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WAR DEPARTMENT
Report 834
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EFFICIENCY OF STANDARD ARMY WATER PURIFICATION
EQUIPMENT AND OF DIATOMITE FILTERS IN REMOVING
CYSTS OF ENDAMOEFBA HISTOLYTICA FROM WATER
3 July 1944
TECHNICAL STAFF
THE ENGINEER BOARD
Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army
Fort Belvoir, Virginia
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NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
Report &34
EFFICIENCY OF STANDARD ARMY WATER PURIFICATION EQUIPMENT
AND OF DIATOMITE FILTERS IN REVOVING CYSTS
OF BNDAMOEPA HISTOLYTICA FROM WATER
Projest WSS 346
3 July 1944
Submitted to
THE ENGINEER BOARD
Fort Beivoir, Virginia
and/‘or
The Chief of Engingers
Us Se Army t
a
Washington, De CO»
SE SSE TO UTES 2 8 SR
by
Water Supply Equipment Bransh
Technical Division III
The Engineer Board
Fort Belvoir, Virginia
and
National Institute of Heala
Rare |
Ue Se Fublic Health Service
This document contains information affecting the
national defense of the United States within the meaning
of the Espionage Ast, 50 U. S. C., 31 and 32, as amaded.
Its transmission or the revclation of its contents in any
manner to an wauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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TABLE OF GONTENTS |
Sostion neha Poze
SYLLABUS : v
I SUBJECT 1
l. Scope 1
it AUTHCRITY y
2. Authority +
ait INVESTIGATION a
3S» Introcuetion
4, Equinmment and Apvaratus
Ss Tests
we to
iy DISOUSS TON 16
6, Chjantive 15
Ve Booxsround 15
8B. Tost? with Standard Rouipners 13
9, Bxpeviamts witk Diutoaite Fiiters 24
¥ GONCE UB TONE 28
IQ. Soneiusions 23
VI REO MM ENDAT IONS ; 28
ll, Recommencotioas 22
Appendix
A AUTHORITY 33
B TEST REEVLTS DATA SHEETS 5S
C SAND ANALYSIS 85
~ili-~
FA, Ge
AS
as "
At Ae ;
A:
ON
- aig? Intro uetion. ‘This puna covers a study. of th
moval of the cysts oi Endamocba histolytica from water by presi
type filtration. The work was was conducted Ta Re: tion ise
National thao of Health, :
b. Equipment. — The study treated henbins was divided e
two major phasss: Mg
. (1) Tests ave the U. Se Army Portable Water Purif i:
cation Unit, Model 1940, both with and without Laks mé
of the raw wat tere a
(2) Tests using several tyres of Giatorascous” silic
filters including the UJ, §. Army Pertable Water Purifica
it converted for use with diatomaceous silica. Ns
2. Resvits. The results of this stvdy show thats
Qe The somoiete remx7al of cyst
is not accomplished with tie send fliser
24
Water Purification Unit when operated
field use,
b. Sedimentation alone fer shor’ pericds is not offeot
in removing cysts from wate:’.
Co The total number of cysts in a ‘gueteiey of water ais
reduced by good coaguiation and sedimentation.
d. Pressure type filters using any of the Ciatomaceous
jean iter aids oo ed in the study will renove oyote
Somoeba histolytica
LP TO TS OT OER
- &+ Tho combination of . pretreatmeit, sedimentation, ; ond
filtration gives ‘results considerably. Dotter than. fiitcation
~@lmes ~. ::
3. Recomiendatiune, In view of the findings of this etudy |
the removal of cysts of Endemoeba histo} iytico, from water, it is
recommended that:
10 gallons per minute as a maximum, and that this output be
further reduced to not greater than 7.5 gallons per minute
whenever possible.
be. The output of the U. S. Army Mobile Water Purification
Unit, Model 1940, be reduced from 75 gallons per minute to 60
gallons per minute as a maximum, and that this output be further
reduced to not greater than 45 gallons per minute whenever possible.
{It must be understood that this reduction in output, while
increasing the factor of safety, does not mean that complete re-
moval of the cysts of Endamoeba histolytica is assured by adherence
to the procedure coc
ce Me hour of detention be provided for coagulating,
settling and prechlorinating all raw water without exception
prior to filtration through either of the sand units.
ade Field water quality control equipment be supplied to
all mits in. the field, which shall, among other things, provide
equipment for conducting jar tests end for the evaluation of the
efficiency of filtration in terms of turbidity removal.
&. The study of diatomaceous silica now being conducted
by the Ingineer Board be continued to the end of determining the
; feasibility of the adoption of diatomaceous silica filtration
equipment to replace the sand filters now in use. :
f£. Studies of the epidemiology of amoebic dysentery in
the armed forces of the United Nations be encouraged, and the
reports from the field be examined to determine the magnitude
of the part that water may be playing in the dissemination of
amoebic dysentery.
