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DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 141 175 SE 022 700
TITLE Marine and Envircnmental Studies Field Manual.
INSTITUTION Cranston School Dept., R.I.; Warwick School Dept.,
R. I.
SPONS AGENCY Bureau of Elementary and Secondary Education
(DEEW/OE), Washington, D.C.
FUB DATE fep 73
NOTE 148p.; Page 77 missing from document; Best Copy
Available
EDRS FRICE MF~$0.83 HC-$7.35 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS Animal Science; *Biological Sciences; Earth Science;
Geology; *Instructional Materials; *Oceanology;
Physical Sciences; Plant Science; Secondary
Education; *Seccndary School Science; *Units of
Study
IDENTIFIERS Elementary Secondary Education Act Title III; ESEA
Title III; Tides
AESTRACT
This laboratory manual was developed for a
field-oriented high school cceanclogy program. The organization of
the units includes a selection of supplementary activities to allow
students to explcre ocean studies in more depth. Included are 19
units. The units include biological oceanography, physical
oceanography, and some social science topics. A suggested sequence of
activities is provided. (RH)
RHR RAR RH GHAR EER RK RR RK RR RO RR RR REE EE
* Documents acquired by ERiC include many informal unpublished *
* materials not available from cther sources. ERIC makes every effort *
* to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal *
* reproducibility are often encountered and this affects the quality *
* of the micrcefiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available *
* via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS). EDRS is not *
* responsible for the quality of the original document. Reproductions *
* *
* *
supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original.
KEKE AR ASAE ASAE AERA REE ERK DERE RRR ERR EK KK RK EERE ER EEE EERE
US DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH
EDUCATION & WELFARE
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EOUCATION
MARINE AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES FIELD MANUAL
A Regional Project
Funded under Title III of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act in the Public Schools
of Cranston and Warwick, Rhode Island
Published in September, 1973
Dr. Joseph J. P2 “10, Jr. Mr. Domenic R. DiLuglio
Superintendent of Schools Superintendent of Schools
Cranston, R. I. Warwick, R. I.
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NIT VI —- TIDAL POOLS
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UNIT VII - POLLUTION
PU TOOGAON. Sac os ss
Chemical Pollution.....
Microbiological Pollutioc
Test Procedures........
Population Study.....
Field Activities....
Water Circulation in
Mussel Dissection....
Heart Rate of Clam...
burrowing of Clams......
Supplemental Informatior.
Field Activitie ‘ a
Oxygen Uptake of Clam Worm...
Pulse Rate of Clam Worm..........
Volume Ce.itrol in Estuarine Worns
Supplementa? ™nformation.........
UNIT
The Magnetic Compass. ..........
Using a Marine Chart. ..ccccccece
Simple Course Plotting.........
Supplementary Piloting Problem.
te SPS ey
FAOLG BOCIVIS cis ch Wan heensune
UNIT XI PLANTS
A +, . -
A Study < S I 3. eer oe CCCECRRerHO Ss
Supplementa. oj ; Spe ere ee ee
SPONGES & COELENTERATE
Sponge Structure...... ‘ ToT RCE CT RC Te CET ee
Sponge Regeneration...... TEST CP Cee Cree ee
Supplemental Information... Cee re ee ee re ee ee
POLITICAL & SOCIAL INVESTIGATIONS
nvestigations
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UNIT XIV - TIDES & CURRENTS
CPPS OE TO es a i cise ek SoA OA EOS eG TS Kee ene ees Perret. |
Construction of a Simple Wave Machine.......cccccccerececsccseccecs 98
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A Study of Tidal Ranges.......cccccscccsececccccccescccvcs (1shueene aee
UNIT XV - ECONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS
Remanmie: THveati gation .cis coe ct knows beeen ace es Ree essences tus ee ws 103
UNIT XVI - MARINE GEOLOGY
Bathemeceic ABGIFOLG csi ci cs ocedvccendénsdaragetnn ots Rhee ES Ca pE EES 106
Bottom Materials AnalysiS.....ccccccccccvscvcesennccvsseseeses then oe
Use of the Gravitational Core Sampler.......ccccsccccccccccesececece 107
Supplemental ProjectS...ccccccccccccseescs-srcnscseessesssssscesers 107
UNIT XVII - SPRING HERRING CENSUS
BOPPivie CONGUS oko 40 ccneeusd VSR eRe RDOCA SE SEBD EN ESE OOD ONT ERS eek Lae
A Study of Starfish... ..cccceeecscccccscccccccsessesees Ciussans cuss 120
A Study of Sea Urchins......eeseeeeeee Pere ee re re re a ee 120
Supplemental ProjectS....cececeercceecreccccceressssesesesssscsesecs 121
Supplemental Information. ....ccecceecceecscsccsecceccess oCiaeveuses Lee
UNIT XIX - SUPPLEMENTAL ACTIVITIES
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Reference Tables & Graphs... ceecoccccccrsessvesssesseesesssesvses 136
Selected References. ..cccccceccens eageneeatanaew bie k cee a we ‘ee Bae
6
Cranston.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The original idea for the Marine and Environmental Studies Program came
from two Science teachers at Toll Gate High School in Warwick, Mr. Maurice
Blais and Mr. Julius Breit, and Mr. Carlo Gamba, Director of Grant Programs,
When the idea was later developed and proposed in a joint
project for Cranston and Warwick under Title III of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act, they were assisted by Mr. Ernest Slocum of Cranston
High School
East.
Grateful acknowledgment is given to the special contribu-
tion made by these four educators and to the many other personnel listed
below who helped to make the project a success.
Mr.
Mr
MY .
Dr.
Drs
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Domenic R.
Joseph J.
DiLuglio
Picano, Jr.
D. Bennett
A. Murray
Ray~.ond P. Casey
Carlo A. Gamba
Michael A. Morry
Christopher K. Rallis
Robert Shapiro
Joseph Ventetuolo
David Whitaker
Richard Bellavance
Arthur Bedard
Richard Bellavance
Maurice Blais
Ralph Hartman
William Croasdale
Theodore Kellogg
Julius Preit
_ ak
Ernest cviocum
School Administration
‘al
7
Superintendent of Schools, Warwick
Superintendent of Schools, Cranston
Assistant Superintendent for Instruction, Warwick
Assistant Superintendent for Instruction, Cranston
Supervisor of Grant Programs, Warwick
Director of Grant Programs, Cranston
of Pilgrim High School
of Veterans High School
of Toll Gate High School
of Cranston High School East
Principal
Principal
Principal
Principal
Project Teachers
Coordinator and Project Teacher for Warwick
Project Teacher for Cranston
urriculum Writers
Pr
fi
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Richard Hayes
David Hodgkinson
David Whitaker
Sandy Wiper
oject Consultants
Associate Professor, Dept. of Education, URI
Asst. Prof., Curriculum Research/Develop. Center, URI
Science Chairman, Toll Gate High School
Science Chairman, Cranston High School East
State Department of Education
Edward Costa
Miss Eileen Matteo
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
: nah
Richard Silvano
Ds ak P a 24 WHOtAN
Richard Harrington
H W 7} le iy ench
H. Wells French
le III Consultant
ief, Federal Operations
+ 7
t III Consultant
1
me
Title
Wea ~
AB EAS. de ee
consultant
Consultant, Program Development
INTRODUCTION
This lab manual was developed for use in an innovative program
called Marine and Environmental Studies which was instituted in Warwick
and Cranston in September, 1973. Funded under Title III of the Elemen-
tary and Secondary Education Act, the program is designed to capitalize
on Rhode Island's greatest natural resource, Narragansett Bay.
Each school system is now equipped with a 19-foot Boston Whaler
boat, trailer, and 12-passenger bus for use in this effort and thus has
access to virtually every marine area in the state. During the winter
months use of these boats is restricted but shore activities are still
feasible and appropriate field trips can be conducted.
The program which is primarily field oriented offers the high
school student full college and graduation credit. Approximately 63
students per community, in groups of seven, participate weekly in the
program for three hours at a time. Thus the student must miss three
hours of other classes. As such, the course represents an additional
course above and beyond the student's normal load.
The organization of the units includes a section of supplementary
activities which, while not covered during the normal class period due
to time restrictions, may be beneficial to those students who wish to
investigate a particular topic in more depth as a course project (re-
quired of every student). Quantities mentioned throughout the manual
are for 7-8 students.
ii
MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES SYLLABUS
Fall
1. Familiarization with use of otter trawl; introduction to boating
2. Nekton
3. Fish tagging
4. Benthos
5. Plankton
6. Salt marsh
T. Rocky tide pools
8. Mollusks and marine worms
9. Pollution
10. Seining
Winter
ll. Navigation
12. Tide and current study
13. Marine algae study
14. Political investigations
15. URI School of Oceanography
16. Pt. Judith Fisherman's Cooperative
17. Lafayette Trout Hatchery
18. RI Department of Health
19. RI Department of Natural Resources
20. New England Aquarium
Spring
21. Marine Geology
22. Barrier beaches; beach transect
23. Spring herring run study
24. Spring comparative trawling
25. Spring comparative pollution study
26. Student Projects
iii
UNIT I
BEACHES
Background:
The growth of dunes along sandy seashores is a continuous and impor-
tant geophysical part of the maritime environment. The dunes conserve fine
sand moved off the beach by winds, they show a rapid, but narrow, elevational
increase of the land, and they provide a first line of resistance to oceanic
washover. The growth of dunes and the process of washover (being studied
by other students) work together as part of the island building system.
Washover deposits sand over a wide area as a result of a major storm, and
it generally occurs infrequently. ‘The source of this sand is both the
beach and dunes. Once washover build-up occurs, dunes develop on the new
surface and grow continuously as long as there is a source of sand and
vegetation to trap the sand. Long intervals between major storms will re-
sult in substantial dune growth and the development of distinctive vegetation.
The building of dunes is a continuous process and occurs whenever wind
speeds are high enough to move sand off the bare beach. The, sand stops
moving, however, where it first meets resistance from beach vegetation.
Here the dunes may grow a foot or more in a year. Wherever vegetation is
lacking the sand is free to move. As dunes build, they provide protection
for life in the interior of the island by reducing the amount of salt spray
that comes across from the sea and by slowing down and reducing the fre-
quency of washover. Such growth leads to relative stability so that other
forms of life not adapted to salt spray and moving sand, as is the dune
vegetation, can survive. In some areas, forest vegetation results from
this stability and the forest will migrate in the direction of the most
stable dune lines. Thus, plant succession follows the build-up of dunes.
Many ecological lessons can be learned on the dunes, and it is impossible
to cover them all in one exercise. Some famous ecologists have built their
whole careers around the study of sand dune development and succession.
However, we can start by making a few general observations on the growth of
dunes and subsequent plant succe*sion.
Keep in mind that we are observing an environment of constant change
and flexibility. Nothing is stable for very long and a series of severe
storms during a period of rising sea levels can cause drastic changes -
dunes knockei down, forests destroyed, grasslands buried. Yet, in a short
time, the islands recover, new dunes grow - and forests redevelop. This
is how the barrier islands survive. Flexibility and change is the key to
their continual existence in the face of the mighty sea. If sea level
falls dune lines will follow the beach out as more land is exposed and the
islands thus widen seaward. As sea level rises, dune lines are knocked
back, washover pushes sand over the land, and the islands migrate slowly
toward the mainland. You are to determine how your observations on dune
growth fit into the studies being made by the other groups at work on the
beach.
10
PROJECT: BEACH PROFILE
Objective:
To compare the profile of a beach from season to season, and explain
any differences.
Materials:
String, stakes, meter stick, line level or protractor with plumbob,
compass.
Procedure:
Establish several reference points in the dunes which will not change
with the seasons and mark with stakes. Choose a point near the water's
edge, set a stake, string a line, level, and take a compass reading from
the reference stake. This same transect can now be set up at any time of
year. Do this at each reference point. Starting from the reference point,
using the meter stick, measure the distance from the level line to the
ground, at a pre-determined interval, such as one meter. Using this data,
construct a profile on graph paper. Carry out this procedure at three
different times of the year: fall, winter, spring. Be sure to record
date, and tide.
Question:
Compare seasonal transects by means of overlays or by plotting each
season on the same graph, for each reference point. If there are any
differences, explain.
PROJECT: BEACH TRANSECT
Objective:
To compare the zonation of life on a beach.
Materials:
1. clipboard - made ot tri-wall T paper towels
with charts & directions 8. extra pencils
2. knife - putty type 9. marking pencil
3. plastic metric ruler 10. tide tables
4. baggies & fasteners 11. small net
5. thermometer Le .abels
6. thread
Instructor - Should have some wrapping paper or poster paper, some
string and markers. Plastic shoe box would be good
if you wish to bring home some samples.
2
:t
Procedure:
Record time, day, tide, date, weather conditions, etc. Give a brief
description of the area. Always record any measurements taken.
I. Measurement of Surface Parameters
1. Temperature (shield bulb from direct sunlight)
l mever above zround
ground surface ~- on top of seaweed, if present
zub-soil or rock - under rock or seaweed
15 cm below surface (if possible)
water temperature
onnowcp
2. Moisture (soil, sand or rock) - (dropsoil - could insert seaweed
or surface covering)
a. dry - material falls apart
b. slightly moist - looks moist but doesn't stick together
when squeezed
ec. moist - sticks together when squeezed
d. very moist
e. wet - water drips out
3. Size of material making up substrate
Calculate by putting material on 9 cm’ or palm of hand.
a. very fine - powdery
b. fine - can feel grains - impgssible to count
ec. coarse, 40-50 grams per 9 cm
d. very coarse 20 grams per 9 cm
e. stoney 5 pieces on palm of hand
f. rocky - stones larger than palm of hand
g- solid rock
. II. Collection of Plant and Animal Materials
Pick: plant material - small pieces only of each type (species)
that grows in or overhangs your plot. Do the same with each species
of live animal. Put each sample in a separate baggie. Number same
by placing in a bag or piece of paper with number on it. Identify
if possible. MAKE SURE only a small piece/no. is collected.
‘Conserve the natural area.'
1. Plant Life
Abundance - number of individuals of a plant type in the plot.
A= 10 individuals
Be 10to 50 *
C= 50
If parts of plant in pl.‘ include
Cover - what percent of the plot does the plant type cover?
Estimate to nearest 10%
3
12
Density - degree of crowding - continuity
a. continuous
b. plants don't touch
c. scattered or in groves
2. Animal Life
Abundance - number of individuals of an animal type in the plot.
A= 10 individuals
B= 10-50 2
C= 50
Density - degree of crowding
a. continuous
b. do not touch
ec. touch in some - scattered in others
Where Animals Live
in open
in shadows most of the time
under sheltering plants
under sheltering rocks
in sand or mud
in pools of water
on rock
additional - explore sand or mud, underneath rocks —- use
fingers, trowel and sieves. Return all rocks to their
original places.
rrareanA AH
tikes Debris
Dead material - Evidence of animal, plant life, including man.
Put specimens in baggie - label.
Plant or animal debris - human debris.
p = plant
a = animal
h = human
Abundance
A= 10
B= 10-50
Ga 50
Cover - To the nearest 10% what percentage of plot does debris cover?
13
Density
a. continuous - in piles
b. doesn't touch
ec. scattered
Questions
1. Evidence of wildlife use - tracks, feathers, etc.?
2. Any potential wildlife food? (food chains)
3. Evidence of human activity.
4. Birds observed - habits and/or behavior.
5. Note adaptations of plants - of animals.
6. Power of erosion in the area.
7. Estimate how long area is without water, etc.
8. Locate plot as to zonation zone.
PROJECT: WAVE PROFILE
Objective:
To study characteristics of waves.
Materials:
Meter stick, stop watch
Procedure:
1. Wave Height:
a. Move up and down the beach until your eye lines up with the
top of a breaking wave and the horizon beyond. Mark the
position on the beach.
b. Measure the vertical distance (x) from your eye to the sand
ec. Calculate the vertical distance (y) from your feet to the
lowest water level of swash as the water rushes back out to
sea to join a new wave coming in. This would be the spot of
exposed sand farthest toward the sea prior to a new swash
coming in.
d. Sight along a level stick to someone standing at this lowest
point on the beach. Calculate y. x + y = height of breaker.
e. What is a spilling breaker? a plunging breaker?
What is responsible for the height of breakers?
What makes a wave break?
14
2. Wave Period:
Wave period is an important characteristic of waves. Period is
the time it takes for two successive crests to pass a fixed point.
a. Observe waves passing a fixed point such as a pier or a jetty.
b. Count the number of waves passing the fixed point in 60 seconds.
Example: You count 8 waves in 60 seconds. What is the average period?
I
~ Ie
©
tad
ut
ON
oO
tad
"
8
60 i eo
Average period = 7.5 seconds
c. Does wave period vary from day to day, season to season, storm
to calm weather?
UNIT II
NEKTON
Introduction:
Nekton is defined as any free-swimming organism, such as fish, whale,
squid, seals, etc.
Fish Age Determination:
To the Fisheries Biologist the fish scale represents a valuable tool
in the investigative process. He may choose to use the scale to determine
the age of the fish. This information can be used in the interpretation
of fish.
It should be mentioned, however, not all fish have scales, and those
having scales do not all have the same type. Scales are not exclusive to
fish. The more primitive forms have placoid scales. This is a scale
possessing a dense enamel and dentine layers. Other fish scales are.non-
placoid ‘ypes, having no enamel or dentine.
There are three types of non-placoid scales. First, the cosnoid type
scale found in all lung fish of the world. The second type is the tile-
like arranged ganoid scale found in gars and reed fish. Third type is the
bony-ridge scale. Typically, they are thin and translucent. There are
two types of bony-ridge scales. The first type is the ctenoid (teen-oid)
having characteristically small sharp spines on the scale with no complete
rings. The second type is the circular cycloid scale, a very easy scale
for the beginner to work with.
When a fish emerges from the egg it is void of the characteristic
scale covering of its parents. As growth of the fish begins, small scales
appear just below the surface of the skin, the dermis. The scale continues
to grow in proportion to the body. Thus, as the body grows a new ring of
matcriel is formed around the outside of each scale. This ring is called
a circuli. The faster the body growth the greater the distance between the
rings. Slower growth causes the rings to be closely spaced forming a dense-
like band around the scale. This dense band is called an annulus. The
slower growth rate normally occurs during the coldest months of the year.
Thus in the warm season growth rings are further apart than in the winter
months. Due to the stable environment in the tropics the annuli (plural
of annuis) of tropical fish are less apparent or completely absent. The
same would be true of aquarium fish.
Advantages of scales for determination of age in fish are very plain to
the conservationist. First and most important you do not have to kill the
specimen to remove a sca’ve or two. Second, it is relatively fast, allowing
the researcher the advantage of working on more specimens.
16
There are a few disadvantages also to the system. First it does not
separate older aged fish easily. The older fish have a tendency to grow
very little, if any in the later years, therefore, not producing annuli
that can be easily recognized. Second, the hatching of a given species of
fish does not always occur at the same time of year thus making comparisons
more difficult.
It is said the most effective way to determine the age of a fish is
through tagging, release, and recovery of the marked fish. The problems of
this procedure are few but noteworthy. Fist is the cost of tagging alone.
Second, the time invclved in the entire procedure. Third, only a small
number of speciments are usually recovered and returned, even if several
thousand are tagged. Fourth, many specimens are injured from the excessive
handling.
For the beginning student the scales to be viewed should be large and
of the cycloid types. Scales should be removed from the specimen with for-
cepts from the area between the dorsal fin and lateral line. The collectors
should place the scales in a glassine envelope. Field data required at the-
time of collection should include species, location collected, weight,
length, sex if possible, method of capture and collector's name. This data
should be kept with the scales at all times.
Fish Diets:
Unfortunately, it is difficult fcr most students to study the feeding
habits of fish in the ocean, lakes and rivers. Since you cannot easily
observe these organisms in their natural habitats, you will have to make
inferences from the material available.
A certain plant population may be eaten regularly by one animal popula-
tion which, in its turn, is eaten by another. These creatures may themselves
be eaten by yet a third species of animals, and so on. Such a sequence is
termed a food chain. ‘
In the open sea the plants carrying on photosynthesis are free float-
ing microscopic algae, principally diatoms and flagellates. Among the
animals which eat these are tiny crustaceans known as copepods, important
items /n the diet of adult herrings (a bony fish). We write this simple
food ci ain: Diatom copepod herring.
In nature the food and feeding relationships of plants and animals are
rarely as simple as the example above. Copepods feed on a wide variety of
species of both diatoms and flagellates. Similarly, the copepods, although
they form some 21% of the adult herring's diet, are eaten by organisms
other than herring; for example, they form 70% of the diet of larval sand
eels, which themselves account for 40% of the adult herring's diet.
The simple food chain with which we started is not isolated, but con-
nects with a large number of other food chains. This interconnection leads
to the food relationships of organisms being thought of as a-web. We refer
to it as a FOOD WEB. In this case, the web might end in the herring being
eaten by a gull - or you.
17
I. PROJECT: DIETS OF FISHES
Objective:
The purpose of this lab is for you to find out as much as possible about
the eating habits and the processes of digestion in several species of fish.
Materials:
Student selected.
Procedure:
In order to study the eating habits of the organisms, you must know
something about its anatomy, especially the digestive tract and its parts.
Thus, you will be given a fish, and may use any methods you can think of
to try to answer the following questions.
1. What is the scientific binomial (genus and species) of this fish?
a Common name?
