and cold. Cold hastens the progress of shock
and lessens the chances of recovery if the casualty
is exposed to it for any length of time. Enemy action
hinders the use of litters in snow, as bearers in
sufficient number to carry the litter become a good
gi'oup target.
b. Methods of Evacuation. Litters are difficult
to handle in deep snow, but small sleds and tobog-
gans provide an excellent means of collecting the
disabled. Sleeping bags or casualty evacuation bags
must be on hand in ample numbers so that
wounded men can be kept warm. Heated shelter
should be provided frequently along the route of
evacuation at which warm fluid such as cocoa or
soup is administered. Dressings also should be
checked and shock therapy administered if neces-
sary. Drinking water for the wounded should be
warmed. Ambulances should be heated and pro-
vided with warm bedding. Ambulance planes
should be readily available for the speedy evacua-
tion of serious cases. The akja, shown in figure 19,
may be drawn by one or by two men crawling in
tandem using the harness shown, and in snow
operations should be made up in sufficient quanti-
ties to replace litters completely. A small movable
house built to fit a truck body or cargo sled will
provide adequate temporary shelter and warmth for
the wounded. Issue toboggans are useful for evacu-
ation. The mountain tent or the shelter half may be
used with the wounded man’s snowshoes or skis to.
form an improvised toboggan.
1 71 . Care of Wounded or Frozen.
a. General. Wounded men should be warmed
by every possible means. Heated bricks or stones
133
wrapped in burlap may be inserted in sleeping
bags, warm nonalcoholic drinks administered,
shelters utilized, and speedy evacuation to the rear
effected.
b. Thawing. To thaw frozen members, keep the
meml?er cold. Warm the individual by hot non-
alcoholic drinks, heated pads, coverings. Massage
the body between the trunk and the frozen mem-
ber, taking care not to touch the frozen area. In
this manner, circulation is restored at the same
time the member thaws from within, and damage
to tissue is held to a minimum. Warming the mem-
ber thaws it without restoration of circulation and
causes death of tissues so thawed witb correspond-
ing sloughing of parts and probable loss of the
member.
134
Appendix I
COLD WEATHER FIELD ENGINEERING
EXPEDIENTS
Section I. STREAM CROSSING
1. General.
a. Contrary to general opinion, not all streams
freeze over in extremely low temperature. Streams
rnay have open water or very thin ice in tempera-
tures as low as 6o® below zero. Frozen lakes and
water courses may be turned into obstacles by rup-
turing the ice by explosives. This may be effected
by mines, artillery fire, mortar fire, or air bombing,
and secures the best results when done immediately
before the arrival of hostile troops. Overflows are
often encountered in low temperatures due to nat-
ural causes, but they can also be caused by manipu-
lation of dams. Water is one of the most dangerous
types of obstacles at low temperatures, as wet feet
will freeze unless all wet footgear is at once re-
moved, feet dried, and dry footgear put on.
b. For more complete discussion of stream-cross-
ing expedients see FM 5-10.
c. A part of the supporting value of ice is de-
rived from its pressure on the water below it. When
the water level falls, the bearing capacity of the ice
decreases. In extreme cold, streams often have lay-
ers of ice interspersed with layers of running water.
In any crossing of ice, reconnaissance of the ice is
necessary to insure that its bearing quality is ade-
quate, and that men and animals will not wet their
feet. Rotten ice can be detected by its dull color
and honeycombed structure. It has very little sup-
porting power. In judging ice thickness, the layers
135
of rotten ice on top arid bottom should not be con-
sidered. Sample blocks should be cut or thickness
at the crossing site measured. In general, troops
crossing ice should not halt nor should vehicles
turn around thereon. Traffic onto the ice should
be controlled.
d. The following table may be used as a guide
to determine what weight can be supported by ice
of varying thicknesses and at what interval between
columns:
TABLE OF LOADS ON ICE
Load
Thickness
of ice
Minimum width of
track or interval
Inches
Feet
Single rifleman on skis or snowshoes . .
13^
16
Infantry in single file, 2-pace distance
3
23
Infantry columns, single horses, motor-
cycles, unloaded sleds or motor
toboggans
4
33
Single light artillery piece. }^-ton
truck 4x4
6
49
Light artillery, passenger cars, me-
dium 1 J^-ton trucks with total load
,
of 3 tons
8
65
2 ^-ton trucks, light loads
10
82
Closed columns of all arms except
armored force and heavy artillery.
12
98
Armored scout cars, light tanks
14
115
20-ton vehicles
16
131
45-ton vehicles
24
164
2. Ice Bridges.
a. General. Ice bridges may be used to cross
open channels in a slow-moving stream. The ice
used must be consistent in thickness and quality;
no obstacle should exist in the channel on either
bank; the ice should be thick enough to support
the load, or strengthened; and cutting should be
accurately done to insure a close fit at either end.
136
b. Figures 27 and 28 illustrate skew and straight
ice bridges. The skew bridge is the easier to con-
struct as accurate survey and cutting to insure a
close joint are less necessary than for the straight
bridge.
BANK
ICE AT EDGE
OF STREAM
c. Bridging from Both Banks. If the bank ice
is very irregular or the span to be crossed very
large, it may be necessary to cut and swing out ice
blocks from both banks.
d. Reinforcing Ice. The simplest method of re-
inforcing ice is to put layers of snow and small
lumps of ice on the surface and pour on water to
freeze; each layer should be frozen before addition
of the subsequent layer. Another method of in-
creasing the carrying capacity of the ice is by adding
and freezing to it several layers of boughs or straw,
each about 2 inches to 4 inches thick. Boards,
planks, and small logs may be used to form tracks
137
Figure 28. Straight ice bridge.
138
or runways for wheels or runners. Each track should
be at least 3 feet wide. Sleds made of logs will help
in distributing the load of artillery pieces. The
following table may be used as a guide in the rein-
forcement of ice;
ICE REINFORCEMENT TABLE
Material
Thickness of
reinforcing layer
Required for
13 foot wide track
Increase in bearing
capacity (assuming
ice thickness of
6 inches)
Ice and snow
' 3 layers of 1
inches.
K
Straw
2 to 4 inches
6 pounds per
foot run.
K
Straw, 3
Each layer 2
20 pounds per
M
to 4 inches.
foot run.
Brush
Ice block ....
2 to 4 inches.
Dependent on
size of
blocks.
2 cubic feet
per foot run.
M
Planks, 2-inch
Two runways,
each 3 feet
wide.
e. Ponton Bridges, (i) Many times it will be
quicker to blow up weak surface ice and use normal
ponton equipment. Enemy action also may necessi-
tate this type of crossing. All boats and pontons
should be protected by rubbing strakes of sheet
metal to prevent their being punctured by the ice.
Chopping of the ice around the pontons frequently
will be necessary to prevent crushing of the pon-
tons. Pontons may also be protected by floats or
booms on the upstream side. Ice breakers should
be installed upstream (fig. 29) . Ancho
…[truncated]