=“Vi-
F DIATOM
Do “Fa
ay SoMOeE TR oe aT
Ne ve mere
“SUBJECT. et
1. - Scope. This report dovers a study’ of’ the efficiency of
standard: Army water purification - equipment and of. diatomite filters
. in removing ‘cysts of Endamoeba histolytica from water. Included is a
summary of. the work completed to date, descriptions and photographs of
. the equipment used, and recommendations relative both to the develop-
ment of new equipment and sa changes ai the techiiques of operating
oe en.
ty AUTHORITY”
* Authority. Authority for initiating rn study of the effi-
pe, of filtration in removing cysts of Endamoeba histolytica from
water is contained in a letter from the Chief of Rgineers to the
Engineer’ Board dated 19 March 1943, file SPESD, subject: Study of
Effectiveness of Army Purification Methods in Removing Cysts of
Endamoeba histolytica. In this letter the Board was directed to
cooperate with the Surgeon General's Office ‘end the National Institute
of ‘Health in a program for the study of the. removal of the cysts of
Endamoeba histolytica. A copy oF this letter is contained in Appendix ee
III, INVESTIGATION
Se Introduction. ‘There is no record in the eoknd eal” 'tfterks
ture of a previous ‘study of the removal of cysts of Endemoeba histolytica
from water by pressure type filtration. Filtration ‘studies of this
general type have been conducted by Baylis, Gullars,; and Spector”, but
their work was confined to gravity head filters and operation at lower
filtration rates than those *covered in this study. The “work done in
- this study with diatomacéous silica has no precedent. This study was
meth etec ‘after Sa by Brady, Jones, and Newton? as well as other
r ge Re roe remy O. Gullans, and B. K. Spector, “The Efficiency of
Rapid Sand Filters in Removing the Cysts of the amoebic Dysentery Or-
genisms, from Water," Public Health Report 51 (Nov. 13, 1936), 1567-1575;
., BeKs, Spector, J.R.» Baylis, and 0. Gullans, "Effectiveness ‘of Filtration
An: Removing. from Water, and. of Chlorine in Killing, the Causative Orga-
nism of: Amoebic. Dysentery,” Public Health Report 49 (uly 6,1934),7&6-800. —
2 Fe. J» Brady, Myrna F, Jones, and W. L.» Newton, ‘trffect of Chlori-
nation of Water on Viability of Cysts. of Endamoeba api War
"ela vII Pept Diba 409~ 419.0 ' a
investigators had indicated that normal dosages of chlorine cannot
be depended upon to destroy amoebic cysts. It was desired to de-
termine the efficiency of standard Army water purification processes
and equipment. in Sate cysts ner Endamoeba. SNR A aa water.
4. Bquipment and ‘Nepaveetes
a. Sand Filter. The sand filter unit used in the tests
hereinafter described is a U. §. Army Portable Water Purifica-
tion Unit, Model 1940. Essentially, the wit consists of a
gasoline engine-driven centrifugal pump, a pressure filter, a
belt-driven hypochlorinator, an alum and soda ash feed assembly,
and necessary hose with fittings (Figure 1). The filter con-
sists of an inclosed monel metal tank (17-inch inside diameter);
outlet piping, control valves, pressure gages, and an internal
collecting and distributing system. The filter bed consists of
18 inches of graded sand, effective size of 0.36 mn, uniformity
coefficient of 1.35, resting on four inches of fine gravel. An
analysis of the sand used is shown in Figure 54, Appendix C,
. While the characteristics of the sand as specified are given in
'. Figure 55, Appendix C. A perforated monel plate separates the
sand and gravel. For these tests the filter bed of 1.57 square
- feet of surface was replaced for each test with new sand. The
coagulants of ammonium alum and soda ash are fed into the raw
water at the pump suction from two differential pressure pots
operating across a venturi throat. The -chlorinator was used
during these tests as a constant feeding device for the feed-
ing of cysts to the raw water. No chlorine was used in any of
the tests. A 1/4-inch line was tapped into the pump suction
end equipped with a quick-opening pétcock for batch application
of cysts.
b. Diatomaceous Silica Filters, The following diatomaceous
Silica filters were used in this study:
(1) Stoneheart Engineering Company, ilodel SF-1, 0.125
gpm. This unit consists of a reservoir and a pressure
filter containing a §toneheart porous filter element 0.125
square feet in area (Figure 2). The filter is suspended from
the reservoir by 30 inches of 1/4-inch plastic-coated fabric
hose equipped with a Shut-off clamp. The wit utilizes the
bona head to force the water from the reservoir betes. the
liter.
i (2). Wallace and Tiernan Company, Incorporated, Model
G2, 40 gph. This mit’ is likewise of the gravity. type, being
$0 constructed as to provide a maximum head of 5 feet (Figure
5). The filter element _used in this unit is a monel metal
screen.