2. What are the fundamental components of the anatomy of the digestive
system of this fish?
What does the fish eat?
What happens to the food in the digestive tract?
What is the place,of this fish in the food web of its particular
‘environment?
How do pesticides disturb the food web? (Fish may retain pesticides
for 4-12 months).
ON VU ew
Supplementary Diet Exercise - Dissection
' In.order to understand the anatomy, be sure that you know what the
following parts of the organism are, and their functions. Filmstrips and
reference books of fish anatomy will help you to identify digestive orgrnisms.
gills 2 pylorus
gill rakers pyloric caecum
pharynx is intestine
gall bladder spleen
liver anus
* stomach v esophagus
sphincters larynx
body cavity colon
doelom mesentery
"tube-within-a-tube”
Try to lay out and trace the digestive tract from the mouth to the anus.
(Do not cut into it yet.) Can you locate on your specimen all of the
structures listed? ;
You may want to consider the following questions: Is there evidence
* from its external morphology that leads you to believe that the fish eats
animals,: plants, or organic debris? What are the maximum sizes of the mater-
ial it must eet? Does. it capture live food? Are you sure? Can you locate
the gill rakers?
138
9
II. PROJECT: AGE DETERMINATION OF FISH
Objective:
To determine the age of fish by counting scale rings.
Equipment and Materials:
Fish scales or fish of various types and sizes
Hand iense, dissecting microscope, or compound microscope
Microscope slides and cover slips
Metric ruler
Drawing paper and penc .1
Forceps
Paper envelopes
Procedures:
1. Remove a scale from the specimen with forceps from the area between
the dorsal fin and lateral line.
Mount scale on microscope slide.
@. Place scale on clean slide
b. Carefully place cover slip on slide.
Determine scale type by use-of a microscope or hand lens.
If the scale is a ctenoid remove another scale closer to the
pectoral fin area and determine the type.
If cycloid type remove three additional scales.
Mount each as in item 2.
Observe scale, noting focus, annuli, circuli, radius if present,
and ctenoid spine if present.
Determine age of fish by counting each annulus.
FISH TAGGING
Objective:
To study the aging, motility and/or migration of certain fish species.
Materials:
1. Depending on fish desired use ore or more of the following:
otter trawl
rod and reel 19
seines =
dip net
2. Spaghetti tags, fingerling tags, or Peterson disc tags.
3. Data card
4. Spring balance
5. Meter stick
Procedure:
After fish have been caught and before handling specimen wet hands to
avoid removing protective slime from fish. Secure tag to fish just back
of dorsal fin by using tag needle. Weigh and measure length of fish from
mouth to fork in tail. Return fish to water as fast *®s possible to eliminate
injury to fish. After fish has been returned to water record information on
Data card. Information should include the following:
Date
Species
Sex, if possible
Weight
Length
Location caught
Method used
Age, if possible
Note to Instructor:
You should contact your local Fish & Game Division and werk in cooperation
with them.
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
Otter Trawl
The otter trawl is but one of many types of nets used for fishing and
specimen collecting. Popular for research purposes is the quarter-scale
nylon otter trawl, complete with doors, available from George Wilcox Co.,
Mystic, CT.
The otter trawl can be thought of as-a large funnel made of netting
which is towed in the water, large diameter end first. Heavy wooden doors
are used to keep the sides, or wings, of the net open. A chain, or sweep, is
used to keep the bottom of the ne* body (belly) down. Several floats
affixed to the headrope keep the top of the net up in the water. Adding more
such floats will cause the net to ride higher in the water. Thus the depth
of the tow can be regulated. Line from the boat to the doors should be in
proportion to the water depth at a ratio of 5 to 1. The fish and other or-
ganisms thus enter the net through the large opening and are caught in the
narrow portion of the net, called the cod. Towing speed should.be 2-4 knots.
20
11
UNIT III
MARINE PLANKTON
INTRODUCTION
Background
Of all the forms of lire in the ocean, none is more abundant, diverse,
and obscure than plankton: Organisms which drift, at the mercy of waves,
tides and currents. Though the vast majority are microscopic, some forms are
quite large, such as jellyfish and comb-jellies. The vast bulk of the
ocean's life is planktonic and virtually all of the animals which live on
the bottom or which swim freely feed on it. In fact, most non-planktonic
animais have stages, usually juvenile, in the plankton.
It is of the utmost importance that we investigate this little understood
but highly interesting group ot sea dwellers - and that the conditions most
favorable to their growth be perpetuated. For if we lose the plankton, we
have lost all forms of warine life.
2. Collecting techniques
Plankton (drifters) may be collected in two ways: with a fine net or
with a jar. It is far more desirable to use a net whenever possible, as .the
water will filter through it, leaving generally a far greater number of
organisms caught in the net than one would collect by simply dipping a jar in
the ocean. The tiniest organism (nannonplankton), however, cannot be col-
lected even with the finest net made; thus the jar method is the only one
available to us.
3. Gathering net plankton
There are two methods for gathering p’uokton with a net. Both presuppose
moving water. The net, with a small bottle attached, is towed behind a boat.
The boat must be moving 3-6 knots and the net should be towed between five
and ten minutes. In doing comparative studies, decide upon a uniform towing
distance for each sauple. Care must be taken so as not to tangle the net or
line in the motor or propeller. Or the net may be lowered into running
water, such as under a bridge. It is desirable to determine the rate of
flow of the water. This can be done by timing the flow of a stick over a
measured distance.
When time is up, rinse out the net by raising and lowering into the water
a few times. This washes the plankton into the bottle. If the bottle can
be unscrewed from the adapter, do so. Otherwise reach down inside the net
with your hand and pull the bottle up inside. Pour the contents into a
small jar (such as a baby food jar) and be sure to add an equal volume of
water from the same source. Why is this necessary? Label the jar as to
y
21
(1) date, (2) time, (3) place, (4) net size. Add any appropriate additional
data. The lid should be tightly screwed on and the jar placed in a bucket
of water to keep it as close to its natural temperature as possible until
you ace ready to work with it in the laboratory.
4. Net sizes
Several sized nets should be available. They are sized according to the
mesh, the space between fibers, or the fineness. Here is a useful guide to
net sizes:
Number Aperture Size (mn. ) Used for
0 0.569 large zooplankters
6 0.238 larger zooplankters
12 0.119 zooplankton, large diatoms
20 0.076 most phytoplankton
25* 0.064 phytoplankton
*Nannonplankton (5-60 u) and ultraplankton (5 u) will readily pass
through a #25 net.
Gathering nannonplankton
As previously noted, the only way available to us for collecting the
tiniest drifters in the water column is to scoop them up in a jar. Back in
the laboratory the organisms may be concentrated by spinning them down in a
centrifuge. (A significant member of the nannonplankton in Narragansett Bay
is the causative agent of our "red tides", a dino flagellate-like organism
called OListhodisceus luteus. )
PROJECT: COMPARING PLANKTON NET SIZES
Objective:
To compare the plankton samples collected with three or four sizes of net.
Materials:
Plankton nets, sizes 0, 6, 12, 20, and 25 (or any three or four of these);
a transfer jar for each sample, a bucket, and labelling materials.
‘Procedure:
Tow each net as described previously. In order for a valid comparative
evaluation to be made, what parameters must be constant? On-site comparisons
may be made by simply holding up the jars side by side. Look for density,
movement, organism size, and color. Then dilute and label each sample,
placing them in a bucket of water to take back to the laboratory, or on the
shore using a reflector microscope.
In the laboratory, if possible, examine each sample immediately with your
microscope, making sketches and indicating relative sizes of organisms. If
it is necessary to keep the samples overnight or longer, add a drop or two
of formaldehyde or FAA solution. This, however, will kill and decolorize.
II. PROJECT: VERTICAL TOWING
Objective:
To compare the results of vertical as opposed to horizontal sampling.
Materials:
#20 or #25 plankton net, weights (such as large fishing sinkers), trans-
fer jars, labels, bucket.
Procedure:
Lower the net, with heavy sinker attached and boat stopped, to the bottom,
then bring it up slowly. Do this several (perhaps ten) times. Determine the
depth by measuring the length of line required. Then take a horizontal tow
over a comparable range. Compare the two samples in the laboratory. (Project
on page 16, Stratification of Plankton, should be done at the same time. )
iil. PROJECT: PLANKTON IN A COVE AND IN OPEN BAY
Objective:
To investigate possible differences in quality and/or quantity of plankton
in a cove and in the open water away from the shore.
Materials:
#6 or #25 plankton net, transfer jars, labels, bucket.
Procedure:
Select a zone in a cove, and tow for ten minutes so that the net is in
the first half meter of water. Then using the same net, same depth, and
same time period, tow the net offshore. In the laboratory, compare samples
for kinds of organisms and density of-life. How do you account for any differ-
ences observed?
SUPPLEMENTAL PROJECT: EFFECT OF A DELAY IN EXAMINING SAMPLES
Objective:
To test the effect of leaving unpreserved plankton samples overnight as
compared to immediate laboratory analysis.
14
25
Materials:
#12 and either #20 or #25 plankton nets, 2 transfer jars for each sample,
labelling materials, and a bucket.
Procedure:
Collect a plankton sample with each net you have. Divide each sample
into two portions, labelling one TODAY and the other TOM'W. At the laboratory
examine all TODAY samples carefully with microscopes. Place all TOM'W samples
in the refrigerator until tomorrow. Examine them in the same manner the next
day. Note similarities and differences.
SUPPLEMENTAL PROJECT: EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON PLANKTON SAMPLES
Objective:
To observe the effect of leaving a sample at room temperature or higher
as compared to keeping it cool.
Materials needed:
Same as for experiment #2 above, except that you may want three’ or four
jars for each tow.
Procedure:
Collect a plankton sample with each net you have, dividing it into three
or four portions. Place one jar from each tow in a bucket of water. Leave
the others at air temperature. In the lab, place the cool samples in the
refrigerator, leave one sample from each tow at room temperature, and place
one sample from each tow in a sunlit window. The next day, examine each
sample comparatively, for both types and amounts of organisms. What can you
conclude about the effect of temperature on plankton samples?
SUPPLEMENTAL PROJECT: PLANKTON*IN RELATION TO BOTTOM TEXTURE
Cbjective:
To determine plankton differences drifting over rocky, muddy, and sandy
ocean bottoms.
Materials:
#20 or #25 plankton nets, 3 transfer jars, bucket, labelling materials.
15
4
24
Procedure:
Make a tow over a rocky, a muddy, and a sandy bay bottom. Remember to
tow for tne same time and with the same net each time. Compare the contents
in the laboratory. To what do you attribute differences in phytoplankton,
if any? Do you fin¢. the different types of animal larval forms: If so, why?
SUPPLEMENTAL PROJECT: STRATIFICATION OF PLANKTON
Objective:
To observe the types of plankton found at different depths.
Materials:
#20 or #25 plankton nets, weights (several), labels, bucket.
Procedure:
Do this experiment in a location in the bay where the water is fairly
deep. It is first necessary to determine, by geometry, at what depth the net
is being towed using a given weight and moving at a given velocity. Take
samples at various depths, from just below the surface to just above the
bottom, perhaps at .5 meter intervals. Label jars as to depth. Examine by
holding them ip to the light on site, then microscopically in the laboratory.
What evidence do you find of stratification? How can you explain it?
SUPPLEMENTAL PROJECT: . MAKING A. SINGLE SPECIES CULTURE
Objective:
To extract from a mixed plankton sample one or more members of a single
species, whether phyto-or zooplankton, in an attempt to make and maintain a
pure culture.
Materials:
Plankton sample (fresh), sterile culture vials, suitable pipette, sea
water as a culture medium (artificial sea water).
Procedure:
Select a species you would like to culture by itself (perhaps a particular °
diatom, copepod, protozoan, water flea, etc.). From a slide of plankton from
the sample, remove a single organism of your choice, using a suitable pipette
(sterilized to prevent bacterial contamination). Place it in a sterile
culture vial with sea water. (So that the sea water will be free from con-
tamination, use artificial sea water, such as "Instant Ocean".) You may
16
~
J
find it necessary to bubble oxygen or to carefully maintain a certain tempera-
ture. This is a very difficult experiment, in terms of maintaining the
culture you have made. Let it be a challenge to you.
SUPPLEMENTAL PROJECT: EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION OF THE SAMPLE
Objective:
To determine the effect of diluting a plankton sample on its vigor and
longevity.
Materials:
Two or three fresh plankton samples, kept at the original temperature.
Four transfer jars for each sample, additional sea water for diluting,
graduated cylinder.
Procedure:
Divide each plankton sample into four equal portions (small), placing
each in a transfer jar. Label the jars "1", "2", "3", and "4". Leave jar
#1 as is. Add an equal volume of sea water to jar #2. Add twice as much
sea water to jar #3. And 3 times as much water to jar #4. Store overnight
under refrigeration. Examine each the next two or three days, both by hold-
ing up to the light, sniffing to detect decomposition, and microscopic
examination. What conclusion can you make regarding the effect of diluting?
-
SUPPLEMENTAL PROJECT: ESTUARINE PLANKTON
Objective:
To collect and analyze plankton collected. where fresh and salt water
meet: the estuary; and to compare samples taken on incoming and on outgoing
tides.
Materials:
#20 or #25 plankton net, transfer jars, labels.
Procedure:
From a bridge, drop your net into the water on an incoming tide. Pull
it up after ten minutes, rinse and transfer the plankton sample to a jar,
adding an equal volume of estuary water to dilute. Repeat on an outgoing
tide the same day. In the laboratory, compare kinds of organisms present.
Is the planktonic life in an estuary more or less diverse than in the bay
itself? Why? How do the two samples taken differ?
17
26
SUPPLEMENTAL PROJECT: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF PLANKTON
Objective:
To discover a method used in sampling to determine the concentration of
a plankton sample.
Materials:
Plankton sample, hemocytometer, microscope.
Procedure:
The enumeration of cells or other organisms may become a most routine
and tedious task. It is, however, often the most important single index of
experimental results. Magnification used is usually 100X with a 10X objective,
although counting chambers designed for blood counts, is also ideally suited
to small unicellular diatoms, although there is a tendency for it to dis-
criminate against chain-formers. Each half of the chamber contains one
etched grid (9sq. mm.) on a mirror smooth surface. With cover slip, each
grid is calibrated to contain 0.9 ul. (microliter)of sample. A drop of the
culture is introduced at the wedge-shaped opening to the grid at the edge
of the cover slip. Rapid diffusion beneath the cover slip ensures an even
distribution over the grid. If the distribution is not rapid and smooth,
the slide should be cleaned and the procedure repeated. The chamber may be
cleaned adequately by rinsing with fresh water, followed by alcohol, and
wiping dry with cheesecloth. Usually 2 to 3 counts are sufficient to achieve
acceptable accuracy. Be sure to convert to organisms per liter.
SUPPLEMENTAL PROJECT: SEASONAL CHANGES IN PLANKTON
Objective:
To detect, by regular collecting and analysis over an extended period,
Significant quantitative and qualitative changes in the plankton community
in a restricted area.
Materials:
#20 or #25 plankton net, transfer jars, labels, bucket, preservative,
and considerable perseverance!
Procedure:
Select an area to which you will have access throughout the time period
during which you intend to pursue this project. Preferably once each week,
on the same day, on either incoming or outgoing tide, take a sample. Keep
all parameters constant throughout. You may wish to preserve, precipitate
and weigh each sample to determine total biomass of plankton. Examine
microscopically to determine dominant species. Make quantitative studies
(see above, Quantitative Analysis of Plankton) of at least the phytoplankton. |
Chart and/or graph the trends you note.
18
27
SUPPLEMENTAL PROJECT: THE PLANKTON COMMUNITY AT NIGHT
Objective:
To compare and contrast nocturnal and diurnal plankton in a locality as
to kinds, abundance, and levels in the water column.
Materials:
#20 or #25 net, transfer jars, labels, bucket, weights, lights.
Procedure:
Take plankton samples at various levels after dark (see page 16, Strati-
fication of Plankton). Examine the samples on site without light (to detect
bioluminescence) and with a flashlight. The following day, in the laboratory,
examine microscopically, comparing with daytime samples you have previously
examined. How does nocturnal plankton differ from diurnal samples? Why?
SUPPLEMENTAL PROJECT: PLANKTONIC COPEPODS
Objectives:
To learn (a) to identify copepods, (b) to identify their various life
cycle stages, (c) to estimate the relative abundance of the various life
cycle stages in a plankton sample, or a series of samples taken over a
period of time.
Discussion:
WHAT IS A COPEPOD? A small crustacean, usually less than 6.5 mm. in’
length, visible in a plankton jar as being long and thin, with large
antennae, and having jerking or darting movements. They are by far
the most abundant (both in actual numbers and in biomass) herbivores
in the sea, and, therefore, worthy of special study. Of the two pairs
of antennae, it is the first pair ("antennules") which are elongated
and prominent. The posterior tip of the abdomen is forked and with
spines.
WHAT ARE THE PLANKTONIC TAXA? Altogether there are eight suborders
of copepods, of which five are parasitic, and, therefore, not planktonic.
The three planktonic suborders are as follows:
HARPACTICOIDEA: First antennae short (averaging 8 segments),
body usually streamlined, with no obviously demarcation between
metasome and urosome.
CYCLOPOIDEA: First antennae of medium length (averaging 16
segments), body divided into a metasome (broad anterior portion)
and much narrower urosome (last thoracic segment plus forked
abdomen ).
CALANOIDEA: First antennae very long (averaging 24 segments,
as long as the entire body), definite metasome and urosome usually
present. This group is by far the most important in the open
ocean.
WHAT ARE THE LIFE CYCLE STAGES? Among copepods, females bearing eggs
can be distinguished in two ways: (1) the eggs may be borne in an
external mass or two, attached to the abdomen, or (2) the female may
carry a sperm case, a large oval pouch hooked onto her genital seg-
ment (the last thoracic segment). The juvenile stages are of the type
called a nauplius, a segmented larva with, first, two anterior legs,
then four legs (2 pairs), and eventually six legs (3 pairs), before
molting and metamorphosing into a more adultlike stage called the
copepodid. Egg-bearing females are most common in cold weather, with
juvenile stages most numerous in spring and summer, copepcdids being
most numerous in fall.
Materials:
#12 plankton net, jars, labels, bucket. Diagram of life cycle stages
of copepods and of the three planktonic taxa.
Procedure:
Tow the #12 net in the desired area for the usual period of time.
(Using a #12 net will eliminate nearly all phytoplankton.) In the labora-
tory, scan a slide of the sample to determine (a) relative abundance of
copepods, (b) which kinds are present, and (c) relative proportions of
nauplius larvae and/or egg-bearing or spermatophore-carrying females.
UNIT IV
ARTHROPODS
PROJECT:. CRABS
Objective:
To observe the behavior of a crab related to its structure and its
environment.
Introduction:
The crab is an interesting example of a large group of animals called
custfaceans, one of the classes of the arthropod’ phylum. You can learn a
great deal about crustaceans, and something about animal behavior in general,
by observing the structure and behavior of a crab. Refer to Page 24 for
more material.
Materials:
Fiddler crab (or small crayfish, spider crab, rock crab, green crab, or
blue crab), worms, snail meat, mealworms, or other food, probe.
Procedure:
Collect various types of crabs and proceed with following questions:
1. How does the crab walk? Poke it gently with probe if it does not
move.
Describe the structure of the body. What evidence do you see of
segmentation?
Pick the crab up by the middle, being careful to avoid the claws or
chelipeds. Put it in the middle of the dry box or tank away from
any stones. Where does the crab go? This reaction is called
positive thigmotropism. What is its value?
Wave a pencil in front of the crab. Touch its claws and feelers.
What does the crab do?
Put the probe in its cheliped. What does the crab do?
Put the crab in water. Touch its feelers with a probe. Describe the
crab's behavior, compared to its behavior on land.
Does it have antennae (large feelers), or antennules (small feelers)?
Does it have eyes? How are these organs built? Watch them for a
few minutes. How are they used?
Feel the shell. Describe what you notice. Why is the term crustacean
appropriate? 30
21
9. Feel some of the other crabs. If you notice anything different,
explain your observations. What problem does the shell cause in
relation to growth? How is the problem dealt with?
10. Describe the crab's color. How is this coloration useful?
ll. Examine the appendages. Explain the name arthropod (jointed leg)
for the phylum to which crustaceans belong.
12. If one of the appendages is broken off, it can regenerate (grow
back). Examine your crab carefully. If you see any evidence of
regeneration, describe what you found.
13. Feed the crab. How does it eat?
Conclusions and Discussion:
1. How is the crab's activities related to its body structure?
2. How does the crab's activities seem to be adapted to its environment?
PROJECT: BARNACLES
Objective:
To study the environmental adaptations of the Barnacles.
Introduction:
A barnacle is a crustacean, a relative of the crab, lobster, and sand
flea, that has attached itself permanently to some object larger than itself.
A shell has developed in which it lives, and its legs have become modified
into efficient sweeps for the capture of small plankton and organic material
on which it feeds.
There are four or five hundred species of barnacles in the world, many
of which are highly specialized. For example one species is found only on
the tongue of a certain turtle while another lives attached to the top of a
whale's flipper.