1 hla 5% Fe ne and Boieans: ieee wacenias' Model 2Ms,
60-100 gph. This filter consists-of a filter shell containing
me
So
&@ wire screen element 2 square feet in area, a hand-
operated pump mounted on the filter head, and a body feed
assembly (Figure 4). Provision is made for recirculating |
the water used to precoat the unit.
(4) S. F. Bowser and Compeny, Incorporated, hiodel
1.5C, 60-100 gph. This wnit is identical with the earlier
model 2MS with the exception of the element, which in this
case is a porous carbon element 1.5 square feet in area,
(5) International Pilter Company, Incorporated, Model
SW 1/8, 0.375 gpm. The model SW 1/8 is a laboratory test
assembly consisting of a glass filter shell containing a
Stellar element 0.125 square feet in area and a small elec-
tric motor-driven pump (Figure 5). The Stellar element used
‘is identical in design and construction with elements in
diatomaceous silica filters used by the British Army.
(6) Naval Medical Research Institute Experimental Model.
This gravity type unit consists of a vinylite bag in which is
mounted a porous carbon disc of 8 square inches in area. The
wumit may be rolled up and carried in one's pocket.
(7) Stoneheart Ingineering Company, Model SF-X1, 20
gpm. This mit consists of a filter shell and head assembly,
four Stoneheart ceramic filter elements totaling 8.8 square
feet in area, a gasoline-engine-driven centrifugal pump, a
turbine pump connected to the same engine, an electrically-
driven body feed pump. a precoat tank and a hypochlorinator
(Figure 6). In this study, only the filter section and pre-
coat tank were used, The treatment section of a U. Se Army
Portable Water Purification Unit was used to pump the raw
water.
(8) U. S- Army Portable Water Purification Unit, Model
1940, Converted for Use with Diatomaceous Silica. A filter
of the same type as used in the tests with sand was converted
for use with diatomaceous silica (Figure 7). This wmit con-
tained 6.6 square feet of filtering surface consisting of
three aluminum oxide filter elements. the body treatment
was added through the pump suction and was controlled by a
simple valve and sight glass assembly.
Cs Settling Tanks. Two sizes of sedimentation tanks were
used in this study: first, a 2500-gallon steel tank measuring
8 feet in diameter; and, second, a U. S- Army 3000-gallon canvas
tank measuring 11.25 feet in diameter. The latter tank is stan-
dard issue with all purification mits in the field (Figure 8).
d. Metering and Sampling. A Pittsburgh water meter (No.
3399864) was used to determine al! output rates above 5 gallons
wine
per minute, and a system of outlet taps installed in the dis-
charge line permitted the simultaneous coliection of the
several samples.
e. Chemical Analyses. The pH determinations at the
filter were made with a standard comparator supplied with the
U. S. Army Portable Water Purification Unit. The pH determina=-
tions in the laboratory were made with a Beokmann pH meters
All chemical analyses were conducted in accordance with standard
methods »
f. Preparation of and Examination for the Organism. The
NRS strain of Bndamoeba histolytica was used Throughout these
tests because cysts could be prepared with relative ease and be-
cause its size, averaging 15.2 m + 2 p, corresponds to the large,
more pathogenic strain of E,. histolytica, To procure the oysts,
amoebae maintained on egg Slant cultures with an overlay of
Stone's modification of Locke's solution were transferred to
tubes of a similar medium containing a small amowmt of rice
starch. After 72 hours of incubation with this medium, the
eysts were harvested, washed in distilled water, and stored in
the refrigerator at least 24 hours before use. Estimates of
the numbers of cysts were made with the use of the Fuchs~Rosenthal
counting chamber, while the identification and counting of the
cysts present in the effluent samples were made in a Scdgwick-
Rafter comting cell. ;
5. Tests. The tests covered by this repors consisted essen~
tially of introducing a predetermined number of systs of the NRS
strain into the raw water, passing this water through filters, and
collecting samples of the effluent at regular intervals for misro-
scopic examination. When preliminary treatment consisting of coagu-
lation and sedimentation was emploved, a uniform suspension of oysts
in the water to be treated was obtained by introducing the organism
into the water at a constant rate during the period that the settling
tank was being filled. Chemical and basterial analyses of the influent
and effluent of a number of tests were made as an additional control.
Operation of equipment and chemical analyses were performed by the
Technical Staff of the Ingineer Board Water Supply Equipment Bransh;
the incubation and harvesting of the cysts and the microscopic exami-
nation were performed at the National Institute of Health.
In general, the method used for the examinations of water
samples for cysts was as follows: Samples of effluent waters were
allowed to settle in a cool place for 18 to 24 hours, The super-
natant was then gently siphoned off and the remainder placed in
smaller bottles. To these containers, ammonium alum and soda ash
were added, and the containers were left in the cold room over night,
The supernatant was again siphoned off and the remainder placed in
5O-cc centrifuge tubes. By centrifugation, the sediment from eash
tube was again concentrated. One or two oi+is centimeters of W/10
oxalic acid were added to redissolve the cocgulum and the velume
ode
nel
————o |
a —
i
*uoTzeiedo Joy petquessy °Ov6T IHGOW ‘LINO NOILVOIAIUNd UALYM AIGVLNOd AWHY “S “O “T “Dla
FIG. 2. GRAVITY TYPE DIATOMITE
FILTER. Stoneheart Engineering
Company, Model SF-1,
FIG. 3. GRAVITY TYPE DIATOMITE
FILTER, Wallace and Tiernan
FIG, 4. HAND-OPERATED DIATOMITE FILTER, S, F. Bowser and
Company, Inc., Model 2MS,
FIG, 5, STELLAR DIATOMITE FILTER, Infilco Inc., Model SW 1/8,
==
*BOTTTS snosowmoyetp YyTM esn JoJ payteauog *O76T THCOW ‘LINO NOILVOIAIUNd YALYM AIavIuUOd AWAY “Ss “1 “4 om
-)0—
was made up to 5 or 10 ce with distilled water, One-cc samples from _
these tubes were taken and mixed with one drop of one vercent iodine
in a Sedgwick-Rafter counting cell. The area of the chamber was
examined by the use of the low (10x) and intermediate power (20x)
objectives of a compound microscope. The amount of material examined |
was determined to a great extent by the amount of sediment present.
All doubtful objects were recorded as cysts only when two observers
Were agreed as to their being cysts.
The testing program was scheduled as follows;
ae Tests with Standard Equipment
(1) Operation of U. S. Army Portable Water Purifica-
tion Unit, Model 1940, at 15 gpm without Pretreatment. The
first group of three tests was conducted on the portable
send filter to determine its efficiency in the removal of
the amoebic cysts wuder several conditions of operation.
An initial output of 15 gpm, representing a flow rate of
9.6 gpm per square foot of area, was used throughout this
first group of tests. The three conditions represented
were as follows;
(a) Filtration without treatment.
(>) Filtration with insufficient or impr apes
coagulation,
(c) Filtration with good coagulation. .
In each of these tests, the filter was operated wmtil a
schmutzdecke had been formed before the cysts were intro- _
duced in a batch through the pump suction. the period
required to introduce the cysts and wash down the intake
funnel did not exceed 30 seconds. The results show that,
while the efficiency of the unit in removing amoebic cysts
is somewhat proportionel to the quality of the treatment,
the removal of cysts of Endamoeba histolytica, even under
‘ideal conditions, is not obtained wien the unit is operated |
at 9.6 gom per square foot.
(2) Operation of U. §. Army Portable Water Purification
Unit, Model 1940, at 10 gpm without Pretreatment. The
second series of tests consisted of two tests designed to
determine the efficienoy of the portable sand unit in re~
moving amoebic cysts when operated at the output rate of 10
gpm. This output represents a flow rate of 6.35 gpm per
square foot. In this series of tests, every available con-
trol was utilized to obtain ideal operating conditions for
the tests. Cysts were intredtised in a batch in the first
test, whereas they were fed ttsough the hypochlorinator at
a uniform rate in the seconi test. A marked improvement was
whi
noted in the efficiency of the mit in removing amoebic cysts
over the results obtained at the higher flow rate.
(3) Operation of U. S. Army Portable Water Purification
Unit, Model 1940, at 10 gpm Following Coagulation and Sedi-
mentation. The third and final series of tests conducted
with the portable sand filter consisted of three tests de-
signed to determine the efficiency of pretreatment, followed
by filtration, in removing amoebic cysts from water. In the
first of these tests, cysts were introduced in the raw water
and the water was allowed to settle without coagulants for
one hour. The supernatant was then passed through the port-
able sand filter at the rate of 6.35 gpm per square foot.