If one examines a barnacle it is found to be composed of six triangular
plates which form a conical shell. The opening at the top of the shell is
closed by four movable plates which are hinged like folding doors. These
plates serve a two-fold purpose for when the doors are closed the barnacle
is protected from its enemies and from drying when exposed to the air. In-
side the shell the body of the crustacean is enclosed in a membranous tissue
or "mantle" which secretes the limy material of which the shell is made. The
animal lies on its back with the cirri (specialized feet) pointing upward
directly under the opening of the shell. The specialized feet or cirri are
22
31
composed of six pairs of legs, each of which has two branches made up of
many segments. On the inner surface of each segment there occurs a double
row of spines which forms a very efficient net for the capture of food.
Sweeping uwotions of the feet direct food particles towards the mouth located
near the middle of the body.
Growth is similar to other crustaceans in that at intervals throughout
life molting or casting off of the old skin occurs. The new skin is flexible
for a short while and growth of the body occurs at this time.
Econor:cally, barnacles prove to be a serious pest in marine circles as
they encrust the bottom -* ships and slow their movement. On the other side
of the scale is the important fact that the young free-swimming larval
barnacle are an important food source for different species of fish.
Reproduction of barnacles is hermaphroditic, that is, both male and
female reproductive organs are present in each individual. The fertilized
eggs are retained in sacs until they hatch into a free-swimming larvae.
These drift at the mercy of the currents for a period of time and are in-
creased in size by a series of "molts". The larval form eventually settles
down and becomes attached at the head region. The adult stell is formed and
the animal remains fixed in this position literally "standing on its head
and kicking food into its mouth with its feet".
Procedure:
1. Examine the common beach barnacle and cbserve the four movable plates
which form the "door". In order to observe a feeding barnacle, place
a few in a tidal pool and wait quietly until the door opens and the
cirri begin their rhythmic beating. The feathery appearance of tnese
appendages are legs of the animal which have become modified for
feeding.
2. Test the feeding barnacle for stimulus response by causing a shadow
to fall across the animal or by touching the cirri. If the "door"
closes the barnacle has exhibited a positive response to the stimulus.
Further stimulus response testing can be accomplished by crushing a
portion of a clam or a few barnacles and very carefully depositing-a
few drops (use a medicine dropper) of the resulting fluid near a
feeding barnacle. Determine if this increases the action of the
eirri.
3. Measure the diameter of one hundred or more barnacles using a pair
of calipers and a metric rule. (Measure to the closest millimeter).
Record and save the data for later classroom work. From this data
you can determine the number of year classes (ages) of the barnacle
found on the beach as well as the average yearly growth. (See
chart in follow-up). Make sure that every barnacle in a given area
is measured. (Measure small ones as well as large.) It should be
noted that the more measurements ore taken the more accurate the
final analysis.
4. If a dissecting scope is available to use on the beach the barnacle
could be examined microscopically. In order to do this the be-nacle
must be removec from the shell. A pair of pliers will facilitate
cracking of the shell and a probe and tweezers will aid in removal
of the animal. If care is taken and sea water added to the dissect-
ing dish, the animal may remain alive for some time. Examine the
spines on the cirri and locate the mouth. Identify the digestive
tract and look for eggs which may be attached to the body of the
barnacle. Do not look for a heart for none is present. Body fluids
flow or "slosh" around inside the animal by ordinary muscular move-
ments.
The shell of the barnacle is composed of calcium carbonate. A
common test for this substance is to add a few drops of dilute
hydrochloric acid (HCI) or vinegar, on the object. If calcium car-
bonate is present, bubbles of carbon dioxide will form. Determine
where the barnacle obtained the calcium carbonate. . “* note of
the fact that many marine animals use calcium carbonate in their
shells. (1.e., crabs, clams, etc.)
Another problem is that of movement and spread of barnacles.
First establish the fact that barnacles are incapable of movement
from place to place as adults. Try to remove a barnacle from a
rock. In doing so it will become evident that they are cemented
tightly to the object upon which they are resting. Next determine
how barnacles seemingly appeer from nowhere on newly driven pilings
and the hulls of new ships.
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
PHYLUM: ARTHROPODA
I. Phylum: Arthropoda (Arthropodes) (Jointed Legs)
A.
Characteristics of the Phylum: Arthropoda:
1. Jointed sppendages, which include legs and other body outgrowths.
2. A hard external skeleton or exoskeleton composed of (SBLELL (a
hard substance. )
3. As the animal grows and becomes too big for its exoskeleton, it
sheds it and secretes a new one. This process is called molting.
4. A segaented body; that is, a body with distinct divisions of
the exoskeleton.
5. A dorsal heart; that is, a heart that is locate’ above the
digestive system. The circulatory system is of the open type.
6. A ventral nervous system, with the main nerves located below
the digestive systen.
2k
7. Aerial, terrestrial, aquatic, and marine.
8. The largest of all phyla. Over three-quarters of all the animals
in the world belong to this phyla.
II. Class insecta (This is the largest class. All insects belong to this -
class.)
A.
Characteristics of the Class: Insecta:
1. The body is divided into three main regions:
a. Head
b. Thorax (chest region)
There are three pairs of legs present.
There are two pairs of wings if wings are present.
4. One pair of antenna.
5. The exoskeleton lacks lime.
In the study of marine biology, this class is omitted, since neerly
all insects are either terrestrial or aquatic. There is one insect
that is common in the marine environment; namely, Anurida maritima.
The adult lays eggs which grow and develop in brackish water of tide
pools: in the superlittoral fringe.
III. Class Arachnida (Arachnids)
A.
B.
Characteristics of the Class: Arachnida
1. The head and thorax are usually fused to form a cephalothorax.
2. Antennae are lacking.
3. They have four pairs of legs.
Example 1: Limulus (horseshoe crab)(King crab)
1. Not a true crab.
2. Very common around our shores.
IV. Class: Crustacea (Crustaceans)
A.
Characteristics of the Class: Crustacea:
1. Have two pairs of antennae (feelers) on the front of the body.
2. There are two distinct body regions as in the Arachnida:
a. Cephalothorax - includes the head and thorax (chest)
b. Abdomen - posterior region
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34
3. More than five pairs of legs.
4. The exoskeleton contains lime.
5. Featherlike gills for respiration.
6. Mostly aquatic or marine. A few are terrestrial. Those that
are terrestrial must live in moist places as under rocks.
B. Example 1: Crayfish - resemble lobster except that they are fresh
water. Sometimes the word, crayfish, may be written crawfish.
C. Example 2: Lobsters
1. The common lobster that we enjoy in New England is Homarus
americanus. This is the cold water lobster.
2. Spiny lobsters of the Florida and California coasts have no
claws. They may grow over .6 meters long and weigh 13 kg.
Most of them are less than 25 cm and weigh less than 0.9 keg.
These lobsters have extremely long antennae and spines which
cover the anterior region of the body.
3. General Information about the cold water lobster (Homarus
americanus ):
a. AO.45 kg lobster is 5 years old. It has molted 20 times.
b. Adult female lobsters molt once every two years. They do
not molt when they are carrying eggs externally.
c Adult male lobsters molt every year.
dad. Homarus americanus does not appear lower than the Carolinas.
e. Life cycle:
(1) Male places sperm which are stored in small sacs on
the lower side of the female's body.
(2) From the time of copulation to egg release is about
9 months. At this time, eggs are fertilized.
(3) Female carries fertilized eggs on swimmerets. It takes
about nine months for these to hatch.
(4) After hatching larva floats-with plankton until after its
fourth molt.
(5) After the fourth molt, they settle to the bottom and
aseume the shape of a lobster.
D. External Structure of the lobster
1. The body regions include the cephalothorax, which includes the
head and thorax. It is covered by a hard plate or shell known
as the carapace. The front part of the carapace that extends
forward to form a protective beak is called the rostrum.
2. The abdomen, the second body region, is composed of 7 movable
segments.
3. Compound eyes are located on either side of the rostrum. Thb-
are set on short movable stalks and are composed of numerou:
lenses.
4, Head apendages:
a. Antennules(small antennae) - contain the hearing and
equilibrium apparatus.
b. Antennae - attached just behind the antennules. They function
as organs of touch, taste, and smell.
c. Mandibles (true jaws) These crush and chew food with the
help of two pairs of maxillae or jaws.
Note: The jaws work from side to side, not up and down.
They are actual.iy leglike appendages that are adapted
for chewing, and they continue to move horizontally
as legs do.
5. Thorax Appendages
a. Three pairs of maxillipeds (jaw feet) - hold food for chewing.
b. One pair of chelipeds (large claws) - sometimes called claw-
feet. Their function is food-getting and protection.
ec. Two pairs of legs with tiny pincers at the tip.
d. Two pairs of legs with a claw at the tip.
e. Feather gills are attached to the maxillipeds, to the four
pairs of walking legs, and to the chelipeds. These gills
extend under the carapace to the gill chamber.
6. Abdominal appendages. (The abdomen is composed of 7 segments).
a. Swimmerets are found on the first five segments. In the
female, the last three pairs of swimmerets serve as a place
of attachment for eggs.
b. The sixth pair of abdominal appendages is much larger than
the first five pairs. It is developed into a flipper or
uropod.
c. There is no appendage on the 7th segment. Instead this
segment is reducsd to a flat, triangular structure, the
telson.
E. Digestive System
1. Food is held by the maxillae and maxillipeds while it is torn
and crushed by the mandibles. —
2T :
It then passes through a short esophagus to the stomach, which
is lined with hard chitinous teeth. These grind the food into
smaller particles. When the particles of the food are finely
ground, they pass through folds of tissue, which act as a strain-
er, into another portion of the stomach where the food is mixed
with digestive juices.
From here, the digested food passes into the digestive glands,
where absorption takes place.
Undigested particles pass on through the intestine, instead of
entering the digestive glands and are eliminated through the
anus.
Excretory System
1.
Liquid nitrogen wastes that result from the burning of foods
in the individual cells are removed from the body by means of
green glands, which lie anterior to the stomach and open at the
base of the antennae.
Circulatory System
1.
3.
4,
The blocd of the lobster is pumped by the heart into seven
large arteries that pour the blood over the major organs of
the body.
Blood is collected in a number of sinuses or .,aces. One large
sinus surrounds the heart. From here, blood enters the heart
~ through three openings called ostia.
As you can see, this is an open circulatory system.
The blood is colorless.
Nervous System
1.
2.
Similar to that of Annelids but is more specialized.
Receptors sensitive to odors and flavors are located in the
antennae.
Each compound eye consists of numerous lenses, but sight is
probably not keen.
The hearing apparatus is located in a sac in the basal segment
of each antennule. Hearing is poorly developed.
Numerous sensory bristles that are sensitive to touch are dis-
tributed all over the body, especially on the surfaces of the
antennae and other appendages.
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37
The brain is dorsal to the digestive system on the anterior and
of the body. A nerve collar leading from the brain surrounds a
portion of the stomach and joins to form the ventral nerve cord.
Numerous ganglia are fourid on the ventral nerve cord.
Respiratory System
1.
Thin-walled gills, which are richly supplied with blood vessels,
are well adapted for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the lobster and its marine environment.
The gills are protected by a carapace, which extends over them
and a chamber.
Water flows into the chamber under the free edge of the carapace,
and is moved forward over the gills through the action of the
second maxillae.
The gill chamber can hold enough moisture to permit the animal
to remain alive for some time after it has been removed from the
water.
Reproduction System
1.
2.
Sexes are separate.
Sperms *cuve the body through a duct that opens at the base of
the fourth walking leg. In the female the opening for the egg
is at base of the second walking leg.
Example 3: True crabs
1.
The body of the crab is shorter and broader than that of the
lobster.
Its abdomen is reduced in size and folded under the cephalothorax.
This cavity formed in this way protects the gills and also serves
as a brood pouch in which eggs are carried by the female.
Crabs are scavengers; that is, they will eat almost anything as
long as it is dead.
Types of crabs
a. Blue crabs (Callicentes sepidus) are common in this area.
(1) Inhabit shallow bays
(2) If caught immediately after molting, they are called
"soft shelled crabs" and are considered a delicacy.
They can be cleaned, fried, and eaten without being
shelled.
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29
b. Hermit crabs (Pagurus longicarpus is common in this area)
(1) These are famous because they live in the empty shells
of marine snails. As they grow larger, they must move
to a larger shell.
(2) It is not certain whether they kill the snail or move
in only if the snail is already dead.
Fiddler Crabs (Uca pugnax is common around here.) (Usually
south of Boston.
One claw is larger than the other in the male. Males
wave their large claw back and forth as though playing
a violin.
(2) They are quite common in salt marshes.
Spider crabs (Sea Spiders) (Libinia emarginata is common
in this area. )
(1) Have long spiery legs.
(2) When collecting them, use a separate container for each
spider crab otherwise the legs tangle.
Example 4: Shrimp
1. Have 5 pairs of walking legs and a much enlarged and highly
muscular abdomen. ;
They are stronger swimmers than crabs or lobsters. They swim
backwards as do most crustacean.
In the Gulf Coast states and in California, the shrimp industry
is very important. Louisiana, Texas, and California supply much
of the shrimp to inland markets. :
Maine shrimp (Shrimp from the waters of Maine) are sold during
the month of February.
M. Example 5: Barnacles
1. Adults are sessile.
2. Free swimming larva (cypris larva) turns upside down and glues
itself to the solid object by means of cements gland located in
the anterior end.
Types of barnacles
a. Rock barnacles (Belanus balanoides is common in this area.)
(1) Possess a thick shell. They attach themselves to rocks
and other stationary objects (i.e. piers, rocks, shells in
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39
which hermit crabs live, to the body of animals like -
the whale, which often becomes irritated by then. )
(2) When the tide goes out, they close the 6 plates of
their shells for protection. While under water, they
thrust out their delicate fringed legs and kick
minute organisms into their mouth.
b. Goose barnacles (Ship barnacles)
(1) They were considered by early zoologists to be mollusks,
because they lived within a calcareous shell that they
secrete.
(2) They possess a long stalk by which they are attached to
seaweed or other floating objects.
Barnacles may accumulate on the hulls of. ships in numbers large
enough to reduce the speed of ships by as much as 20 per cent.
They also clog seawater intake pipes and grow on piers. Here
the accumulation of sand and decaying organic matter between the
barnacle and the object to which it is attached provides a good
medium where bacteria can grow and live.
Barnacles are usually associated with mussels. Together they
change the environment of wharf pilings by providing protection
for the living things that grow among them. The force of wave
action is lessened, extreme temperature changes are prevented,
and moisture is maintained among them, preventing drying at low
tides. These environmental changes increase the rate of deterio-
ration of the wharfs.
Note: The vast majority of Crustaceans occur as minute and
even microscopic forms. The following examples illustrate
this:
Example 6: Brine Shrimp (Artemia)
i.
2.
Inhabit tide pools and can survive in an environment of high salt
concentration.
Many people who have tropical fish buy eggs of brine shrimp and
raise the shrimp for fish food.
Example 7: Copepods (This is the name of a large group of small
crustaceans. )
1.
2.
They are marine or aquatic. You have seen them swimming around
in tidepools.
Cyclops (The water flea) is a very common copepod. It has one
eye. They are so numerous that they color the water pink. They
are freshwater forms.
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40
P. Example 8: Isopods (This is a name of a large group of small crustaceans. )
1. They have seven pairs of identical legs. (This is what the
name means. )
. 2. They are terrestrial, aquatic, or marine.
3. They lack gills but have a series of plates along the ventral
surface of the abdomen with tiny tubes through which air can pass.
4. Since these plates must be kept moist for gaseous exchange
(oxygen for carbon dioxide), terrestrial forms are found under
stones and logs. (The sow bug and the pill bug are terrestrial
isopods.) Terrestrial isopods can be kept alive for weeks in
jars with potato or carrot slices available for food.
5. Idothea baltica is common in this area.
Q. Example 9: Ostracods (This is the name of a large group of small
crustaceans. )
1. Tiny crustaceans that in addition to the exoskeleton, secrete
two shells resembling those of clams.
2. They may be marine, aquatic, or terrestrial.
a. Seed shrimp (marine)
b. Daphnia (water flea) (aquatic)
R. Example 10: Amphipods (This is the name of a large group of small
crustaceans. )
1. Aquatic or marine.
2. Range in size from 1 to 12 m.
3. In this region, Gammarus locusta and Orchestia agillis (Eastern
sand hopper)
co
S. The Development of Crustaceans
1. Let us take 5 crustaceans and list the different larval forms
that they must pass through before they become adults.
Ostracods Barnacles Copepods Lobsters Crabs
egg egg 7-8-4 eggs eee
nauplius nauplius nauplius nauplius nauplius
adult cypris copepidid protozea portozoea
adult adult zoea zoea
mysis mysis
A 1 adult megalops
adult
32
The following observations should be made:
a.
The more complex the crustacean, the more larval forms it
passes through.
The adult ostracod resembles a cypris larva.
The adult barnacle resembles the protozoea larva.
The crab is the most complex crustacean on this list. The
last larval form that it goes through before becoming an
adult (megalops ) resembles a lobster.
These larval forms are constituents of the zooplankton.
UNIT V
PROJECT: SALT MARSHES
Objective:
To study physical characteristics and biological organisms of the salt
marsh.
Introduction:
Salt marshes are among the most productive areas in the world in terms
of basic nutrients - proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. This may vary from
producing 27.5 to 110 Kg of nutrients per acre per day.
Two and one-half tons of nutrients per acre per year are flushed into
the sea as basic food for sea animals. These nutrients are passed along
through a whole complex of food chains and webs and are essential to the pro-
duction and maintenance of shell and fin, fish, waterfowl, and fur bearers.
Materials:
This list is rather large. It represents equipment that could be used
for a variety of activities depending on the age and background of the group.
The minimal equipment necessary is asterisked.
Camera (Polaroid, Instamatic, 35 mm, and close-up equipment. )
Thermometers
Hydrometer
Rulers and meter sticks
Clipboards and pencils
Seine or crabnet
Corer
Plankton net (refer to Page 13 )
Shovel (Army surplus type), trowels and buckets or clam rake
Sieve (" and \" rabbit wire screen, a window screen, a kitchen sieve)
Enamel pans (for sorting) or pails
Binoculars
Aquarium (to display speciments while in marsh)
Collecting vials or baggies and rubber bands
Formalin (4 - 6%)
Alcohol 60-70%
Press
Map of Area_ (could use map available at Refuge Center)
Crayons - water colors
Sneakers or rubber boots
Insect repellant
Thread and string
Wooden floats
24. Hand lenses
25. pH paper
26. Forceps
27. Medicine dropper
#28. Identification Guide Books - Golden Series (Pond Life, Seashores)
29. Markers (3-8' bamboo poles)
30. Labels
Si... See
Procedure:
Part I. When you arrive on side at the mouth of the creek, set up a
series of markers (bamboo poles) about 30 meters apart along the side
of the creek as it twists and turns its way toward the uplands (it
may take a little time, but try to find a branch of the creek that
reaches well inland). Number the points 1 - 3. Divide up your group
and have them do the following:
1. Temperature reading of water - read at grass surface (edge of bank)
and temperature about waist high when standing in grass.
Determining salinity - in all these cases it may be well to collect
a bottle of water for these tests.
Determine velocity of water. Use wooden floats and a stop watch.
Take a pH reading.
Take a plankton sample - simply throw the net in and walk it
against the current.
Describe the color of the water - hold sample against a white back-
ground.
Collect samples of fish, provided you have the proper equipment.
At each site collect samples of the plant life. Note size of
plant, its abundance and its location with respect to the creek.
Take pictures of the area and close-ups of collected materials.
Some students may want to sketch materials.
Carefully look around on the grass and exposed soil for signs of
life. Ruffle up the grass, and examine these sites carefully.
Describe animals found such as snails; note where you found them.
Are they in great abundance? Etc.
If you have a corer, take a core sample from the site. Describe
soil texture.
Part II. Low Tide. Gather the group back at the mouth of the inlet.
Proceed up the creek stopping at every stake and do the following (if
equipment permits):
1. Observe and describe the bank profile. Dig into the bank and record
its height from creek bed to upper surface.
Is there any life or evidence of it in the creek bank? Collect
samples - record abundance and location.
Describe the bottom of the tidal creek. Feel and smell the sediment.
What kind of sediment is it? Can you classify it as to sand, silt,
or clay?
6.
T.
8
9
Is there any life or evidence of it .on the surface of the creek?
Collect samples - record abundance (A-abundant, C-common, O-occasional,
R-rare) and location.
Take some surface material in a jar with some water - examine later
for microscopic life. Describe what the animals are doing and what
they are feeding on.
Do the same with the top 15 cm of sediment.
Are there any invertebrates in the sediment (dig in areas where
you see holes). Use sieve and sorting pan.
Use camera as you did in Part I - get close-ups of life.
You may want to bring back some organisms for benavioral studies.
Part III. Tide on way in. Go back to the sites you were assigned to
upon your arrival and repeat the following:
OAAW FWY Fe
Temperature readings.
Salinity determination.
pH reading.
Plankton sample.
If netting available, try to capture some fish.
Describe color of water.
Velocity of the water.
Record any of the observations indicating differences between Part I
and this part.
If there is any time left, you may want to run some tests and make
some collections in the pans. Try a salinity reading.
Ls
2.
Part IV. Follow-up in the field
Make a food web using the plants and animals you saw in the marsh.
How do organisms adapt themselves to life in a salt marsh - in
brackish waters?
Did anyone see any evidences of pollution?
What protects the marsh from the sea?
What is so economically important (value of the marsh) about salt
marshes.