Microscopic examination of samples of both the settled water
and the filter effluent indicated that settling for one hour
without coagulants, while reducing the number of cysts pre-
sent, does not remove cysts from water. The other tests of
this series were conducted in like manner, with the exception
that coagulants were employed, and in one case the detention
period was extended to two hours. A marked reduction in the
concentration of amoebic cysts ‘by the process of coagulating
and settling was noted.
b. Experiments with Diatomite Filters
(1) Experiment I-D, Stoneheart Engineering Company,
Model SF-1. The purpose of this test was to determine the
efficiency of diatomaceous silica in removing amoebic cysts
from water. Because of the absence of previous studies of
this material, the results could in no way be anticipated.
Therefore, this test was in the neture of a trial rm de-
Signed to act as a guide for further work with diatomaceous
Silica. For this test, 350,000 cysts of Fndamoeba histolytica
were added to one gallon of tap water to which clay had been
added, the water was passed through the filter, and the entire
gallon of effluent was subjected to microscopic examination.
A complete absence of amoebic cysts in the effluent was noted.
A grade of diatomaceous silica sold wmder the trade name of
Sorbo-Cel by Johns-NManville, Inc., was used in the amount of
12.5 pounds per 100 square feet of filtering surface for the
precoat. No slurry feed was used.
(2) Experiment 2-D, Wallace and Tiernan Company, Inc.,
Model G2. The filter-aid used in this test was a commercial
product which had received a special treatment by the manu-
facturer of the filter. A precoat of this material was
applied in an amount equivalent to 10 powmds per 100 square
feet of filtering surface. A concentration of 6000 cysts
per gallon was prepared in 50 gallons of Potomac River water
end a uniform suspension maintainei by agitation. The pre-.
coat was applied with the contamirated water. From the six
gallons of effluent examined, thiree cysts were recovered.
he
a
)
Pee
(3) Experiment 3-D, S. F, Bowser and Company, Ince,
Model 2M§. Using Potomac River water to which amoebic
| |
cysts hed been added in the concentration of 6000 cysts
per gallon, a precoat of Johns-Manville Celite Suner-Cel
was applied by recirculating the precoat water for a period
of two minutes. The precoat of 3 owmces of the filter-aid
was computed on the basis of 9.38 powmds per 100 square feet
of filtering surface, while the body treatment was applied
at the rate of 20 ppm, equivalent to 1 ppm of filter aid for
each part of turbidity. A “break through" occurred after
8.25 minutes of filtering, following the loss of the pump
suction. This allowed the flow to cease momentarily, thus
dropping the cake. Subsequent testing, which is not a pers
of the work covered by this report, indicated that wire
cloth elements such as are used in this mit are not len
generally satisfactory for the filtration of water. Prior Rut
to the “break through", no cysts were recovered from the :
effluent samples.
(4) Experiment 4-D, S. F. Bowser and Company, Inc.,
Model 1.5C, Tap water to which 25 ppom of chlorine had ‘
been added was recirculated through the unit for two , Ee
minutes. The filter and water was then dechlorinated with “
sodium thiosvlphate. Using this water, a precoat of Johns- e
Manville Sorbo-Cel was applied over a two-minute period.
. The precoat was computed on the basis of 10 pouds per 100
) square feet of filtering surface. No body treatment was —
. ' used. After precoating, the suction hose was changed to a
tank of Potomac River water containing 10,000 cysts per
. gailon and the filtering cycle begim, After 11 minutes
of filtering, the pump was stopped, and a slight back flow
was introduced to facilitate the dropping of the precoat,
Pumping was then resumed and the effluont discharged to
waste for 50 seconds, at which time the effluent was again
clear. No cysts were recovered from the effluent samples.
(5) Experiment 5-D, International Filter Company,
Inc., Model SW 1/8. Using Potomac River water containing
6000 cysts per gallon, a precoat of Johns-Manville Sorbo-
/ Cel was applied in the amount of 15 pounds per 100 square
) . feet of filtering surface. After filtering for approxi-
! mately 27 minutes at the initial rate of 2 gpm per square
foot, the pump was stopped and the cake allowed to drop at
from the element. The pvmp was then restarted and the ea
filter operated to waste for one minute, The flow rate ie
was set at 4 gpm per square foct for this second phase of
the test. No cysts were recovered from the effluent samples.
(6) Experiment 6-D, Nas” Medical Research Institute,
Model X- & precoat of Johns “taville Serbo-Cel in the
amount of 36 pounds per 100 square feet was applied, using
uncontaminated tap water. After precoating, 4110 cc of
elf
Potomac River water, containing 10,000 to 12,000 cysts per }
gallon, were filtered. All of the effluent was collected |
and examined. No cysts were recovered. The procedure was
repeated, using activated silver filter-aid in the amount of
15 pomds per 100 square feet. No cysts were recovered.