What mammals make use of the marsh? Any evidence of their presence?
Using big paper sheets mounted on the side of a car or building,
record data and group operations. Use one sheet for each testing
point.
Discuss the tidal effect on the marsh. Are there times when the
whole marsh is covered? How often? Were there any differences
between the tests done as the tide was going out and when it was
returning (Part I and Part III)?
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36
UNIT VI
PROJECT: TIDAL POOLS - ROCKY SHORE
Objective:
To study the physical characteristics and biological organisms of a
Tidal Pool.
Materials:
Camera
Thermometers
Hydrometers
Specimen Jars
Seine
Life Line
Sorting Pans
Guide Book (Seashores)
Fingernail Polish
Hand Lens
Microscope
General Preservatives
pH Paper
WO OA NU FWP ke
Procedure: I
Temperature readings; compare to temperature of open ocean.
Determine salinity.
Take pH reading.
Take plankton sample
Describe color of water
Take fish sample
Take a plant sample
Take picture of area including close-ups of collected material.
Take a population count of different animals present.
1.
2.
3.
4,
5.
6.
T.
8.
9.
Procedure: II
Compare findings Procedure I to those of Salt Marsh, Unit V.
2. Note various differences. Could certain factors such as pH, salinity,
and temperature change rapidly? Explain why.
Procedure: III (Lincoln Index)
The Lincoln Index, which is also known as the Peterson Estimate, is
used to determine the population number of a specific animal population.
Marking Procedure
Collect a large number of a single species, dry and mark with bright paint
or finger nail polish. Return samples to area of collection as soon as
paint dries. Mark site of collection with a permanent stake. Record
number marked.
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46
Population Estimate
Complete the Lincoln Index within two weeks of tagging. Collect all
marked and unmarked animals found within a 1.25 meter radius of the
release stake.
1. Count the number marked
2. Count the number unmarked.
Do not collect marked samples found further than 1.25 meters from the
release stake. Record an estimate of migration for each of these
distant samples.
Estimate Population Size using Lincoln Index Formula
The Lincoln Index is based on the theory that the ratio of numbers
tagged (T) to the population size (S), is the same as the ratio of
tag returns (V) in a sample catch to the sample catch (C), i.e.:
Number tagged (T) _ Tag returns (Vv).
Population (S) Sample catch (C)
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UNIT VII
POLLUTION
Objective:
To define pollution, both chemical and bacteriological, to learn how to
measure pollution, to learn the effects of pollution, to learn current water
standards, and to measure pollution in this state.
Introduction:
The amount of contaminants present in a body of water significantly af-
fect the ecology and economics of an area. These contaminants, or those sub-
stances not naturally found in a body of water, are termed pollutants. It
would be impossible within the scope of this course to study all the pollutants
in an area; therefore several important contaminants anc other variables have
been selected and their significance is noted below.
In most cases the most efficient pollution study can be carried out using
testing kits which are available commercially, such as Hach, LaMotte, and
Millipore. At the end of this unit will be found several testing procedures
which can be done from "scratch". Also, there are several water testing texts
available, such as "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste
Water" from the American Public Health Assn.
It is suggested that a field study include a comparison of "clean" and
"polluted" areas, as well as comparison to standards set forth by the state
and federal government. Rhode Island Department of Health standards are given
in this unit, where such a standard exists. It should be noted that the
ratio parts-per-million (ppm) is equivalent to milligrams per liter (mg/1).
CHEMICAL POLLUTION
RI Standard -
Test Significance _ Class SA Water
Dissolved Required for respiration; decreases 6.0 ppm or more
oxygen as temperature increases
Ammonia Blocks Kreb's cycle none
Sulfide Respiratory depressant none
Heavy metals Inactivates enzymes; act on nervous none
(Cd, Hg, Pb,etc.| system, etc.
pH Normal for ocean is about 8.0. If too 6.8-8.5
high or too low, causes enzyme failure,
tissue dehydration
Nitrate, Required by plants for protein, required none
Phosphate by plants for nucleic acids, ATP, etc.
When these are in large amounts,
eutrophication oceurs
Carbon Required by plants for photsynthesis none
dioxide
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48
MICROBIOLOGICAL POLLUTION
Bacteriological pollution is caused by contamination by human sewage. The
principal problem organism is Salmonella typhosa, which causes typhoid fever.
This organism is very difficult to test for, however, and normally Echerichia
coli, as it turns out a harmless organism, is tested for instead. Thus the
presence of coliforms presumes the presence of S. typhosa; the coliforms are
termed "indicator organisms". Water contaminated with coliforms is bad,
but eating shellfish which have lived in contaminated water is worse since,
by their nature as filter feeders, they concentrate the organisms in their
tissues.
Areas to be tested should be compared with the following abbreviated RI
Department of Health standards:
TYPE OF WATER Maximum Coliform per 100 ml
SA (suitable for all uses) 70
SB (shellfishing prohibited) 700
SC (bathing and shellfishing prohibited) Anything over 700
Procedures (if kits are not used):
I. Dissolved Oxygen Concentration
Generally, aquatic organisms require concentrations of oxygen of not
less than 5 mg per liter or 5 ppm. If water contains less than this
amount, a number of biological processes may be interferred with. Some
of the processes which may be interferred with include swimming per-
formance, embryo size, and growth.
Whether or not excess oxygen poses a problem for aquatic organisms,
has yet to be determined.
Ordinarily, oxygen is not a limiting factor in the oceans because of
the effective mixing processes which occur. However, in a bay area,
dissolved oxygen should be determined.
We must also consider that: (1) as the temperature increases, oxygen
consumption by aquatic organisms increases; (2) in some aquatic organ-
isms, as the oxygen content is lowered, the respiration rate increases;
(3) some aquatic organisms will acclimate to lowered oxygen concentra-
tion whereas others will not.
Bearing in mind all these considerations we use what is known as the
Rideal-Stewart modified Winkler test to determine the dissolved oxygen
concentration.
You will first want to secure water samples from each of the two areas
you are going to study. Glass bottles with tight-fitting glass stoppers
and having a capacity of 250 ml are used. Glassware should be clean.
ie)
49
If special water samplers are not available, avoid splashing or bubbl-
ing the water. Siphons may be of use or the water may be taken directly
into the bottle at a 45° angle with a gentle stream of water to avoid
turbulence or air bubbles. If a sampler is available, water can be
easily secured without introducing atmospheric oxygen. If water is then
transferred from the sampler to the bottle, the water should be allowed
to overflow the 250 ml bottle 2-3 times to flush out atmospheric oxygen.
When the stopper is replaced, no air bubble should remain. The tempera-
ture of the water should be recorded at the time and place the water is
collected (see procedure on following pages for determining temperature).
Reagents
All water used is distilled.
Potassium permanganate solution: 6.32 g KMnO in 1 liter H,0.
Potassium oxdlate solution: 20 g K.C 0), . H,O dissolved in water.
Add 4 g NaOH and dilute to l Tifer with water.
Manganous sulfate solution: 460 g MnSO, . 4 HO to 1 liter of water.
Hydroxide - sodium iodide solution: 500 g NaOH and 135 g NaI to 1 liter
of water.
Sodium thiosulfate: (N/10): 24.82 g NaS,SO. . 5 Hp0 to 1 liter of
water. Use cooled boiled water. dad~5 ml of chloroform. When
this is to be used, dilute to N/100 by adding 9 parts water to
one part of this solution.
Starch solution: 3 g potato starch, ground with H,0. Place in 500 ml
freshly boiled water. Allow to stand overnight, then use only
the clear fluid.
For the following steps (1-10) you should add the reagents quickly and
restopper the bottle to prevent oxygenation from the atmosphere. Steps
1-6 must be carried out in the field.
1. To the water sample add:
a glass bead to aid in mixing
-7 ml concentrated H,SO4
1.0 ml KMn0O), solution
2. Shake well. A pale violet to pink color should appear and persist.
if it does not, add another ml of KMnO), solution. After the color
is established, allow the sample to stand for at least 40 minutes:
3. Add 1.0 ml potassium oxalate solution. Let stand until the color
disappears.
4, Add: 1.0 ml manganous sulfate solution
3.0 hydroxide sodium iodide’ solution
5. Shake. A yellow precipitate will form. Allow this to partially
settle and then shake again.
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41
6. Add .5 ml of concentrated H»S0),. The precipitate should dissolve.
If it does not, add another .5 ml of the acid. The yellowish color
remaining represents the iodine which has replaced the dissolved
oxygen. At this point analysis may be suspended for some time,
allowing the titration to be carried out in the laboratory.
T. Measure out 100 ml of the water sample and titrate with the sodium
thiosulfate solution. MAKE SURE THAT YOU READ THE LEVEL OF THE
SODIUM THIOSULFATE SOLUTION BEFORE YOU START TITRATING. WRITE
IT DOWN. Titrate until a very pale yellow color is reached.
8. Add 2 ml of starch solution. The sample will turn blue.
9. Continue titrating until the sample becomes clear. The clearness
should persist under agitation.
10. Calculate the amount of sodium thiosulfate used, in ml, and multiply
by 4/5. This will give roughly the parts per million of dissolved
oxygen in the sample of water. More exactly, PPM dissolved oxygen =
800 x- ml thiosulfate used x normality of thiosulfate
ml of sample titrated
II. Free CO, Concentration
Carbon dioxide concentration is important for several reasons. From an
economic viewpoint, this gas contributes to several forms of corrosion.
From the biological viewpoint, less than 25 PPM of carbon dioxide can
be lethal to aquatic animals. In addition, a high carbon dioxide con-
centration usually means a low dissolved oxygen concentration.
An increase in the carbon dioxide concentration usually results in
avoidance reaction by fishes.
Obtain a water sample and with it fill a Nessler tube to the 100 ml mark.
Be careful not to splash or agitate the water, since carbon dioxide will
easily come out of solution. Proceed immediately:
1. Put in 10 drops of phenolthalein solution. (5 g phenolthalein in
1 liter of 50% alcohol, neutralized with N/50 NaOH).
2. Titrate with N/44 NaOH. Be sure to write down the level of NaOH
before starting the ticration.
3. The end point is reached when a pink color appears for a few
seconds under agitation. DO NOT ti%rate until a permanent color
forms.
4. Read the burette after titration, calculate the amount of NaOH
used.
5. Multiply this amount by 10. This will give the amount of free CO
2
in PPM that was in the sample.
ho
51
III. Temperature
All aquatic animals are poikilothermic. By this we mean that they de-
pend upon their environment for their body temperature. Generally, as
temperature increases, activity increases as does the oxygen consumption.
Aquatic animals can become acclimated to higher or lower temperatures
to some extent.
Elevated temperatures can: (1) increase oxygen demand; (2) decrease
the organisms' capacity to use dissolved oxygen; (3) decrease the
solubility of oxygen in the water and even (4) increase the toxic effects
of poisons.
Since air temperature determines pretty much the surface water tempera-
ture, it is important to know. You may use an ordinary thermometer to
take the air temperature but you must make your reading in the shade
(place your hand between the bulb and the sun).
2
It is usually best to take a temperature series. A reading should be
taken at every 1.5 meters interval preferably using a small, battery-
powered thermistor. A maximum-minimum thermometer may also be used,
resetting the indicator markers each time to record the temperatures.
The least accurate method is to use a collecting bottle to obtain a
water sample from the desired depth. Quickly raise it and take the tem-
perature before it has a chance to change too much.
IV. Hydrogen Ion Concentration
In general, waters having a pH value of from 6.7 to 8.6 are favorable
to aquatic organisms. Fishes are usually tolerant of hydrogen ion con-
centration even slightly beyond this range. ,
You can obtain the approximate value of hydrogen ion concentration by
using special indicator papers. These are merely dipped in the water,
and the resultant color is compared to a color standard. This type of
test is not precise, and gives only an indication of the pH of the water.
V. Total Suspended Solids
Large amounts of suspended material in water can be harmful to aquatic
‘organisms. The suspended material will obstruct light inhibiting
photosynthesis and reducing biological productivity of an area. It can
bring about an increase in the temperature of the water. It affects the
feeding process of mollusks. Gills of fishes may not function at maxi-
mum efficiency.
One cannot anser the question of how much material may be harmful to
aquatic organisms. Oysters, for example, are very sensitive. Eggs in con-
centrations of 1 or 2 g per liter of silt have a survival rate of near 0.
For our study we shall consider large amounts of suspended materials to be
in the range of 90 to 810 PPM. According to the U.S. Public Health Service,
water for human consumption should have a turbidity of not more than 10 PPM.
Generally,the following criteria have been established which may be
applicable here:
25 - 30 PPM Optional
30 - 85 PPM Good
85 -400 PPM Poor
400 and up Extremely bad
Although these figures were established for stream quality, they may
serve as useful guidelines.
l. Weigh a piece of fine filter paper.
2. Filter al liter sample of water through the fine filter paper.
3. Allow the filter paper to dry completely.
4. Reweigh the filter paper. The change in weight is the weight of
the total suspended solids in 1 liter of water. T.S.S. values are
commonly expressed in PPM (mg per liter).
VI. Transparancy
Another method of indicating suspended matter in the water is by using
a Secchi disc. This can easily be made. Obtain a metal disc, 20 cm in
diameter and divided intc four quarters, 2 of which are white and 2 black.
With this instrument you can obtain a rough measure of the amount of
suspended material; the depth of the reflected light penetration, and
an estimate of the extent of the littoral zone. It will be necessary
to attach a cord of some sort to the center of the disc so that it can
be lowered into the water.
Lower the disc into the water until it just disappears. This must be
done in the shade. Record the depth of the disc. Now raise the disc
until it just reappears. Record the depth at this point. Average these
two measurements. Repeat the process three times and the overall average
is considered to be correct. Note the surface conditions and the color
of the water. You can obtain much better measurements if you use a
glass-bottomed bucket to look through since this will eliminate surface
distortions.
A low average (e.g. 1.5 meters) indicates that the water contains much
suspended material. A high average (e.g. 9 meters) indicates that the
water is free of suspended material and clear.
The average also corresponds to the depth limit of the littoral zone,
i.e. where you would find rooted plant growth.
VII. Hardness
The hardness of the water usually refers to the presence of certain
metals (cations of) and the elements that combine with them to form salts.
Generally, hardness-is the result of the presence of the cations of
oa
od
Calcium and Magnesium, however large amounts of minerals such as Potassium,
Sodium, Silicon, may also be indicators. There sre certain tolerance
limits of marine organisms to metals and their salts. Extreme hardness
usually is toxic to many marine organisms. Our investigation will give
us the hardness in terms of calcium carbonate in PPM. It might be of
interest to note that several species of marine fishes can only tolerate
2.4 gm/liter of calcium chloride in sea water, 1.5 gm/liter of Magnesium
chloride and 0.1 gm/liter of Potassium chloride. With this information,
one can get a picture of some of the toxicity levels to certain metals
as chloride salts and perhaps make some conclusions about the effect of
hardness readings which they obtain of th marine organisms.
The soap method for determining hardness will probably have an acceptable
error of + 10 PPM. *Prepare materials 1-3 days in advance.
1. Place a 50 ml water sample into a 250 ml bottle.
2. Add a standard soap solution - shake 100 gm of pure castile soap
powder into 1 liter of 80% ethyl alcohol. Cover and let stand for
1 to 3 days, then decant the upper layer. Discard the soap left in
the bottom of the bottle. Dilute a small portion of this solution
with 80% ethyl alcohol until 1 ml is equivalent in hardness to 1 ml
of standard calcium chloride solution (see below).
To make the standard calc’um chloride solution:
Dissolve 0.5 gem of anhydrous calcium chloride in a few ml of dilute
hydrochioric acid. Add 200 ml of carbon dioxide - free distilled
water. Neutralize the solution with ammonium hydroxide until it is
just alkaline (use litmus as an indicator). Add further distilled
water until the volume of the solution is 500 ml. Store in a glass
container. One ml of this solution is equivalent in hardness units
to 1 ml of standard soap solution. Thus it is necessary for you to
test the soap solution and adjust its concentration until 1 ml of
the solution just forms a permanent froth when it is shaken with
1 ml of the standard calcium chloride solution.)
When a@ lather is first seen, let the bottle stand for 5 minutes.
If the lather remains, the end point is reached. If the lather
disappears, continue to add soap solution until the lather does
remain.
The number of ml of soap solution used, multiplied by 20, gives the
hardness (in terms of calcium carbonate) in PPM.
VIII. Alkalinity
Probably the greatest cause of alkalinity in water in this area is pol-
lution from laundries. There are many other sources such as tin plate
and wire mills, starch factories, cloth sizing mills, to name only a few.
All of these may increase the alkalinity to the critical point. The
carbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxides of calcium, magnesium, sodium and
other metals result in what we call alkalinity. We will express
alkalinities in PPM as an equivalent amount of Caicium carbonate. *Titrate
over a white surface so that color changes can readily be seen.
1. To a 100 ml sample of the water to be tested add 5 drops phenol-
thalein indicator solution.
2. If there is no change in color go right on to step 4 (omit 3). If
there is a color change, go to step 3.
3. Titrate with 0.01 M sulfuric acid until the color disappears. Record
the number of ml used in the titration. Multiply the number of ml of
acid used by 10. This is a measure of the phenolthalein alkalinity
in PPM as Calcium carbonate. (This measures the amount of hydroxide
and half the amount of carbonate in the water). Go on to step 4.
4. Add 5 drops of methyl orange to the solution from step 2 or 3. If
the solution becomes yellow, titrate with the 0.01 M sulfuric acid
until a pinkish color appears and persists. Record the ml of acid
used.
5. Total alkalinity is the sum of the ml of acid required for both
titrations, multiplied by 10. This is the total alkalinity in PPM
as Calcium Carbonate.
IX. Ammonia
Ammonia is one of the poisons in the sewage which is important with
respect to the killing of fishes. It is also a waste material from in-
dustrial chemical operations, ice making plants, and large cleaning
operations involving the use of large amounts of ammonia water. Water
with less than 0.2 mg per liter of ammonia as nitrogen is considered
clean.
In considering the toxic effect of ammonia on organisms we must first note
that toxicity depends directly on the pH of the water. For example,
water with significant amounts of ammonia and ammonium salts but a low pH
value may not be toxic. Other factors which influence the toxicity of
the ammonia are the presence of carbon dioxide and the concentration of
dissolved oxygen. Carbon dioxide reduces the toxicity of the ammonia.
When the concentration of dissolved oxygen is low, the toxicity of the
ammonia is increased. Other factors include bicarbonate alkalinity as
well as temperature.
We may consider the following in determining a safe level of ammonia in
water for fishes. Concentrations of 2.5 mg of ammonia per liter are
generally harmful in the pH range from 7.4 to 8.5. Other studies reveal
that concentrations of 1.5 mg of ammonia per liter are harmful to many
fishes.
46 yp)
The method we will use to determine the ammonia as nitrogen is the
A.P.H.A. Nesslerization Method,
1. Obtain a 25 ml sample of the water to be tested.
Add 1 drop of Rochelle salt solution to sample.
2. Add 20 drops of Nessler's reagent to the sample and mix gently by
swirling.
3. A yellow color indicates that ammonia nitrogen is present. It will
take at least 10 minutes for full color to be achieved.
X. Coliform Bacilli
We will consider that the presence of any kind of fecal coliforms in-
dicates that the water is polluted. Coliforms are usually found in the
intestines of man and animals. These organisms are defined as short,
gramnegative rods that ferment lactose forming acid and gas. They are
facultative anaerobes and multiply rapidly between 30 and 37°C.
Before beginning your tests, familiarize yourself with correct micro-
biological techniques. Prepare all tubes and plates in advance.
Presumptive test
This is based upon the ability of coliforms to ferment lactose and pro-
duce a gas. Since other organisms can also ferment lactose, we can only
presume that coliforms are present. Nutrient broth with 1% lactose will
suffice. You will use Durham fermentation tubes for this test (test
tubes with small inverted vials for collecting the gas).
Confirmed Test
The presence of coliform bacteria is indicated by the formation of
typical colonies on E.M.B. agar. Colonies of E. coli are 2 to 4 mm. in
diameter, have a large, dark or even black center, and have 4 green,
metallic sheen when observed by reflected light. Colonies of
A. aerogenes are larger, mucoid and pinkish; they often have a brownish
center.
1. Streak E.M.B. agar PLATES from several of the fermentation tubes con-
taining gas. Incubate at 37°C. for 18 to 24 hours.
2. Typical coliform colonies indicate a positive confirmed test.
3. No colonies indicate a negative confirmed test.
(If colonies are present and are not typical, .+ ts advisable to con-
tinue with the completed test. )
O6
47
Completed Test
Inoculate lactose fermentation tubes and nutrient agar slants from the
typical or atypical colonies obtained above. Incubate-.at 37°C for
24 hours. If no gas appears this indicates a negative completed test,
i.e., coliforms are absent. If gas appears:
1. Prepare smears on slides using heat for ‘ixing. (You can either
place the slide over an incandescent light source or briskly move
slide through a bunsen burner flame. ) ,
2. Add 1 drop of crystal violet and allow to remain for 1 minute.
3. Rinse with tap water (not more than 2 sec.).
4. Add 1 drop of iodine solution for 1 minute.
5. Rinse gently with tap water.
6. Carefully blot dry. Rinse gently with 95% ethanol for 30 seconds.
T. Blot dry again. Add 1 drop of safranin for 1 minute.
8. Rinse with tap water, air dry and examine.
Observe under the microscope. Gram-positive bacteria appear dark violet.
Gram-negative ones appear red. If your smear is gram-negative with no
spores then you have a positive completed test indicating that coliforms
are present.
48
~~ ee
of
UNIT VIII
MOLLUSKS
Objective:
To study various adaptations of certain mollusks.
Field Activities:
I. Population Study
Purpose:
In this activity we will undertake a population study of the common blue
mussel in order to determine if different habitats affect the size to
which blue mussels grow.
Procedure:
Collect samples from two different mussel populations. One area should
be an exposed rocky area, the other a protected habitat such as a mud
flat or dock piling. Examine the samples and record their general
characteristics.
To what broad animal classification do they belong? (phylum)?
What purpose is served by the thread-like structures which you will note
on many of the specimens?
Data:
Choose a size range of 4 or 5 increments which will be suitable for size
grading each of the samples, (e.g.) 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0 cm. Measure
length of mussel.
Record increment totals below
Sample One Sample Two
Location Location
Size Size
Conclusion:
Is there a difference in the size range of the two samples? If so, how
might we account for this?
II. Other Field Activities
Collection
Identification
Classification
Importance and biological peculiarities of certain species
Aging techniques
Good Rhode Island locales:
a. Narrow River - oysters
b.- Sandy Point (Potowomut )
Whelks
Blue mussel
Ribbed mussel
Ark shell
Slipper shell
Angel wings
Soft shell clam
Hard shell clam
Scallop
Jingle shell
Periwinkles
Drills
Dog whelks
Razor clam
Classroom Activities
I. Water Circulation of Mollusks
Purpose:
Illustrate the method of food intake and water circulation in Mollusks.
Procedure:
1. In @ small quantity of sea water add a few drops of vegetable dye.
Let this solution acclimatize to room temperature before using.
Draw 5 ml of dye solution with pipette, release near opened shell
or siphonal canal of bivalve.
Observe intake and release dye.
Compare species:
a. By presence or absence of siphonal canals.
b. Direction of dye intake and release.
o9
50
II. Mussel Dissection
ose:
Undertake a gross examination of the internal anatomy of the common blue
mussel.
Procedure:
You will work with moderately large, living specimen taken from a habitat
where they are found in abundance.
1. Describe its exterior appearance. (sketch)
2. Using a scalpel carefully open your specimen: Note the "soft body".
What Phylum does it belong to?
Locate the much reduced foot.
Lgcate the mantle. What is its function?
Find the gills. What is their purpose?
Carefully remove a small portion of a gill. Place it on a slide and
examine under the microscope using various magnifications. Describe
what you see happening.
Conclusions:
What purpose do you think is served by the action you have described
above?
What would you guess makes up the food supply of this organism?
III. "Heart Beat”
Materials:
1. Insert the point of the knife between the valves near the hinge and
very carefully cut around the top of the pallial muscle keeping the
knife pressed against the inner surface of the shell and cutting
both adductor muscles.
2. Separate the top shell from the mantle and body portion of the clam.
Observe:
1. The slow and irregular beating of the heart near the hinge of the clam.
IV. Burrowing Activities of Soft Shell Clam
Materials:
One pan or dish containing several inches of sand or other sediments,
several clams (small clams will be better actors), fresh seawater,
(or carry on the experiment out on the clam flats in a shallow pool
of water).
60
51
Procedure:
Place the clams on the surface of the sediments.
Observe:
1. Action of the foot in being extended from between the shells.
2. The attempts and possible success of "anchoring" by the foot in the
sediments.
3. The lifting of the posterior or siphon end of the shell to an upright
position.
4. The burrowing action with the opening and closing of the shell by the
use of the adductor muscles.
5. The surge or flow of water up around the clam as water is jetted from
the pedal opening and the clam digs into the sediments.
Conclusion:
Small clams burrow actively, particularly in the warmer months.
Note: The clams may not always cooperate immediately and several attempts
may be necessary before the observations can be made.
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
PHYLUM: MOLLUSCA (MOLLUSKS)
I. Phylum: Mollusca (Mollusks)
A. Characteristics of the Phylum: Mollusca:
1. Many possess shells of calcium carbonate.
2. Many possess a foot.
a. The snail uses it for creeping.
b. The clam for plowing in the mud.
ec. The squid for seizing prey.
3. The internal organs are covered by a layer of tissue, called the
mantle. It is the mantle that secretes the shell. The space
between the main body and the mantle is called the mantle cavity.
4. The anus opens into the mantle cavity.
5. They eat both plant and animal food.
61
6. Respiration takes place in gills, or mantle, or both.
7. Sexes are usually separate; some are hermaphroditic.
8. They may be terrestrial, aquatic, or marine.
9. The terrestrial mollusks and most marine forms pass through the
trochopore larval stage while confined to the egg capsule.
Note: Annelids also go through a trochopore larval stage. As
a result, biologists consider them to be related to Mollusks.
II. Class: Gastropoda(Stomach arch footed) (Univalves) -
A. Characteristics of the Class: Gastropoda
l. Flat-footed, with or without a coiled shell.
2. Head, distinct eyes, and tentacles are present.
3. Has a one-piece shell.
B. Example 1: Snails (terrestrial, aquatic, and marine)
1. Oxygen diffuses through the mantle. Since this must be kept moist,
the snail must not dry out. To prevent drying out during dry
seasons, snails retire into their shells as fast as possible and
secrete a parchmentlike wall across the opening. This prevents
evaporation.
2. Snails move as follows:
a. A slime gland at the forward end of the foot deposits a film
of mucus on which the snail moves by means of wavelike con-
tractions of foot muscles. Progress is always about the same.
(Approximately, 5 cm. per minute. )
3. Most snails are ‘right handed' (dextral). Here's how to tell:
a. Hold the shell in front of your eye with the foot toward you.
b. If the opening is on your right, it is right-handed (dextral).
If the opening is on your left, it is left-handed (sinistral).
4. When snails open their mouth a tonguelike structure comes out of
the mouth and scrapes the glass of the aquarium. This is the
radula (scraper). It is like a file and scrapes algae from the
glass side of the aquarium. You can identify a species of snail
by its radula,
5. Many snails serve as intermediate hosts for flukes.
III.
F.
Example 2: Periwinkles (usually smaller than snails). The common
periwinkle that we find around here belongs to the genus: Littorina.
Example 3: Slugs (terrestrial), nudibranchs (marine). It resembles
a snail that has lost its shell. Garden slugs along with garden
snails can cause damage to gardens as they feed on leaves.
Example 4: Whelks.
Example 5: Abalones. (Fried abalone is a famous dish on the west coast.)
Example 6: Conches (Found in semi-tropics or tropics).
Example 7: Cowries (Found in tropics or semi-tropics).
Example 8: Limpets (Grow attached to rocks).
Example 9: Crepidula (Slipper shelled limpet) - oldest member is
female while younger members of the cluster are males. (They contain
both male and female organs. )
Example 10: Cone shells (Found in tropics or semi-tropics).
Note: Pictures of most of these mollusks can be found in the Golden
Nature Guide, Sea Shells of the World.
Class: Pelecypoda ("hatchet-footed", two-shelled mollusks) (bivalves).
A.
B.
Characteristics of the Class: Pelecypoda:
1. Axe-footed with bivalve shells. (Two shells connected by a hinge.)
2. Head, eyes, and tentacles lacking.
Example 1: Clam
1. Some are freshwater (aquatic); most are marine.
2. Types of clams:
a. Mya arenaria - soft shelled long neck clams. This is the type
that we use when we fry clams or have steamers.
b. Venus mercenaria - hard-shelled littleneck clam or quahogs.
Cherrystones are young quahogs.
c. Anedonta = a common freshwater clam.
d. Spissula (Mactra) solidissima (surf clam).
e. Fnsis directus - razor shell clam.
am)
Tridacna gigas (Giant Clam) - May reach a length of 1.5-1.9
meters and weigh 225 kg.
54
65
The shells are held together by muscles called the anterior
and posterior adductor muscles.
The name, Pelecypoda, means "hatched-footed". It refers to the
shape the foot assumes during movement. After the foot is
extended into the sand, it is spread out to form a hatched-shaped
anchor. Then when the muscle of the foot contracts, the clam is
pulled rapidly into the sand or mud.
A clam usually remains partially buried with its valves partly
opened and its siphons extended into the water.
a. Water is brought into the mantle cavity through the incurrent
(ventral) siphon.
Water passes up through the gills and then past the anus,
where wastes are excreted. The water then passes out through
the excurrent (dorsal) siphon.
6. As water passes over the gills two processes occur:
a. Oxygen diffuses in and carbon dioxide diffuses out. (Respiration)
b. Small particles of organic matter stick to a thin layer of mucus
on the gills.
(1) Cilia on the surface of the gills carry the mucus up
to the dorsal surface. Here the cilia beat forward to
carry mucous strands and trapped organic matter to the
mouth.
Note: Animals which feed in this way are called
filter feeders or mucus feeders.
From the mouth, food passes through a short esophagus
(gullet) to the stomach, which is connected by ducts
to large digestive gland (liver), which is green.
Enzymes secreted by the digestive gland digest food in -
the stomach.
The intestine begins from the ventral side of the stomach,
passes through the heart, where absorption takes place.
It finally ends at the anus, which opens near the dorsal
(exhalent) siphon. Feces are carried away in the out-
going current.
The clam has an open circulatory system. (This means that blood
is in blood vessels only in the vicinity of the heart.) Most
invertebrates, if they have a circulatory system, have one of
this type. The Annelids, plus all vertebrates, have a closed
circulatory system. This means that blood is in blood vessels
at ajl times.
10.
il.
12.
13.
14.
The blood is colorless.
Nutrients and oxygen are carried sy the blood to all parts of
the body.
Carbon dioxide is transported to the gills where it is exchanged
for oxygen. Liquid nitrogen wastes are transported to the kidney,
which removes them and allows them to pass out the excurrent
siphon. (Both carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen wastes are
formed as the individual cells in the clam's body burn food;
that is, combine the food with oxygen. )
Three pairs of ganglia are present:
a. One pair near the anterior adductor muscle.
b. A second pair near the posterior adductor muscle.
ec. One pair near the foot region.
The edges of the mantle are provided with sensory cells, which
are probably sensitive to contact and light.
Reproduction in the clam:
a. Sexes are usually separate, although a few are hermaphroditic.
b. Reproductive organs are situated in the foot.
A generalized life cycle:
a. Sperms leave the male clam by the excurrent siphon. They
are picked up by female clams by the incurrent siphon.
b. Sperms are carried to the eggs. Fertilization occurs. The
zygote becomes a free swimming larva, which leaves the
mother via the excurrent siphon.
c. The larva settles down to become an adult clam.
Example 2: Oysters
1.
2.
Some have reached a length of 1 meter.
The adult oysters are unable to move about, because their left
valve is attached to some solid object or another oyster shell.
They have no foot.
A single oyster may deposit up to one half billion eggs in one
season. Only a small percentage ever become an adult oyster.
56
60
5. Pearls are sometimes found in our common oysters, but best
occur in pearl oysters of the tropical seas. The pearl is the
result of an injury to the mollusk caused either by an organism
or a foreign particle which embeds itself in the fleshy part
of the oyster nd causes an irritation. The irritation stimu-
lates the mantle to deposit layer upon layer of nacre (pearly
substance) around the intruding body te form the pearl. The
amount of deposition is directly proportional to the degree of
irritation. The mollusk requires from 3 to 4 years to form a
good-sized pearl, and 7 years to form large ones. Pearls are
colored cream, pink, rose, grey, white, bronze, black, lavender,
blue, yellow, brown and green. Because the inner layer of an
oyster's shell is composed of the same material that the pearl
is made of, it is called mother of pearl. (Note: Pearls have
also been found in fresh water clams. Some have been sold up
to as much as $2,000.)
D. Example 3: Scallops
The only part of the scallop that we eat is its single adductor
muscle. Unlike the clam, it has only one muscle holding the valves
closed. Pecten irradians is the Atlantic by scallops that we enjoy
in New England.
E. Example 4: Mytilus edulis (edible mussel)
Found on top of rocks on rocky shores in the lower littoral zone.
Byssus threads help this organism to adhere to objects.
F. Example 5: Teredo (Shipworm)
1. A shipworm feeds on wood particles and minute organisms. They
burrow into the bottom of wooden ships, into wharfs, piles, etc.,
weakening and sometimes destroying then.
2. It is a bivlave, but the two shells which are used for boring
enclose only a very small part of the anterior end of the body.
3. Every year, these mollusks do millions of dollars worth of damage
to wooden wharf pilings and to ships.
IV. Class Cephalopoda (Cephalopodes) (head-foot)
A. Characteristics of the Class: Cephalopoda:
1. Head is large.
2. Foot is modified into tentacles which project from their heads
and which are used for walking or food-getting.
3. Have no external shell (except for the chambered nautilus).
Some have an internal shell. (The octopus has no shell.)
66
5T
Example 1: Squid (Loligo pearlii is the species that is common
along the eastern coast of North America from Maine to South Carolina. )
. 1. The foot consists of 10 arms bearing suckers and a siphon (funnel).
2. The arms are used for capturing prey.
The funnel is the principal steering and locomotion organ. If
it is directed forward, the jets of water forced through it
propel the animal backward; if it is directed backward, the
animal is propelled forward. (This is the jet propulsion prin-
ciple. )
The mantle in the posterior region is extended into triangular
fins which may propel the squid slowly forward or backward.
It has two powerful chitinous jaws in the pharynx and a radula
which consists of 2 rows of chitinous teeth. (Chitinous means
hard.) These teeth tear up the food being drawn across it.
Above the rectum is an ink sac with a duct which opens near the
anus. This is for protection. When the squid is attacked,
it emits a cloud of inky fluid through a siphon to provide a
"smoke screen" for its escape. It is also thought that the ink
temporarily paralyses its enemy's sense of smell.
It has an internal shell.
Sense organs:
a. Two very highly developed eyes. The eyes are similar to
that of a vertebrate. It contains a retina, lens, cornea,
pupil, iris, etc.
Two statocycts (a vessel con taining a calcareous concretion -
a pebble-like structure) is, present. They seem to have some-
thing to do with its sense of balance.
The nervous system consists of a number of ganglia, most of
which are in the head.
Sexes are separate.
They are famous for their color changes. Pigment cells filled
with blue, purple, red, and yellow color are present in the skin.
These color changes occur as rapidly as if they were blushing.
Some squids have luminescent organs.
The giant squid is the largest living invertebrate animal known,
sometimes weighing as much as 2 tons. Near the coast of New-
foundland, giant squids are occasionally seen. They may be
15 meters or more in total length, with arms as large as a man's
leg, and sucke:’s as big as teacups.
58
Example 2: (Octopus Devilfish)
1.
2.
fon
“Live in dark crevices and in coral reefs.
Usually found in warm waters of the tropics rather than cooler
waters of the temperate regions.
As a rule octupuses are timid creatures.
Most of them are not large enough to harm a human being; however,
the giant devilfish of the Pacific reaches a diameter of 8.5
meters and are dangerous.
They have no shell.
They move by jet propulsion, or move along the bottom using
their tentacles.
They can change color like squids.
Eggs are laid in jellied clusters on rocks. The young emerge
as miniature adults.
Example 3: Cuttlefish (Sepia)
1.
4,
Has a short oval body bordered by fins that are usually united
behind.
It possesses 10 arms, 2 of which are much longer than the others.
Its internal calcareous shell is the cuttlebone that we often
see hung in bird cages.
Its ink has provided sepia (brownish-red pigments of artists).
Example 4: The chambered Nautilus (Nautilus)
1.
The chambered nautilus has a shell that is coiled like a watch
spring and is divided by cross walls into a series of compartments.
A new and larger chamber is built when the old compartment is
outgrown; and a new wall is secreted (by the mantle) behind it.
Each new successive chamber is larger than the preceding one.
All chambers, except the last, contain gas (mostly air with more
nitrogen and less oxygen that is found in atmospheric air),
which is secreted by the siphuncle (a tubular extension of the
visceral hump that extends through perforations in the middle
of the septa-partition).
The head bears 60 to 90 arms without suckers.
The nautilus resembles some of the extinct cephalopods.
29
68
V. Class:
A.
B.
VI. Class:
A.
B.
Amphineurs
Characteristics of the Class: Amphineura
1.
2.
3.
4,
There is an elongated body with a reduced head.
No tentacles.
Many forms have a shell composed of 8 plates.
They are the most primitive of all the mollusks.
Example 1: Chiton (Chaetopleura apiculate is the species found
around here. )
Scaphopoda
Characteristics of the Class: Scaphopoda:
is
2.
3.
Body elongated and enclosed in a tubular shell, which is opened
at both ends.
Gills are lacking.
All are marine.
Example 1: Tooth shells
VII. Importance of the Mollusks
A.
Harmful
1. Slugs are sometimes injurious in greenhouses and gardens.
2. Shipworms (Teredo) burrow into the bottom of wooden ships,
into wharfs, etc. weakening them and sometimes destroying them.
3. Some of the larger octopuses (octopi) have the reputation of
killing human beings.
4. The giant clam (Tridacna) of the tropics, which may reach a
length of 1.5 to 1.9 meters and weight 225 kg,is feared by pearl
divers, because of the possi»ility of having a foot caught in
the vise-like valves.
Beneficial
as Fooe
a. Mya arenaria - soft shelled clam (steamers) (long necks)
Db. Venus mercenaria or Mercenaria mercenaria - quahog
(1) The small size is called little necks.
(2) The medium sized is called cherrystones.
60
69
f.
g.
Spinula (Mactra) solidissima (Surf clam) - used by some
in making chowders.
Pectan irradians or Aequipecten irradians - Atlantic Bay
Scallop.
Placopecten magellanicus - Atlantic deep sea scallop.
Mytilus edulis - edible mussel, blue mussel.
Crassotrea virginica ~- Eastern oyster. |
Other common Mollusks which may be used for food in certain
parts of the world.
@. Ensis directus - Atlantic razor clan.
bd. Littorina littorea - common periwinkle.
c. Busycon caricum - knobbed whelk.
Miscellaneous
a. Many people prefer to eat octopuses to oysters.
b. Abalone is eaten on the west coast.
ec. Squids, cuttlefishes, and octopuses are eaten in southern Europe.
d. Only the large adductor muscle of the scallop are eaten. The
rest of the body is not eaten.
e. Pearls are formed in pearly oysters (Maggaritifera) in Ceylon,
India, Japan, and Northwest Australia. Pearls also occur in
common oysters and in clams but are seldom of high value. The
pearly layer of the clam shells are often used in making
buttons.
70
61
UNIT IX
MARINE WORMS
Field Activities
1. Collection
2. Identification
a. Ribbon worms
b. Clam worms
c. Trumpet worms
3. Importance and peculiarities pertaining to each, such as autotomy
in ribbon worms.
Classroom Activities
Objective:
Study of marine worms using Nereis as an example.
Introduction:
Nereis and other members of this group of annelid worms have body
appendages known as parapodia that enable them to swim through the water or
push themselves along the substratum. Parapodial activity is synchronized
and waves of movement sweep along each side of the animal. The setae extend-
ing from each parapodium aid in locomotion.
Lab I. Nereis - 0, Uptake
Materials:
One gallon of sea water. One-half dozen live sea-worms (collect or pur-
chase at bait shop). Two one-liter jars with lids. Chemicals or kit
for dissolved 0, test.
Procedure:
Weight six sea worms and put aside.
Aerate over two liters of the sea water by splashing it back and forth
in a gallon jar. Fill the first liter jar to overflowing with the
aerated H50. Cap well. Put 6 sea worms into the second jar. Add
aerated water to overflowing. Cap well. Record the time. Check the
amount of 0, in another sample of sea water and assume that it is
equal to tha. in both liter jars at time "zero".
After one hour, determine 0, content of both jars in ml per liter. Use
the first jar to correct the readings of the second jar, the one con-
taining the worms.
62 7 1
Data:
1.
a
ce
F
Weight of worms
Ml of 0, consumed per hour
Temperature of water
Equivalent 0, consumed by
100 gram of Sea worms at this
temperature.
Corrected for STP
' °
273°C Today's atmospheric
ml pressure
60 mm Hg sea level
273°C+ temp. in degrees
Centigrade of water
Assuming that each liter of 0, burns 1.3 grams of glucose, the
amount of glucose burned each’hour by 100 grams of worms is
grams, at a temperature of "€;
If each of these grams of glucose (from #6) contains 3.8 calories,
then 100 grams of sea worms uses calories per hour at
Cc,
The efficiency of the conversion into ATP is about 30-40% effective.
Results_
Pulse Rate of Nereis
ose:
To study the effects of temperature on "pulse rate”
Materials: Nereis, finger bowl, sea water.
-rocedure:
Obtain a clamworm, Nereis virens.
Submerge the worm in sea water that has been precooled. What is the
temperature?
The dorsal blood vessel fills and empties once for each contraction
of the worm's aortic arch series or elastic blood vessels. This
is an excellent opportunity to study the "pulse rate" of the worm.
The dorsal blood vessel can be seen as a dark wavy line under the
skin and it disappears when emptied by the action of the aortic
arches or elastic blood vessels. Careful observation is necessary,
but it can be seen with the unaided eye.
Make three recordings of "pulse rate per minute (p/min)" of the worm
in cooled sea water. Calculate the average pulse rate. Make all
recordings in tabular form.