(7). Experiment 7-D, Stoneheart Engineering Company
Wodel SF“XI. In view of the excellent results obtained with
small mits, tests on a larger scale were attempted. for
this purpose the filter and precoat sections of the Model
SF-XI were used in conjmetion with the pumping section of
a U- S. Army Portable Water Purification Unit. The precoat
of Johns-Manville Sorbo-Cel was computed on the basis of 17
pounds per 100 square feet of filtering surface, and was
applied by recirculating Potomac River water to which 225,000
cysts had been added. The amoumt of water required to fill
the unit for recirculation was 35 gallons. Body treatment
was applied during the rum at the constent rate of 170 ppm,
this rate being equivalent to 2:5 ppm of body treatment for
each part of raw water turbidity. Cysts were applied through
the hypochlorinator at the constant rate of 4500 cysts per
gallon of influent. The engine stopped for no apparent reason
after six minutes of filtering. Although the engine was re-
started almost immediately, the presence of a quantity of
diatomaceous silica in the effluent for approximately one
minute after restarting indicated that some of the precoat
had been disturbed by the slight reverse flow set up when the
engine stopped. Of the 17 gallons of effluent examined, ola
Seven cysts were found in the samples taken during the early
portion of the rium.
(8) Experiment 8-D, U. S. Army Portable Water Purifica-
tion Unit, Model 1940 Converted for Use with Diatomaceous
Silica, (E. B. Model SFC-1). This mit was converted from
a standard sand filter by personnel of the Engineer Board
following, in general, the fundamental principles of the
Stoneheart Engineering Company unit, Model SF+Xl. For this
test a precoat of Johns-Manville Celite Sorbo-Cel was applied
over a 5-minute period by recirculating 30 gallons of Potomac
River water to which no cysts had been added. A secondary
precoat. consisting of one-half pound of Sorbo-Cel and one-
quarter pound of Nuchar F.A.N. was then applied in like
manner over a period of two minutes. The original precoat
was computed on the basis of 15 powds of filter-aid per 100
square feet of filtering surface. The body feed was regu-
lated to give a constant addition of 120 ppm of filter aid,
this being equivalent to 6 parts of body treatment for each
part of raw water turbidity. The precoat was applied at the
rate of 4.1 gpm per square foot of filtering surface while
the filtering rate over the 25-minvwto rum varied between 3.68
end 2.55 gpm per square foot. The cysts were applied at a
constent rate of 8600 cysts per gallon. In the six gallons
~jL4ue
of effluent examined, one cyst was found; this cyst
appeared in the first five gallons of effluent.
(9) Experiment 9-D, U..S. Army Portable Water Purifi-
cation Unit, Model 1940 Converted for Use with Diatomaceous
Silica (E. B. Model SFC-1). This test was quite similar to
Experiment 8-D, described above. A precoat of Jonns-
Manville Celite Sorbo-Cel was applied by recirculating 30
gallons of Potomac River water to which no cysts had been
added. The precoat of one powd of filter-aid was calcu-
lated on the basis of 15 powmds of filter-aid per 100
square feet of filtering surface, and was applied at the
rate of 2.5 gpm per square foot, while the filtering rate
over the 25-minute rum varied between 4.2 and 3.6 gpm per
square foot. The body feed was regulated to maintain a
minimum rate of pressure rise, 0.65 pound being used in
the 25 minutes of operating time. The cysts were added at
a constant rate of 1935 cysts per gallon of influent over
the first 18 minutes of this operation, at the end of which
time the supply of the organism was exhaustede In the six
gallons of effluent examined, no cysts of Endameba histolytica
were recovered.
2 (10) Experiments 10-D through 13-D, Inclusive, U. S.
Army Portable ‘ater Purification Unit, Model 1940. Converted
for Use with Diatomaceous Silica (H. B. Model SFC-1). The
majority of the tests with diatomaceous silica as outlined
above were conducted with a grade of filter-aid sold by
Jonns-Menville under the trade name of Celite Sorbo~Cel.
The purpose of these tests was to determine if the removal
of amoebic cysts from water can be accomplished with all
grades of material including the highest flow rate filter-
aids available. The four filter-aids considered were
Celite Super-cel, Hyflo Super-cel, Celite Sorbo-Cel and
Celite 545 was processed by Johns-ilanville. Both Celite
Super-cel and Celite Sorbo-Cel were used in some of the
tests previously discussed, Hyflo Super-cel is currently
used by the British Army, and Celite 545 is one of the two
highest flow rate materials available. With each filter-
aid in turn, the precoat was applied at the rate of 15
pounds per 100 square feet of filtering surface. After
precoating, the unit was then sterilized in each instance
with sufficient chlorine to give an orthotolidine reading
in excess of 100 ppm in the precoat water, dechlorinated
with sodium thiosulphate, and checked for residual chlorine
with orthotolidine. Filtration was then started, the cysts
being added in a batch through the pump suction over a
period of 30 seconds at the beginning of the filtering
operation. One cyst wes resovered from the effluent sauples
of each of the tests with So~t0-Cel and with Hyflo Super-cel,
whereas the results of the tesss with Super-cel and with
Celite 545 show that no cysts were recovered from the effluent
erie
‘ cannot be evaluated at this time. It would appear that such an evalu=-
samples. It was noted that Celite 545 ranoved the cysts of |
Endemoeba histolytioa notwithstanding the fact that the
maserial is so coarse as to permit the passege of a con= |
siderable amowmt of turbidity.