Make three more recordings of pulse rate in room temp. sea water.
Calculate the average pulse rate.
Make three recordings of pulse rate in sea water that has been
warmed to 30°C by your adding warm water. Add this warm water
slowly until the desired temp. is reached and then allow the worm
to adjust for a few minutes before beginning your recording. Cal-
culate the average pulse rate.
Using your recorded data plot a graph of pulse rate vs. temperature.
SUPPLEMENTAL PROJECT
VOLUME CONTROL IN ESTUARINE WORMS
Introduction:
There are two responses to osmotic stress. An animal which may change
its body fluid concentration in response to its environment is called
an osmo-conformer. When internal concentration remains relatively
constant (osmotically stable) - called OSMO-regulaters.
Procedure:
1. Prepare various concentrations of sea water. Normal sea water is
100%; try 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100% - to 160%.
Each of the team members should select one of the concentrations,
using a marine worm.
Measure each worm by volume displacement in normal salt water.
Weigh each worm - blot it gently first.
Place worms in different concentration of sea water.
Reweigh all worms 3 X times at 2 hour intervals (6 hrs. good time).
At the end of the time - measure each worm again by volume dis-
placement each in its own concentration and also by weight.
Return all worms to normal salt water for one hour —- measure volume
and weigh again as in #7.
10 increased 10 gm
a5 pe « Snttiad wake = .5 X 100 = 50% increase
in weight.
Record weight changes
Record any volume changes again in % using initial displacement
as 100%.
Get entire class results - get average so they can be plotted on
graph - Do weight and volume.
Record assumptions.
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
MARINE WORMS
Phylum: Platyhelminthes (Flat Worms)
A. Characteristics of the Phylum: Platyhelminthes:
Body flat and ribbonlike.
No true segments.
No body cavity (coelom).
Nervous system is composed of two longitudinal nerves, which
are connected by transverse nerves, giving the nervous system
a ladder-like appearance.
The body consists of three layers of cells:
a. ectoderm (outer layer)
b. mesoderm (middle layer)
c. endoderm (inner layer)
Example 1: Bdelloura, candida
Free-living. Commonly found on the sills of horseshoe crabs. /This
is an example of commensalism not parasitism.
Il. Phylum: Annelida (Annelids) (Segmented Worms):
A. Characteristics of the Phylum: Annelida
Segmented worms with a body cavity (Coelom) separated from the
digestive tube.
The "brain" is on the dorsal side of the anterior end.
A nerve cord runs throughout the body on the ventral side.
Has a closed circulatory system.
Body wall contains circular and longitudinal muscles.
Found in the soil and in freshwater; however, most are marine.
Example 1: Neanthes (Nereis) virens (clam worm) (sandworm)
1. Lives in tubes (burrows) in the sand or mud of the seashore
between regions of high and low tide.
By day it rests in its burrow, but at night it extends its
body in search of food. It may even leave its burrow.
Other worms and small sea animals are seized by the sharp
horny jaws and are eaten.
Each segment bears a pair of appendages called parapodia, which
have a number of setae (bristles) on them.
5. See page 57 of Golden Nature Guide, Seashores.
Example 2: Arenicola cristata (lugworm)
l. Burrowing animal like the earthworm.
Length from 15-20 cm.
Lives well below the surface and feeds by extracting organic
matter from fine sand and debris that it take in as it burrows
along.
See page 57 of Seashores.
Example 3: Clymenella torquata (bamboo worm) (jointed worm)
1. It uses its tail to clean out tube. The tail is like a plunger.
The rate of turnover of materials is very fast.
The segments are longer than they are wide. Each species has a
definite number of segments.
There were certain mud flats where all of these worms were orange;
on other flats they were all green. The different colors were
due to the break-down products of what the animal was feeding.
In order to prove this, posterior ends of orange worms were cut
off and placed on anterior pieces of green worms. The result
was that the entire worm turned green. The same procedure was
repeated with the green worms with the result that they turned
orange.
Example 4: Amphitidice oroata (ornate worm)
1. Have tentacles in head region.
Example 5: Caetopterus pergamentaceus (parchment worm)
1. Lives in U-shaped tubes in muddy flats.
T.
Water is sucked in at one end, bringing oxygen and plankton food.
Wastes are discharged at the other end.
The tube is built of a tough membrane. Male and female crabs
may live in these tubes.
The tubes can be seen dotting the bottom of shallow water at
low tide.
They are about 15 cm long.
They have a 17-minute feeding cycle:
a. Filter.
b. Roll up mucous bag thus ejecting particulate matter.
See page 57, Seashores.
Example 6: Pectinaria (Cistenides) gouldi (Trumpet worm)
(Ice cream cone worm)
1
ae
om
Ge
5.
About 5 em long.
They build their own conica! tube out of grains of sand. This
resembles a sugar cone.
Have plume-like appendages for respiration and gathering food.
Have curbed appendages to help them dig.
Refer to page 57, Seashores.
Example 7: Spirorbis borealis (spirorbis)
1.
2
A coiled worm which lives in a coiled tube.
Very often found on seaweed.
Example 8: Lepidonotus (Scale worm)
1.
2.
Live under rocks.
Eats hydroids and sponges. Note: It is one of the few animals
that will eat sponges.
UNIT X
NAVIGATION
Objective:
To enable students to plot a course, to understand navigational aids,
and to prepare for a safe cruise.
Procedures:
I. The Magnetic Compass
Discussion:
One of the oldest and yet one of the most useful tools of the modern
navigator is the magnetic compass. No boat which will ever be out
of sight of its originating point, whether due to distance or poor
visibility, should be without one. Traditionally sailors had to
learn to "box the compass” or, in other words, be able to name all the
Cardinal Points (North, East, South, and West) as well as the many
intermediate points (Northeast, North by Northeast, etc.).
In our own time, however, this practice has given way to the much
simpler method of describing directions in terms of degrees based
upon the 360 degrees of the circle. Thus:
360° (or 0°) = North
090° = East
180° = South
270° ‘= West
The compass depends upon the attractive force exerted by the magnetic
north and south poles for its direction-seeking action. However, these
magnetic poles are not located in the same positions as their cor-
responding geographic or "true" poles. Since the longitude lines used
on charts and maps are laid out in terms of the geographic poles it can
be seen that a line drawn on such a chart from a direction indicated
by a compass will show this discrepancy. The difference between these
"true" and "magnetic" directions is called variation. Variation is
the angle between "true north" and "magnetic north" and is expressed
in degrees. Variation is different ail around the earth and is chang-
ing very slowly. In the area of New England variation is about 15°W.
In the area of California it is 15°E; through Indiana it is zero.
This means that the compass is pulled away from "true north" in the
amount of 15° to the west. If variation is west you must subtract the
appropriate number of degrees from any magnetic or compass reading in
order to determine the "true" direction. If variation is east you must
add the appropriate number of degrees to compass readings.
68
Exercise: The Magnetic Compass
Place a bar magnet on top of a sheet of plain white paper as shown in
the diagram. Position your small compass in the locations indicated
and in the order suggested. After the compass needle has come to
rest, make a mark at either end. After removing the compass, connect
the marks. After all the marks have been connected as pair, see if
you can find a pattern in which several of the marks can be connected
head-to-tail in order to form an overall geometric pattern. The
magnet can be shifted to represent different variations.
:
4
5
N 6
7 Note: You will probably not be
8 able to fit your compass in
9 as many locations as indicated.
Follow the pattern none the less.
10
- AT
o
12
13
14
On the basis of the above information fill in the following:
TRUE BEARING VARIATION MAGNETIC BEARING
150° 015°w
015°W 270°
O75 090°
005°E 180°
220° 005°E
0652 072°
It is recommended that students take bearings and actually fix their
own position on a shoreline.
69
78
II. Chart Symbols---Using a Marine Chart
Discussion:
Marine charts have become indispensable to oceanographers, fishermen,
professional seamen, and pleasure boat operators alike. Their his-
tory most likely goes back to the day that the first mariner, using
a floating log, scratched the pictured description of a hidden harbor
or underwater reef into the beach sand for the edification of a fellow
voyager. Since that time, they have evolved into our modern-day
Coast and Geodetic Survey (now, National Ocean Survey) charts which
are based on accurate surveys, show extremely detailed information,
and are beautifully printed.
Procedure:
In this activity you will work with a training chart (1210 Tr). On
the back of the chart you will find ar explanation of the symbols
used, and these will enable you to answer the questions.
Methods:
Using a Coast and Geodetic Survey chart, answer the following questions:
1. What color is land which is permanently above water?
2. What color is land which is exposed at low tide?
3. What color is used to indicate relatively shallow water?
4. What color is used to indicate deeper water?
5. In what units is the depth of water shown?
6. What is the scale used in making this chart?
7. Explain what scale means.
8. What map projection was used to produce this chart?
9. At each of the following locations, designated by latitude and longi-
tude, describe the object found. Include the following information:
The kind and number of the object (e.g., buoy); its color, if any; size;
characteristics of light(s), if any; type of sound produced; electronic
aids (e.g., radio beacon); and any special characteristics indicated.
a. 41° 31.6' N 71° 23.9' W
b. 421° 21.0' N 71° 34.5' W
e; 4” 26.1 & 71, 26.2" Ww
ad. 41° 16.6' N 71, 24.0" W
e: &i £2.75 71, 28.9" W
£. BEE 26.6' 9 71, 23.4" W
g. 41° 27.8' N 70° 51.2" W
h. 41° 23.4'N 70° 36.8' W
TO
A suggested list of headings:
Lat. Long. Obj. # Color Light Char. Sound Electr. Aid Spec. Char.
Teacher Note: List various objects on charts you are using. You
can get information about obtaining training charts from any local
Power Squadron Officer or Coast Guard Station. It is suggested that
you ask the students to locate about six to eight aids as described by
your directions.
10. What is the usual color of nun buoys?
How are they numbered?
il. What is the usual color of can buoys?
How are they numbered?
12. Examine the entrance to a harbor. What do you notice about the
arrangement of the buoys which mark the channel?
13. Make a sketch showing the actual appearance of nun and can buoys.
II. Simple Course Plotting
Discussion:
One necessary skill that a marine biologist or oceanographer should
possess is the ability to "find his way" on the ocean where there are
no streets and numbers, and familiar landmarks are scarce. The visible
landmarks on the ocean are buoys and shore-based structures, such as
lighthouses and other prominent features. The buoys have special
characteristics (shape, color, number, and light or sound) that give
the navigator information as to how to proceed relative to them. This
unit assumes a familiarity with buoy characteristics. (See Chapman
or other similar reference for this informat.on. )
Materials: Equipment:
Marine charts (Xeroxed portions of Sharp pencil
charts serve well for classroom work. ) Ruler
Protractor ( Course plotters
of various types normally
used by navigators are not
necessary, but may speed
up calculations when their
use is understood. )
Method:
1. Course Direction. A line must be drawn on the chart from the point
of departure to the destination. (Needless to say, you must know
where you are, to begin with. )
Tl
80
The direction of this course line must be determined with
reference to the chart north, called true north. This may be
done as follows:
(a) Extend the course line until it crosses a meridian or a
parallel;
(b) measure the angle the course line makes with the meridian
or the parallel;
(c) calculete the angle the course line makes with true north.
(Note: The meridians are oriented from true north, o". to
south, 180°. - The parallels are oriented from east, 90°,
to west, 270 .)
Correct the course from true north to magnetic north so that you
can follow it with the ship's compass. (The compass north,
called magnetic north, is not the same as the chart north and,
in this general area, is 15° west of true north.) The correction
is made as follows: (a) Find the compass rm ‘e on the chart;
the magnetic variation is printed in the middle. The variation
can also be seen as the difference between true north and mag-
netic north on the compass rose. (b) There are some rules
that can be used in changing from chart to compass and vice
versa. They are listed below. However, by inspecting the dif-
ference on the compass rose, the process can be reasoned out.
When going from chart to compass, if the variation is west, add:
if the variation is east, subtract. When going from compass to
chart, if the variation is west, subtract; if the variation is
east, add. (c) In this case, since the variation is west and
we are going from chart to compass, the variation is added to
the figure for the course based on true north. The resultant
figure is the course in degrees magnetic and is the course to be
followed on the vessel's compass. (Note: The compass may have
a deviation which is a compass “error" due to metal, electric
currents, etc. on a particular ship that must be corrected for
and assume that the compass is correct and there is no cucrent.)
NO
Course Distance. Lay the edge of a piece of paper along the
course line on the chart. Mark off the distance from start
to finish. Lay this out on the mileage scale on the chart
and determine the total mileage. (Note: One minute of
latitude equals one nautical mile. This relationship is
often used as a scale to measure mileage.)
Examp le
You have just gone under the Jamestown Bridge and are at tne
light on the southern end of Dutch Island. Plot a course from
this point to Whale Rock. (Use chart 1210 Tr)
l. Draw a line on the chart from the dot that represents the
light at the southern end of Dutch Island to Whale Rock.
Extend the line past the Jamestown Bridge.
72
81
Lay the protractor along the parallel of 41°30" and measure
the angle from this parallel to your course line. This
angle is measured at 102°.
Add 90° to your measured figure because the parallel point-
ing east was already at 90° from true north. This gives you
192°, which is your course in degrees true. (An alternate
method would be to use the parallel rule and walk it to the
nearest compass rose and read your true and magnetic course
from the compass rose.)
; eee ; ; fe)
Find the compass rose and look up the variation, which is 15
west.
Add the variation of i to the true north course at 192°,
giving you a course of 207° magnetic. This is the course to
be followed on the compass.
Lay the edge of a piece of paper along the course line and
mark the start and finish. Lay this out on the scale of
nautical miles and determine the mileage. It is 3.2 nauti-
cal miles. (An alternate method is to use a pair of
dividers. Spread the dividers to the course length and use
your parallels of latitude because every minute of latitude
equals one nautical mile.)
Problems
What is the compass course and distance from Whale Rock to
Point Judith Light?
Answer: 223°, 5.7 NM
What is the compass course and distance from Whale Rock to
Brenton Reef Light?
Answer: 142°, 1.8 NM
What is the compass course and distance from Brenton Reef
Light to Castle Hill Light, Newport?
Answer: 43°, 2.5 NM
What is the compass course and distance from Sandy Point
Light, Block Island to Nebraska Shoal Buoy "2"? (South of
Matunuck)
Answer: 015°, 5.5 NM
Iv. Supplementary Piloting Problem
You may use any books or other references that you may have to solve
the problem.
together.
work himsel
Materials:
Chart 1210
Dividers
This problem should not be done in groups or by a class
Each individual should have a separate chart and do the
ft.
v's
Parallel rules or protractor
Method
Plot your courses on the 1210 Tr Chart and label them adequately.
Use 15° for variation and compute the deviation from the following
table, interpolating to the nearest full degree.
speed of your boat.
DEVIATION TABLE
Use 6 knots as the
Mag. Heading Deviation Mag. Heading Deviation
000° 11°w 195° 14°F
015 7°w 210 14°F
(@) (e)]
030 4°w 225 11°F
045 1° 240 6°E
060 2°E 255 2°w
075 6°E 270 10°w
(@) (@)
090 8° 285 16°
105 9°R 300 he 219%
| 120 10°E 315 \ 19°w
135 11°E 330 17°w
150 12°E 345 14°w
165 13°F 360 11°w
180 } a
t 1
’ 8
Point of Departure - A
281°
(compass)
018° (compass)
319°
(compass)
"fix" with compass bearing as follows:
to Radio Beacon south of Old Harbor Point(Bloc
to Point Judith Light
to Sandy Point light
83
74
Use 19°w for deviation in establishing this fix.
1. The TRUE bearing of the Radio Beacon is:
(a) 262°, (b) 247°, (c) 252°, (a) 067°
e. The TRUE bearing of Point Judith Light is:
(a) 344°, (b) 052°, (c) 164°, (a) 020°
3. The TRUE bearing of Sandy Point Light is:
fe)
(a) 353°, (b) 173°, (c) 105°, (a) 285°
4, Your Position at this fix is:
(a) 41° 12.1'N 71° 25.2'w
@) ie)
(>) 41° 11.8'N 71> 25.0'W
(c) 41° 16.1'N Tl. 25.8'W
(ad) 41° 12.9'N Tl 27.5'W
You depart this FIX at 0900 and head for Bell "1B." north of Sandy
Point Light.
2. When you arrive at Bell "1B]" you will have travelled miles.
(a) 8.35 (b) 7.95 (c) 8.45 (d) 8.10
You now head for Bell "4" southwest of Point Judith Light.
6. 20 minutes after departing Bell "1B1" the water depth is __—feet.
(a) 143 (bo) 150 (c) 120 (d) 115
When Nebraska Shoal Buoy "2NS" bears 299° (TRUE) you/turn east
and head for Whistle Buoy "2",
7. Youlwill reach this change of course at,
(a) 1109 (b) 0948 (c) 1021 (d) 1112
8. When heading towards Whistle Buoy "2" you will steer
(compass).
(a) 103° (b) 073° (cf 089° (a) 269°
When Point Judith Light bears 008°r and Sandy Point Light bears
213 T you change course and head northeast for Brenton Reef Light
Station.
T5
34
9. The Compass Bearing of Point Judith Light at this course change
is ;
e (b) 016° (c) 196° (a) 204°
(a) 024
10. The Compass Beari..g of Sandy Poi.t Light at this change is
(a) ohg® (b) 229° (ce) 221° (a) 041°
ll. At this change of course you are miles from the Brenton
Reef Light Station.
(a) 6.8 (oe): ¥22 (c) 8.2 (d) 6.2
You continue on this course until 1229 when you change course and
head northwest for Whale Rock Lighted Buoy.
12. The Bottom at this course change will probably be
(a) rock (>) mud (c) hard (a) sticky
13. You should arrive at Whale Rock Lighted Buoy at
(a) 12h9 (b) 1247 (c) 1251 (ad) 1253
14. This last course is miles long.
(a) 2.4 (b) 2.2 (c) 1.8 (d) 2.0
15. The TOTAL Distance Run this day is miles.
(a) 23.4 | (b) 22.9 (c) 19.4 (d) 22.5
|
\ |
IV. Field Activity.
Have students plot a course to be followed on the bay.
PAGE ?? MISSING FROM DOCUMENT
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
86
Equipment and materials required: Part. IT
A quantity of cold extract from Part A; 2 - 500 ec graduated cylinders;
balance a quantity of fresh whole milk, cocoa, sugar; a double boiler
and thermometer.
Procedure:
Mix together 5.7 grams of cocoa and 33.1 grams of sugar. Heat 500 cc
of milk in double boiler to 160 degrees F. Add the desired amount of
carrageenin extract. Add the cocoa-sugar mix. Heat for ten minutes
with constant stirriag, to 50 degrees F. Bottle and hold in refrigera-
tor overnight. Examine on the following day.
Note:
Be sure to use one bottle of chocolate milk without extract for a
eontrol.
=
Suggested levels of carrageenin usage:
Volume of extract used Conc. of carrageenin in milk
0 0
5 cc. Of extract 150 ppm
7T ce. of extract 210 ppm
10 ce. of extract 300 ppm
15 cc. of extract 450 ppm
SUPPLFMENTAL ACTIVITIES
PROJECT: THE LIGHT AND DARK BOTTLE METHOD FOR DETERMINING |
GROSS PRIMARY PRODUCTION
/
Discussion:
In order to study the energetic relationships in any ecosystem, an
accurate estimate of the amount of solar energy fixed by green plants must
be known. It is this energy that supports all other organisms in the com-
munity. The light and dark bottle methodplutilizes the one-to-one relation-
ship between oxygen production and ‘carbon’ fixation in photosynthesi$ to
predict the amount of energy stored as energy-rich carbon compounds by the
producers in an aquatic ecosystem.
78
Procedure-Materials:
2-3 liter collecting bottle
calibrated lines or bridle
250-ml ground-glass-stoppered bottles (paint one black)
All those materials and reagents needed for a standard diss: “ved oxygen
determination.
Collecting the sample:
It is essential that the sample be representative of the given depth
in the water column and that all atmospheric oxygen be excluded from the
collecting and sample bottles.
Lower the collecting bottle to depth and secure at least a two-liter
sample. Bring the bottle to the surface and fill three 250 ml ground-glass
sample bottles (two clear and the other black) by overflowing each several
times to exclude water that was in contact with the air in the bottle.
Return one "light" and one "dark" bottle to the depth from which the
original sample was taken by suspending them from a calibrated line. (A
bridle designed for this purpose is handy but not necessary.) Immediately
"fix" the remaining sample accora. 2 to the directions given for dissolved
oxygen determination (D.0.D.).
Leave the light and dark bottles at depth for two to three hours and
return to the lab to determine the oxygen content of the original sample
(the D.O. of the third sample bottle). After two to three hours, collect
the remaining bottles and determine their dissolved oxygen content.
Calculations:
The first bottle that you analysed represented the amopnt of oxygen
present in the water column at the beginning of your study. By comparison
of this value with the data obtained from the light and dark bottles you
can determine the amount of oxygen} produced by the photosynthetic organisms
test period.
in your eae over the time of th
Let us refer to the first sample as Bottle "0" and the light and dark
bottles as "L° and "D" respectively. The light bottle should show an in-
crease in D.O. due to the action of photosynthetic —. This value,
however, must be corrected for the oxygen consumed by the organisms present
in the bottle. The D.0O. of the dark bottle should decrease over the test
period. No photosynthesis is occurring in this bottle and theoretically
the same amoynt of respiration is; taking place here,as in the light bottle.