IV. DISCUSSION
6. Objestive. The objective of this study was to determine
the efficiency of standard Army water purification equipment in re-
moval of cysts of Fudamoeba histolytica from water, and, in the
event that present ediipment proved unsatisfastory, to investigate
the effestiveness cf both new operating procedures and new typos of
equipment in remcving ancoebic cysts from waters
7. Backgremd, Data are not available which permit an evalu-
ation of the relative impertance of water, as compared with other
modes of trensmission, in the cissemination of amcedic dysentery.
Ta the United States, outbreaks of water-borne anoebiasis were reo
corded a decade ago. However, the absence of data in no way exoludes
the possibility cf water boing en inpertent mecinum of trananission of
amoebic dysomtery under certain favorable monditions. The largest
outbreak of amoebiasis known to have occurred was that in Chisago in
1953. It was thought thet 160,900 psrsons were oxposed to the ine
fection by means ot a contaminated diinking waters supriys cl tais
number it is know that 1,409 vases of the disease developed, with
938 fatalities. No conourrent cases of other infectious enteric
diseases occurred in the exposed group, apparentiy besause an ade~
quate chlorine residual was mainteined in the contaminated waver
supply to kill the pathogenic enteric bacteria. This water-borne
epidemis shows clearly that severe infections caa be acquired from
the consumption of water lacking a notiveably disagreeable taste end
odor. Brinker shows a hypothetical case that a chlorinated but un=
filtered mmisipal water in Bogota, Colombia, might contain over
1,900 cysts of Endemveba histolytica in each liter of distributed
ater. Thus a chicrinated water regarded as potable by the usual
physical standards and bacteriological examinations can be responsible
for infeations with EF. histolytica. The inherent difficulties of oul-
turing Ee histolytica end of cifferentiating it from free living amoebae
have prohibited the isolation end, therefore, the envmeration of these
orgenisms in raw water,
The degree of hazard of acquiring amoeviasis amorg troops
ation could be made only by detailed epidemiological methods that are
difficult to use under combat conditions. Peacotime experience has
taught that the strains of amoebae occurring in the Pasific and India-
Burma=China theatres are particularly virulent, and that these amoebae
are harbored by high proportions of the natives. The cysts must |
commonly be present in the surfase waters of whese areas, The poten=
tiel threat of water-borne amoebiasis is fursher enphagsised by the
recent work of Brady, Jones, and Newtoa shewing that prastical dosages
im
a
ig
ne
of
f
a
q
ia
“16
of chlorine do not necessarily destroy the cysts of E. histolytica.
One of the most important requirements that a water puri-
fication mit must meet to be satisfactory for military use in the
field is that the ratio of the quantity of water produced to the
weight of the mit must be high. Of equal, and perhaps of greater,
importance is the wncontested requirements that the water produced
be both palatable and safe. With the use of sand as the filtering
Medium, experience has shown that the two requirements above are
uncompromisingly opposed, one to the other. With few exceptions,
the ratio of the weight of a sand filter to its filtering area is a
fixed quantity of considerable magnitude. It is therefore necessary
to resort to high flow rates to obtain a satisfactory ratio of output
to weight. In civilian practice it has been found that flow rates of
from two to three gallons per minute per square foot of filtering
surface represent the maximum rates for satisfactory results. It
will be noted that these flow rates are used only after carefully
controlled pretreatment of the raw water. Present sand filters
used by the armed forces of the United States are operated at flow
rates varying between 6 and 10 gpm per square foot of filtering sur-
face while handling raw water which has received inadequate pretreat-
mente It has been necessary with the use of sand, therefore, to
sacrifice quality for greater output. The wisdom of permitting high
flow rates in the sand filters now in use has been open to question
for some time, but little or no testing hes teen previously conducted
to evaluate the effect of these high flow rates on the quality of the
water produced.