Based on this‘ assumption then we tan see that’ the adiunt of oxygen con- 4
sumed in the dark bottle should be equa? to that consumed in the light
bottle. Thus we can calculate the total amount of oxygen produced by the
producers in the light bottle by adding the decrease in D.O. of the dark
bottle to the increase in D.0O. in the light bottle. This value is the
gross primary production in the sample.
19
88
L-0#8
Oo-D=Y
X
X + Y = P or gross primary production
This value, in mg 0 abt or in ppm, can be used directly to compare
productivity -- at different depths, of different water columns, of the
same water column at different times of the day or year.
In the literature, production is generally given in mg C/m>. The fol-
lowing chemical relationship between fixed carbon and molecular oxygen can
be used to convert mg 0,/1 to mg C/m3:
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
+ em +
6 CO, 6 HO +E CoH, 2% 6 0,
Assuming a one liter sample st standard temperature and pressure
3
me C = (mg 0,) (1 mole 0,) (6 mole CO,) (12X10°mg C)
(32x10, mg0,, ) (6 mole 0) ( 1 mole co,,)
) Loar ee
(32X10-mg 0,)
(mg O
2
.375 (mg of 0,)
Since one.cubic meter contains ee 10° ob we seen convert mgC/1
to mg C/m> by knowing that mgC/m (mg C/1) ( 1/m3 y,
Additional Projects:
1: Determine the effect of light infensity on production.
|
2. Determine the effect of light quelity on production.
'
. \
3. Determine the effect of cO., ecncentration on production. |
4. Determine the effect of temperature on production.
5. Determine the relative production efficiency of various phyto-
plankters under similar environmental conditions.
Referendes: a ‘ : i
\ e
Heister, R. D. 1972. "Measuring Dissolved Oxygen in Water", Environ- —
mental Activities New “ulletin, C. E. Merrill, Columbus, Ohio. 1:1.
Macan, T. T. 1963. Fresh Water Ecology, Longman Group Ltd., London.
Nygarrd, G. 1955. "On the Productivity of Five Danish Waters", Verh.
int. Ver. Limnology, 12:123-133.
80
89
PROJECT: PREPARATION OF HERBARIUM MOUNTS
Objective:
To prepare herbarium mounts of marine algae.
Discussion:
As a coming source of food for mankind, algae cannot be overlooked.
At the present time seaweeds, giant kelp, are being collected and converted
to flour. The Japanese are raising Chlorella to be used as a protein,
fat, and vitamin supplement for their diets.
Materials:
plant press
plastic bags and ties
tags (white paper)
shallow pans or trays
probes
scissors
5 x & file cards or herbarium sheet
wax paper
cellophane wrap
newspaper
drying box
assorted algae
Procedure:
1. Remove a specimen from a numbered bag and record this number on
13 x 20 cm unlined file card. }
2. To a shallow, flat pan add water to a depth of 6.5 mn.
3. Place the algae in the pan and tease it into flat position.
4. Select a representative portion to use as a mount.
5S. Slip the card under the specimen and arrange the specimen into de-
sired position.
6. Remove the mount by grasping a corner and raising gently to drain
the water. A second method is to mount the paper on a float4§ng board
and place in water for mounting.
7. Place the mounted algae into a plant press using alternate layers of
newspapers, the algae mount, wax paper, newspaper.
81
90
1).
ll.
Place the press in a drying box or a hot dry place.
Change the newspaper and wax paper every 6-12 hours or as often as
possible to at least once a day.
When the mount is dry, cover it with a sheet of wrap slightly larger
than the mount and overlap the self-adhering portionc on the back of
the card.
Mount the preparation on a sheet of 21.5 x 28 cm stock and record
collecting data from corresponding number records.
Secure dichotomous keys and/or refer to the school collection for
identification. Record the following:
Technical name-
Common name-
Family-
Habitat-—
Locale-
Description-
Date-
Collector
82
91
UNIT XII
SPONGES AND COELENTERATES
PROJECT: SPONGE STRUCTURE
Objective:
To study the structure of some common sponges and identify these
sponges.
Materials:
preserved and living sponges microscope slides, coverslips
10% acetic acid solution probe sea water
Procedure:
1. Place a specimen of sponge A on a clean slide. Find the osculum
and pores. Sketch and label. Examine a specimen of sponge A
which has been cut longitudinally. Sketch and then label the
spongocoel.
2. Place a small piece of tissue from sponge A in a drop of water on
a slide. Tease apart the tissue, coverslip, and study under 10C
and 400X. Sketch and label any structures or cells that you can
identify.
3. Place a small piece of tissue from sponge A in a drop of 10%
acetic acid sn > clean slide. Coverslip and observe. If bubbles
of a |gas are |evo.ved, this indicates spicules made of calcium
carbgnate, Caco... The formulas and equation is as follows:
aCO. + 2 HCHO
2 nie + +
| 2 a 32 Ca(C,H,05), H,0 + CO,,
4, Examine andi sketch sponge B. Then test a small bit of tissue with
acetic acid as’ you did in procedure #3.
5. Obtain a fresh bit of tissue from sponge B and place it in a drop
of sea water. } Coverslip carefully and study under 100 and 400X.
Sketch and label identifiable parts. Then set the slide apart
on a piece ofypaper labeledéSponge B aslyou will examine the y
slide later.
Repeat procedures #4 and #5 with sponges C and D, setting aside
slide preparations for later study. If slides appear dry, add
sea water.
83
92
T. On the basis of your observations, identify the sponges using the
key on the next page.
8. Examine the slides of sponges B, C, and D which, have been set
aside. Record your observations and suggest an explanation.
KEY TO COMMON SPONGES
1. a. Structure of sponge simple; tubular to urn-shaped; pale tan
to whitish; spicules calcareous (test with acetic acid).
b. Structure massive, fleshy, or spongy; encrusting or branching;
color various; spicules siliceous.
2. a. Sponges in form of branching, cylindrical, pale tubes
Leucosolenia sp.
b. Sponges in the form of little urns or vases, usually clustered,
with f~inge of spicules around the terminal asculum .
Scypha sp.
3. a. Spicules smaller (less than 200 u in lengt’ ) and conspicuously
joined together by more or less spongin to form a network or
a system of tracts; dermal skeleton absent .. . Haliclona
b. Spicules larger (mean length greater than 200 u), arranged
in loose tracts with little spongin or occurring at random;
a distinct dermal skeleton present . . . Halichondria
PROJECT: SPONGE REGENERATION
|
Objective:
To observe the re-integration of sponge cells.
Materials:
Stentor dish, forceps, slides, coverslips, microscope, red beard sponge.
PROCEDURES :
Place a drop of sea water on a clean slide. Grasp a small piece of
living sponge with forceps and squeeze the sponge into the water drop until
the sponge pigment is barely visible in the water.
THE FOLLOWING STEPS MUST BE CARRIED OUT QUICKLY (30 seconds).
1. Discard the piece of sponge and remove any visible sponge fragments
from the water drop.
84
Place a clean coverslip on the drop, and examine the sponge-cell sus-
pension under the microscope. Note the distribution of cells under
low power. Notice the degree, or lack of, clumping.
Observe under high power.
Careful observation should enable you to see the extension of delicate,
transparent psuedopods.
Carefully place the slide, with coverslip in place, into a stentor
dish of sea water.
Five minutes later, remove the slide from the culture dish. Dry the
bottom surface of the slide and examine under the microscope. Look
for signs of additional cell clumping. Draw and describe the clumping.
Return the slide to the culture dish and gently slip the coverglass off
the microscope slide. This will allow unrestricted growth of the
newly-formed colonies of sponge cells.
Re-examine the slide at intervals during the day and on following days.
During reorganization, small filaments may be seen extending to other
cells. Upon contact with other cells, these strands withdraw, pulling
other cells into small clumps.
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
Phylum: Porifera (Pore-bearing)
A. Characteristics of the Phylum: Porifera
1. Body in two cell layers, (outer layer called ectoderm; inner
layer called endofierm) penetrated by numerous pores. Between’
the inner and outer layer, there is a jellylike substance called
mesoglea.
ine)
"Skeleton" formed by silicious (containing silicon and oxygen
as in quartz) or calcarecus (containing calcium carbonate)
spicules or horny spongin.
3. Marine (salt water) or aquatic (fresh water) animals.
B. Example: Sponges. ; 5
4 \ \ \
1. How a Sponge Feeds.
a. Water containing food particles (diatoms, small protozoans,
bacteria, organiz particles) and oxygen enter the ostia
(incurrent pores).
85
9 4
The food particles are caught by the collar cells and
are digested by the enzymes within the collar cells. (The
collar cells are part of the endodern. )
The digested food is absorbed by amebocytes (cells that
look like amoebae). The amebocytes wander throughout the
mesoglea, transporting food and oxygen to the other cells.
The amebocytes carry cell wastes (liquid nitrogen wastes
which are the result of the burning of food in the cells)
and carbon dioxide (also a product of burning food) to the
collar celis for disposal.
The carbon dioxide and the liquid wastes go out to the
osculum (excurrent pore) with the current created by the
collar cells.
2. Reproduction in a Sponge
a.
Asexual Reproduction
(1) Sponges may form buds, which are groups of cells
that enlarge and live attached to the parent for a
time, then break off and live independently.
(2) During periods of freezing temperatures or drought,
groups of amebocytes and spicules become surrounded
by a heavy organic coat. Now they are called gemules.
When favorable conditions return, each gemule has the
capacity to grow into another sponge.
(3) Sponges are able to regenerate missing parts. Be-
cause of this ability, sponge-growers are able to
increase the number of sponges by cutting them in
ieces. These pieces are placed in special growing
eds. (Regeneration).
Sexual Reproduction
(1) Sponges are capable of producing eggs and sperms in
the same individual; therefore, they are referred to
as being monoecious or hermaphroditic. Note: organisms
like man that are capable of producing either egg or
sperm are referred to as being dioecicus.
(2) In most cases thene is cross-fertilization; that is,
the sperm from spénge number 1 fertilizes the ege in \
sponge number 2.
(3) The sperms are shed into the water by way of the osculum
and enter another sponge through its ostia.
86
95
(4) The sperms are ingested by the collar cells and are
transferred to egg cells (located in the mesoglea)
by the amebocytes.
(5) When the sperm unites with an egg, a zygote is formed.
(6) The zygote develops into a free swimming larva called
the amphiblastula larva. This free swimming larva
leaves the parent sponge by way of the osculum,
swims around for a while, and finally settles down to
become a young sponge.
II. Phylum: Coelenterata (hollow gut) (Coelenterate)
A.
Characteristics of the Phylum: Coelenterata
1. Have a bag-like body of two cell layers. (Ectoderm, endoderm
with mesoglea in the middle.
rm
A gastrovascular cavity with one opening leading to the outside
is present.
3. Tentacles are present with stinging capsules (nematocysts)*'in
them.
4. Solitary or colonial forms.
5. Marine or aquatic.
6. Vary in size from being microscopic to over a meter in diameter.
Example 1: Hydra (a small freshwater form).
Example 2: Colonies of feeding cas (Tubularia) is found on
seaweed). |
Example 3: Jellyfish
1. Jellyfish reproduce in a very peculiar way. What we call
a jellyfish is the medusa o2 generation that reproduces
sexually (by means of eggs and sperms ). When the zygote is
formed, it develops into a colony of feeding polyps similar
to the members of example 2. Part of this colony reproduces
asexually and forms medusae. Reproduction of this type if ‘
called alvernation of generations.
2. Life cycle of Obelia
3. Other jellyfish:
a. Aurelia - very common around here.
87
96
b. Physalia (Portuguese-man-of-war )
is made up of colonies of polyps. It is not
individual organism like Aurelia. One polyp
as a float. ( is
float. Some polyps digest food, others catch food,
and other specialize in producing gametes (either eggs
\
sry anerms }
DB é > } Dil / «
Usually they are found in the tropics or semi-+
Iheir tentacles cCé L t meters iong.
of fish, Noemus, swims about among the
“ - .s iin +
tentacles without being harmed. Noemus darts out to
grasp a small food animal and hastens back amid the
to
safety of the Portuguese-man-of-war's tentacles
Jevour it. The tentacles protect the fish, and the
A
particles of food not eaten by the fish are engulfea
YD { . .
by the Portuguese-man-of-war. (This is an example
o
miikrialitem
mutualism).
mucuati sm
(Formed by tiny little polyps which secrete
\
stone cups into which they can retract ).
mes (Metridium is the genus that is common
sre.) They are very often called flower
because they look like beautiful flowers.
f their bright colors, they attract many
which they paralyzed by stinging them with
waters.
-ashores. )
UNIT XIII
POLITICAL AND SOCIAL INVESTIGATIONS
Objectives:
1. To acquaint students with agencies which deal with marine en-
vironmental problems.
2. To make students aware of the processes through which environ-
mental legislation must pass.
3. To prepare students for their roles as citizens and voters.
Introduction:
Social and politial investigations make excellent winter-time activities
for students. Students will find that investigation into any of the follow-
ing topics will prove quite interesting:
l. Coastal Resources Management Council (A division of the R. I.
Department of Natural Resources created to insure ecological use
of shore areas).
2. Coastal Resources Center (a division of the U.R.I. School of
Jeeanography ).
3. Various local governmental agencies.
4. R. I. Department of Natural Resources.
VI
ee)
4
io 9)
+
p
ate Department of Health.
6. Wetlands Protection Acts.
Co
69)
0
7
~
2)
Ww
a
>
9
ct
~
-,
/
pa
9. Oil company public relations departments.
10. Electric company public relations departments.
ll. Environmental Protection Agency.
nee i pas ae
k2 00 mile fishing limit.
, = , : ee aT ; : ; ‘ 8 *
sne Toliowing series of activities pertain in particular to governmental
control over water pollution.
Activity I: State Government Model
A.
B.
Introduction
This is an activity which could follow one in which the state government
Structure in the area of water pollution has been studied. It is
assumed that the students have been impressed with the complexity of
governmental operations; the duplication of efforts; the inefficiencies
of the various bureaus, commissions, boards, etc. It is, therefore,
anticipated that the students might wish to develop their own organiza-
tional plan for water pollution control. The students may then wish
to make suggestions to their legislators or to special appointed task
forces so that the immediate serious problems might be solved by mini-
mizing the usual red tape and delays.
r
Questions
1. Lead to the activity by asking:
a. Why does it take so long to get things done?
b. Why is it so hard to get questions answered?
c. Are you surprised by the complexity of the structure of the
state government?
d. Do you think the present one can operate efficiently and effec-
tively?
e. Do you notice that various aspects of the water pollution pro-
gram come under different agencies?
2. Initiate the activity with questions such as:
a. Can you name all the people and organizations that might be con-
cerned with water pollution?
b. Do you think that certain areas are not covered?
ce. Do you think that efforts are being duplicated?
d. Do you think that you can come up with a better type of
organization?
e. What are some desirable changes that are in order?
{. How do you think that the changes can be brought about?
3. Continue the activity by asking:
a. Now that you have developed a plan which you think is more
efficient and effective, do you wish to pass this on to your
legislators?
b. Can you name some other individuais and organizations that
might be interested in your plan?
c. iI no party or parties show any interest in your plan, do you
wish to revise or alter the plan?
Evaluate the students’ efforts with questions such as:
tc
Pe)
a. Did this activity interest the students’?
b. Did they wish to extend the study?
90
99
ec. Did they really feel that they were making a contribution to
the solution of the problem?
Equipment
No equipment is needed. Various booklets on the structure of state
governments - from the state in which the school is located or (if a
boarding school) from the home states. Typewriter, duplicating, or
copying machines are in order.
Procedure
1. After students have expressed their dissatisfaction with the preseat
system of water pollution control, suggest (or have the students
suggest) that they develop a better system which would more
efficiently coordinate all the agencies, commissions, etc.
2. Have the students block out a table of organization.
Compare the students’ plan with the one proposed by their state.
Ww
.
4. Suggest follow-up by writing letters and enclosing the plan to
legislators and others who might be interested.
5. Students may be encouraged to make charts and posters explaining
what they hope to accomplish.
Activity II: Anti-pollution Laws
A.
Introduction
This activity is designed to determine what circumstances in a given
area allow cases of obvious pollution to continue. While it is true
that the time gap between creation and enforcement of laws is one of
the primary causes, this is not always the case. If anti-pollution
laws do exist, it may be that a gap also exists between what is con-
Sidered to constitute pollution and what legally constitutes a case of
pollution. In other words, both legal and illegal polluters have been
found to exist.
In order to make such determinations, the students are required to
wade through many legal documents as well as carry out interviews.
Questions
1. Lead to the activity by asking:
a. Why isn't something being done about citing a local polluter?
b. How can you determine the legal status of an industry?
91
100
No
ns
Fie
rie
initiate the activity ask:
Wheat agencies (public and private) are directly concerned with
industrial pollution in your river basin?
Which ones make tne rezulations?
What are they‘
What people shoul: be contacted for information? Local? State?
Federal?
What questions do you want answered? For example, is there a
water quality standard in you state?
continur: the ectivity asx:
What types of testing have been done?
Should you make tests of your own?
Who interprets the result: of the testing?
What is the mechanism for reporting violations?
low do you survey local indus*ry?
Wrat steps are being taken toward sewage abatement?
Who :.s responsible for enforcement of water pollution regula-
tion3?
evaluate the student consider:
What types of background material did the student gather?
Were the questions formulated in advance of personal contact
with resource people?
Was the plan of attack well planned and viable?
an the student differentiate between legal and illegal pcl-
ution practices?
n
\Y
7
4.
T
Is the student aware of public recourse that can be brought
against the illegal industrial polluter and the steps in this
process?
oe Equipment
special equipment is required unless the students do testing in the
ld
92
101
D. Procedure
1. Select a site of obvious water pollution.
2. Determine the industrial or private persons who are contributing to
the pollution.
3. Investigate the local, state, and federal agencies concerned with
pollution in your area and determine what laws are now in existence.
4, Select one specific industrial polluter and secure background mater-
ial on the corporation, i.e.:
a. How is it polluting and to what degree (may be necessary to
perform tests)?
b. When did it begin?
How many people are employed?
d. What are its gross earnings?
e. What responsibility does it feel it has?
5. If a violation is occurring, discuss the courses of action regard-
ing it. You may want to do one of the following:
a. Go to the corporation's management and ask about the responsi-
bility to meet legal standards, past actions, and projected
activities.
b. Go to the local politicians about the specific corporation.
ec. Go to the relevant enforcement agencies with your data and
attempt to find out what they are doing.
)
Activity III: An Elementary Investigation of Local Water Anti-pollution
Programs by Interviewing Government Officials
A. Introduction
This activity could be used in classes to evaluate the evident
effectiveness of the government to deal with water pollution.
The students should become aware of and develop an interest in
the local problems of their communities.
B. Questions
1. Lead to the activity by asking what are the water pollution problems
in our community.
2. Stir interest by asking:
a. Who‘ are the people responsible for controlling these problems?
b. Do they use the authority given them effectively?
3. The teacher may evaluate the activity by considering:
" results?
a. What were the students
b. What reasons were there for these results?
c. Were the students' questions well prepared?
d. Was the students’ back-up knowledge sufficient?
Equipment
None is required.
Procedure
1. Find out a few problems in your community by reading the newspaper.
NO
Determine which laws pertain tc these problems.
3. Make up an outline of questions.
4. Set up the interview.
5 Record the results and your reactions by writing articles or reports.
Activity IV: Orientation Program For the Study of Water Pollution
A.
Introduction
This activity is set up as a discussion for a group orientation study
of water pollution. The group can be a traditional class. It could
also be a community group (e.g., students from several high schools
that do not offer a course in water pollution). The questions should
stimulate the group into shaping a skeleton from which the leader can
plan a study agreeable to all. It would be helpful to get through the
whole activity in one session. However, the rate of progression must
be determined by the group. Tape recording the discussion would have
value; the group leader could use it as a reference in the future. The
questions are set up under the precept that the group will be situated
by a polluted body of water. Perhaps it will be the one the group
decided to study. This natural setting should act as a motivating
device, as seeing the problem would increase awareness and hopefully
concern among the group.
Questions
These questions are to provide thought-provoking topics for discussion.
The first three sections play a specific role in the progression of the
orientation.
l. To lead into the activity - these questions are to "set the stage",
to lead the group to concentrate on water pollution. They lead
into the real investigation.
a. What is pollution?
-9h4-
105
Can you identify by sight any pollution in this water?
Are natural things like leaves and twigs pollution?
How is a scientific approach to the problem relevant?
What can science tell us about the problem?
Can this information help us to solve the problem?
How can data and facts help us?
Why is a social approach important?
How can a social approach help to solve the problem?
How can public relations help with a commercial approach
to fighting pollution?
On which commercial enterprises should attention be focused?
What type of public relations is important?
Reflecting recent months, pollution plays an important role
in politics. How can politics influence pollution?
n. How can his ou*+look on pollution affect the fate of a
politician?
~~ ~TrTrmyeaoananad
bp
To initiate the activity - the trend should be set in a meaningful
direction at thic point. Discussion now centers about the objec-
tives of the group. These shall be recognized by covering the
points to each numbered them question.
a. Should we study a specific body of water?
b. What would you like to find out about the pollution of this
water:
-chemical
-bacterial
-historical
-aquatic life
-public influence
c. Are we going to try to solve the poliution problem?
-(apply what was discussed in A)
-when
d. How shall we divide the group, if at all?
-scientific
-social
-commercial
-legislative
-political
e. Whom shall we involve in fighting this pollution?
-peers
-family
-community
What type of information shall we request, and what commercial
enterprises shall we contact?
-only water polluters
-any polluters
-research agencies
-factories
-small enterprises
a)
g@. What information shall we seek?
-history
-general information
-a role we can assume now
h. What shall our group objective be?
-(tie together what was discussed)
To continue the activity - now that the atmosphere is set and the
group objective outlined, these questions focus on planning the
group's activities. The extent of the use of the questions will
vary, especially in the case of the high school students. Many
will have to have been answered by other than the group in prepara-
tion of a type of contract, be it a community group
a. Where shall we begin?
-introduce limitations set by authorities,
if it is necessary
-frequency of group sessions
-summarize B and make it concrete
-independent work
-funding
-publicity
To evaluate the students'performance - these questions can be
applied to a classroom situation if the need for an evaluation
persists. If it is a community group, this evaluation may be
unnecessary. The leader will have to evaluate a group of high
school students if their schools request it. Evaluation may also
be necessary if credit is to be given for the study.
a. Did the group member help set a meaningful trend to the
discussion?
b. Did he (she) make specific personal objectives of the study?
ce. Did he (she) help with the setting of the group objective?
d. Did he (she) introduce relevant discussion matters not in-
cluded in the outline?
105
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UNIT XIV
TIDES AND CURRENTS
Objectives:
To acquaint the student with the various characteristics of local tides and
currents.
I. Current Bottles
Materials:
soda bottles - preferably the 300-350 ml, thick-walled returnable
type with screw-on caps
7.5 x 13 cm cards
wax
Procedure:
Bottle preparation. First the cards must be marked. Be sure to
use a soft pencil. Ink will rapidly fade in sunlight and these bottles
are frequently exposed to weeks of direct light.
Be sure there are identifying marks for cards that are thrown from
different locations. Nothing is more frustrating than to get a card
back in the mail and not be able to find out where it was dropped off.
After the cards are marked and placed in the bottles, put the
caps on as tightly as possible. The cap should then be dipped in hot
wax and allowed to cool. CAUTION: hot wax is flammable and can also
cause severe burns. It should be handled with extreme caution and
under direct supervision of a teacher. After the wax has cooled,
second, third, and fourth dippings are suggested. Be sure to make
them brief, or else you will simply melt off the wax from the previous
time. Allow the wax to cool between each dipping. If the wax you use
is too brittle for a good waterproof seal, add a small amount of
petroleum jelly to soften it up. After the bottles are sealed (you
can spot check with a bucket of water), they are ready to be used.
When selecting a spot to throw your bottles, a few things should
be kept in mind. (1) Try to select a place where there are definite
currents, preferably headed offshore. If there is a mixture of local
constantly shifting eddies and wind currents, it will be difficult to
zet any meaningful results. (2) Try to avoid throwing the bottles
during a strong incoming tide. This usually results in your bottles
being washed up very close to where they were thrown in. (3) Bottles
thrown off during the outgoing tide, particularly near a river, can
106
=9T~
ee
III.
often be carried a long way offshore. If you have access to a boat,
your problems are greatly simplified because you can be selective in
your drop site. (4) Throw off at least ten bottles from any given
spot. Your chance of multiple returns is much better.
CONSTRUCTION OF A SIMPLE WAVE MACHINE
Objective:
Anyone can construct a simple wave machine with materials you can find
around your house.
Materials:
Denatured alcohol (available at the drugstore).
Paint thinner.
10 or 20 gal. aquarium, rectangular, or sediment tank,
marine geology.
4, Blue food coloring or methylene blue indicator.
Wh re
Procedure:
1. Fill 1/3 of the container with alcohol.
2. Add a few'drops of blue coloring until the desired color blue
appears. You may have to swirl the container until the color-
ing and alcohol mix.
3. Fill the container with paint thinner.
Alcohol has a greater density than paint thinner. Due to the
differences in density of the two liquids, the alcohol (the
heavier liquid) returns to its original bottom position as you
tilt the container and make waves.
Current Velocities
Introduction:
Measuring the current velocity and flow of various currents can
be a useful and exciting field lab. The experience can help develop
such ecological concepts as the seasonal changes in the flow of water
through a given marine ecusystem. A practicel and relatively inexpen-
sive current indicator for deep water was used by Pritchard and Burt
while they were doing current studies of the Chesapeake Bay. The
device consists of a biplane cross constructed of two sheets of 12.6 mm
plywood, each of which is 1.2 meters wide and 9 meters high. The two
sheets are assembled so that either panel bisects the other. A 14 keg
weight is suspended below the apparatus to assure negative buoyancy.
Materials:
A Pritchard and Burt biplane cross current indicator.
Procedure:
Suspend the apparatus by a thin cable from an anchored boat. The
top of cable -aould be «levated about 1 meter above the side of the
boat. The b..plane will swing in the direction of the current. The
speed ct tue current can be computed from the angle of the suspending
wire according to the formula:
v=(k) (tan 0)
where v is the current velocity in knots, k is an empirically developed
constant 1.04; and tan 0 is the tangent of the angle formed between the
supporting wire and the vertical.
"The 24-Hour Clock"
Since the tide table uses the 24-hour system, it is a good idea
to be trained .n its use. It will permit you to use it in the classroom
lab situation and in the field.
You can convert a clock by numbering the extra nours, 12-24, on
the clock face or around the margin. Do this to your bedroom clock.
Remember standard time is used in most pubiished reports and tables --
be prepared to acknowledge "daylight saving time”.
The reason for the 24-hour clock is accuracy in reporting and in
communicating -- the day begins at midnight and runs through a 2h-hour
period. 2400 hrs. June 10 = 0000 hrs. June ll. It is easily adapted
for worldwide usage.
Exercise 1:
Conversion to 2l-hour time - use four digits, convert the
following.
—
2. Say time orally - expressed in 100's.
a. 8:15 A.M. a.
Bs 8:15 P.M. b.
Cc. 11:00 A
d. 11:00 P.
p Dp
f
2:30 re Me
. 4:30 P.M.
&- 12:00 Noon Ze
h. 12:00 Midnight .
12:00 A.M. is
-00 P_M
VN , oe l*he
Exercise 2:
1. Compute time differences - the first 2 digits = hours
last 2 digits minutes
i}
Remember minutes over 60 must be converted to hours - if sub-
tracting and you borrow from the second digit, you borrow
60 minutes.
NM
Addition: Subtraction:
a. ocho 9 a. 1358
#0120 . -0050
b. 10h0 dD. O92
+1000 -0119
e. 2250 e. 0234
+0120 -0050
ad. 1300 ad. -0220
+0230 -0300
V. A Study of Tidal Ranges
Background:
This activity can be done along with another activity since it does not
require 100 per cent of the student's time. The purpose of this experiment
is to study visually the change in water level from low tide to high tide:
(or vice versa) at various regions (i.e. beaches, tidal marshes, mudflats).
It can be done just about anywhere along the New England coast. For the
best results, you should choose a day in which there is a large (spring)
tidal range. Spring tidal ranges occur twice a month around the time of new
and full moon. Whenever there is a spring tide the water rises higher at
the time of high tide and falls lower at the time of low tide. Incidentally,
these days are excellent for studying marine organisms that usually are
“not uncovered during most low tides. You should consult your local news-
paper for the best day in which to perform this activity. In general, days
with the largest tidal range occur when the low tide occurs around 7 A.M.
and 7 P.M. or 8 A.M. and 8 P.M. This would mean that the tide would be
high at around 1 A.M. and 1 P.M. for the seven o'clock lows and 2 A.M.
and 2 P.M. for the eight o'clock lows. A tide table for such a day might
look as follows:
High Tide 1:00 A.M. Height 12.2 feet
Low Tide 7:12 A.M. Height -.6 feet
High Tide 1:25 P.M Height 12.4 feet
Low Tide 7:37 P.M Height -.7 feet
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Note:
1. The negative sign means that the low tide will fall .6 ft. (.7 ft.)
below the mean low tide level.
2. There is approximately 6 hours 12.5 minutes between one high
tide and its corresponding low tide.
3. There is approximately 12 hours and 25 minutes between the two
consecutive high tides and the two consecutive low tides.
Field Equipment:
An inexpensive camera (i.e. Kodak Instamatic) that will take slides.
Take prints if you prefer. Some people might prefer to use a Polaroid
camera. A tripod on which to rest the camera is suggested but not ab- _
solutely necessary.
Field Assignment:
Divide students into groups of two and assign them to the specific
areas that are to’be studied. The teacher might wish to assign the students
another activity that can be worked on between observations.
Procedure 1:
+
1. Arrive at the site to be observed (beach, tidal marsh, mudflat )
at the time of low (or high) tide. Take a picture of the specific
area that you wish to study.
a)
Take subsequent pictures each hour from the exact same spot until
the tide is high (low). In other words, you will have seven pic-
tures as indicated in the example below.
a. - 8:12 Aik. (Time of low tide)
by C212 ALK. (One hour after the time of low tide)
G. 20232 ALE, (Two hours after the time of low tide)
a. 11342 AM. (Three hours after the time of low tide)
®. 12:12 Pim, (Four hours after the time of low tide)
3230 Fe: (Five hours after the time of low tide)
2:35. P.M, (The time of high tide 6 hours 12.5 minutes
after the time of low tide)
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110
Procedure 2:
1.
Take a picture of several beaches, tidal marshes, and mud flats
at the time of low (high) tide.
Return to the exact same spot at the time of high (low) tide and
take pictures from the exact same spot.
You will end up with a series of pictures or slides which show
a given site at high and low tide. The slides can be flashed on
a screen rapidly to give you almost the same effect as time-lapse
photography.
Note:
1.
If you begin taking pictures at the time of low tide, make sure
that your site is not submerged during the time of high tide.
If you decide to try several beaches, pick one that slopes gently
and one that slopes a great deal. You might try a rocky beach
and a sandy beach as well.
In procedure 1, you may wish to decrease the interval of time
between successive pictures from one hour to a half hour.
In procedure 2, you may desire to take a picture of the site
half way between high tide and low tide.
ttt
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ECONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS
A. Plan field trips and/or guest speakers from the following:
1. Seafood Processing
Captain Milt's Dock
State Pier
Galilee, RI
Coast Canning and Processing Fish Co., Inc.
31 Scott's Wharf
Newport, RI
Harbour Shellfish Inc.
South County Trail
Exeter, RI
Pt. Judith Fishermen's Cooperative Assn.
Pt. Judith, RI
Rhode Island Fish Co.
515 South Water St.
Providence, RI
Saltesea Packing Co.
315 Geo. M. Cohan Bivd.
Providence, RI
Tallman and Mack Fish
Spring Wharf
Newport, RI
Wickford Shellfish Co.
67 Esmond Avenue
North Kingstown, RI
Yankee Seafood
Galilee, RI
Finn's Shellfish
Water Street
East Greenwich, RI
2. Marinas and Yacht Clubs
Warwick Cove Marina
2 Seminole Road
Warwick, RI
Apponaug Harbor Marina
Arnold's Neck Drive
Warwick, RI
East Greenwich Yacht Club
Water Street
East Greenwich, RI
Service Industries
East Creenwich Divers World
East Greenwich, RI
U.S. Weather Bureau
Green Airport
Warwick, RI
Northeast Marine Pilots
2001 Industrial Bank Bldg.
Providence, RI
R.1I. Divers Assoc.
Elmwood Avenue
Providence, RI
Federal Pilot Assn.
282 Thames Street
Newport, RI
Supply Industries
New England Bilogical Assn.
Houston Avenue
Pt. vuaith, RI
Acme Tackle Co., Inc.
69 Bucklin Street
Providence, RI
Bliss Marine Supply
Post: Road
Warwick, RI
Boatbuilding and Sailmaking
Grumman Allied Industries
West Shore Road
Portsmouth, RI (683-0100)
Stanley's Boatyard
Barton Avenue
Barrington, RI
Thurston Sails, Inc.
4O6 Water Street
Warren, RI
Bristol Yacht Co.
Franklin Street
Bristol, RI
6. Heavy Industry
Naval Underwater Sound Lab
Newport, RI
General Dynamics
Electric Boat Division
- Quonset, RI
Shipyard
Port of Providence
Providence, RI
Gulf Oil
Veterans Memorial Parkway
East Providence, RI
7. eScientific Study
Lafayette Trout Hatchery
Hagchery Road
North Kingstown, RI
Coastal Resources Center
URI School of Oceanography
Narragansett, RI
8+ Salvage and Dredging
R.I. Dredge and Dock Co.
47k4-b Read Avenue
Warren, RI
Refer. to Euel Gibbons, Stalking the Blue Eyed Scallop or Carolyn
Kelley, Carolyn's Seafood Recipes, and prepare some seafood dishes in
conjunction with the Home Economics Department.
ee
-105-
UNIT XVI
MARINE GEOLOGY
I. BATHYMETRIC ANALYSIS
Objective:
To map the depth of a chosen area and compare with published depth
charts.
Materials:
30 meters of line, compass, marine chart for specific area.
Procedure:
Make transects of the area chosen, spaced 30 meters apart. Site a
reference point on shore and use a compass to stay on course. Determine
water depth by using a weighted line about every 30 meters (fix each position
by triangulation). Distances may be altered to suit.
In classroom at any time: using a°chart of the area studied, mark out
each depth from triangulation data and depth data. Note tide and date.
Draw contour lines.
Compare your depth with those published. Be sure to correct your own
values to low tide. Note date of your chart. Explain any differences you
find.
II. BOTTOM MATERIALS ANALYSIS
Objective:
To map the bottom material type of a chosen area.
Materials:
Grab sampler, compass, marine chart of specific area.
Procedure:
Make transects of the area chosen, spaced 30 meters apart. Site a
reference point on shore and use a compass to stay on course. . Determine
bottom type about every 30 meters (fix each position by triangulation).
Distances may be altered to suit. The following classification is suggested:
mud, sand, gravel, rock, shell.
In classroom at any time: using a chert of the area studied, mark the
bottom type(s)°for each point, using triangulation data. Note data. Draw
contour lines.
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115
III. USE OF THE GRAVITATIONAL CORE SAMPLER
Objective:
To learn to use the core sampler; to learn how to classify marine sedi-
ments; to learn to "read" the earth's history from the sample core (i.e. what
do different sediment types indicate).
Materials:
Core sampler, extra clear plastic tubes, chemical test kit for calcium
and silica.
Procedure:
On Water: Load the sampler with a tube and lower the sampler into the
water. Record water depth and location. Raise sampler and recover plastic
tube. Note colors of the layers, if any. (Colors will be noted later after
core has dried, and a comparison made.) Be careful not to dislodge core from
the tube. Tubes will be taken back to the lab for examination of cores.
In the Lab: Remove the core from the tube with a plunger and slice
open before drying is complete. When dry compare colors of layers against
color when wet. Chemically identify as many layers as your teacher chooses.
For example, carry out the chemical tests for calcium and silica.
Questions:
1. What types of organisms are represented?
2. What does the stratification of the core indicate from the geologi-
cal history standpoint?
Teacher Notes:
1. This corer cannot be used in sandy or gravel bottoms.
2. Reference - The Oceans, Sverdrup, et al.
SUPPLEMENTAL PROJECTS
I. BEACH, BAR, AND COASTAL MODELS USING A STREAM TABLE
Objective:
To investigate the effects of waves and longshore currents on sloping
shores.
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116
Materials:
Obtain or make a watertight tray optimum size .94 meters x 1.2 meters
x 10 cm or larger. Tray can be made of marine plywood and sealed on inside
with fiberglass or silicone sealant or tar.
For homemade construction, you will need: 2 lengths of 6.3 mm tub-
ing,90 cm x 122 cm x 1.26 cm sheet of plywood (6PX waterproof plywood),
2 strips of plywood 10 cm x 94 cm x 1.9 cm, 2 strips of’ plywood 10 cm x
126 cm x 1.9 em, rectangular block of wood approximateiy .5 cm, bucket
of sand with variety of grain sizes, bucket to catch water runoff.
Nail 10 cm panels around edge of plywood sheet.
Drill hole in one end of stream table through 10 cm x 22.8 ecm panel,
large enough for 10 cm tubing to fit.
Prop up opposite end with block of wood and pour sand and water in at
end.
t
Procedures:
1. Shoreline
Make any way desired. Land (sand) - vary texture and show
results of erosion.
Move the fan to one side of the stream table and make waves
near the shore.
Sketch a top view of the waves approaching the shoreline.
What happened to the shoreline? In five minutes? In ten minutes?
In fifteen minutes?
Look at the grains of sand in the table. Are all the grains where
the waves washed onto the shore about the same size? Why?
2. Peninsula
Scoop out the sand to make a bay and a peninsula in the shoreline.
Repeat Exercise 1 for 5 minutes.
How did waves affect the peninsula?
3. Tidal Flats
What do tides do to gently sloping shorelines?
What do tides do.to steep shorelines?
-108-
11%
Slowly raise the land end of the stream table 10 cm. When the
water becomes still, slowly lower the table. Repeat this raising
end lowering 10 times.
What happened to the sand when the table was raised and the tide
went out (ebbed)?
What happened to the sand when the tide came in (flowed) as the
table was lowered?
Sketch the changes in the shoreline after the 10 tides have ebbed
and flowed.
Place some stones along the shoreline.
Create tides as above. What happened to the sand when the tide
ebbed? What happened to the sand when the tide flowed?
Describe or sketch the changes in the shoreline after the 10 tides
ebbed and flowed.
4. Coastal terraces
How are coastal terraces formed?
Set up the stream table with a bay and a headland.
Observe the shoreline for 5 minutes as waves wash against it.
How did the straight section of coastline change? How did the
bay coastline change? How did the headland coastline change?
Observe the new coastline as waves wash against it for 5 minutes.
How did the straight section change? How did the bay change?
How did the headland change?
II. PERCOLATION TEST
Purpose:
Determine the relative water content of different zones and elevations.
Procedure:
Remove top and bottom lid of a coffee can. Place the percolation
can at 15 mm depth in the soil or sand being tested.
Rapidly fill the can with sea water and record the time it takes the
water to completely percolate into the soil.
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113
III. PARTICLE DISTRIBUTION ON SANDY BEACHES
Objective:
To study the relationship between particle size and elevation on
several beaches.
Discussion:
In the developmer.t of a sandy beach the natural sorting out of the
material which forms the beach causes certain sized particles to be left at
the top of the slope (farthest from the water) while other sizes are moved
toward the bottom (closest to the water). But, because of the constant
movement of the material by tide and surf action of varying heights and
force, there will be some material of virtually all sizes at any level
along the slope of the beach.
In this exercise students will go to various beaches and sample sand
from at least three spots -- high tide, mid tide, and low tide levels.
They will sort them by particle size and determine if there is any
relation between elevation on a beach and percent particle sizes found there.
If so, why?
Materials:
Collect sand samples from three elevations on selected beaches. Note
the slope of the beaches you work on. Use about a pint-sized can for each
sample and try two-three beaches with slopes of different angles.
Procedure:
Place a moderate quantity of the sample in the top of the stack of
sieves (do not attempt to fill the top sieve). Be sure the sieves are
stacked in order of decreasing size of screen, the largest being on the
top. Be sure the sand is dry.
Shake the sample through the sieves. Remove the material from each
sieve (be careful to get all of it out of each) and place it on a piece
of paper. Number the papers from one through five, with No. 1 being the
largest and No. 5 the smallest.
Weigh each size sample carefully. Add the weights of the size samples
in order to get the total weight. Calculate the percentage of the total
sample represented by each size sample and record on data sheet.
Plot your results on a graph with the percent of total sample on the
vertical axis and the particle size on the horizontal axis. |
References:
Bascom, W. 1964. Waves and Beaches. Anchor Science Study Series,
Doubleday, New York, N.Y.
IV. CORROSION RESISTANCE OF MATERIALS TO ENVIRONMENT
Objective:
To test the corrosion resistance of various materials.
Discussion:
The behavior of materials in a highly corrosive environment is well
understood. The behavior of materials (coatings, specifically) in the in-
vironment of space is much more subtle. The action of water vapor, trace
amounts of various chemicals, ultraviolet radiation, and various gases can
play a part in the degradation of a coating. The properties of these
materials may change drastically after prolonged exposure. This laboratory
exercise is open-ended and goes on for an extended period of time. Periodic
inspection is required. e
Materials:
corrosion test chambers
materials to be tested
salt water.
Procedure:
Put salt water in jar. Attach to stopper several strips of metal or
rods. These may be coated with various test materials. Suspend the strips
or rods in the water. Store jars in areas with different temperatures.
Students should be allowed to make their’own combinations. They
should note any changes which have occurred. Stress to them that this ex-
periment takes time.
Record the following:
1. Salinity of test water.
2. Type:.of test material.
3. Date experiment began.
V.. OCEAN FLOOR SPREADING
Objective:
To study how the ocean floor changes using a model.
Discussion:
The ocean floors are known to be moving slowly away from ridges like the
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120
one that bisects the Atlantic Ocean (the Mid-Atlantic Ridge) as molten rock
rises into the ridges to fill the gaps. When looking at the ridges, one
observes they are not cont
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