The use of diatomatcous silica as e filtering medium for
water does not represent a new basic idea. Tquipment for water fil-
tration using Kieselguhr, an wmrefined form of diatomaceous silica,
was tested by the United States Army at Carlisle Barracks in 1938.
The equipment at that time consisted of a canvas duck element on
which the Kieselguhr was deposited. Both the Kieselguhr and the
element available were not suitable for water filtration; hence,
the equipment tested was not satisfactory. Since 1930, great strides
have been made in the processing of diatomite. tiethods have been
developed to obtain filter aids having almost any desired characteris-
tic, and at the same time increasing both the efficiency and flexi-
bility of the material far beyond anything obtained with the original
Kieselguhr. These materials are today being used in the filtration of
such commercial products as paint, oil, sugar and alcoholic beverages.
However, except in rare instances where filter-aid has been used to
"polish" tap weter, diatomaceous silica has not been used extensively.
for water filtration. One of the contributing factors to this condi-~
tion has been the difficulty of obtaining an element possessing the
necessary permeability, porosity, strength, and backwash characteris-
tics for water filtration. Early in 1943, the Stoneheart Ingineering
Company (now merged with Titeflex, Inccporated) presented a pilot
model filtering wmit to the Ingineer Pos-d which apparently was rea-
sonably satisfactory for weter filtration. Using a special filter aid
processed by Johns-Manville, this unit was tested at the laboratories
a a
(Cl TNE ere
ee, Cee ee ee SS ee maaan Ser oe
ote > Do row Sere
>) ( Rie te eS
of the Engineer Board at Fort Belveir, Virginia. This unis, among
others, was used in tie tests covered by this report.
Of particular interest is the development of diatomaceous
silica filtration equipmer:t overseas. Within the past decade, a mit
known as the Stellar filter has been developed in England. This cia-
tomaceous silica mit, constructed in several sizes, is now standard
equipment in the British Army. There are indisations thet some of
these units have been operated by American forces etationed in Ingland.
The Italians purchased some of the early units built in England, and i%
is possible that the equipment was used in the Ethiopian campaign.
Stellar units, operated by Australian forces, have bem tsed in the
Southwest Pacifie Area. Dintomaceous silica filtvation equipment is
used by both Canedian and New Zeaiend troops, Canaidieau trecpa have
also used sand filters similar to the U, 8. Army Portable Water Puri-
fication Unit, Medel 1940, Filter aids used by the Eritish are pur-
chased in this cowmtry from Johns-Manville and from the Disalite
Company.
Because of the wmpresedented requirements fcr filtration
equipment for our widely dispersed forses in the Scuthwest Pasifie
Area, © number of diatomaceous silice units have Leen supplied to our
forcese Vhis filter, kzowa as the Mollinite Filter, liedel H&1, was
developed by the Fletcher Chenical Company (Aust.), Pty, Lod,
Victoria, Australin. While it is urderstoal thet thie uzit preduces
relatively good results, further develooment of the meshenical details
eppears to be neceurary oefore the uuit can be corsidered satisfactory
for goneral field use.
8. Tests with Stancerd Nauinmont. The Ue 3. Army Portahle Water
Purification lait, Medel 1920, way uyed in the experiments concvoted
with send filtration, It is lcgieally assumed thet the results obtained
also apply te the U. S. Army Mobile Water Purificction Unit, Mudel 1940,
which, except in size, is similar to the smaller mit, The recommende-
tions of this report relative to the mobile unit are based on this
assumption,
«.. 31 Jest 1. Operation at Rated Capacity without Coagnlanis.
(See Figure 9,) Tie sigiivicence of this tess lies in the fac
that cysts passed the filter in very large numbers, snowing con-=
clusively that the sand bed alone cennot be expected so remove
cysts with operation at rated capacity. The water used in this
test was obtained from the Fort Belvoir water supply and contained
scnsiderahle iron from correding mains,
be. Pest Il, Operation at Rated Capasity with Coazulants.
(See Figures (0 and il.) this test was conducted an suvh menner
as to parallel methods currently used in the field. wWeter wes
pumped through the filter with the addition of Goagulants in
sufficient quentity to produce a "slear" effluent, The effluent
pH was thon determined end this pH maw: tine throvgneuwt the
operation, A reasonably clear effluer.. wes obtained, but the
vi
4
an 3 } eRe ; : j ;
; ie } Rs ue
total amount of water produced was low because the filter
_ plugged rapidly. An after-floce was visible in the effluent
_ during more than half of the operation, and the pH control was
- extremely difficult. The raw water, having very little buffer-
ing action, added to the difficulties in the use of color stan~
dards for pH control, It will be noted that cysts passed the
filter during the first part of the operation in the same general
order as in Test I, when no coagulants were used. No cysts were
recovered at flow rates below 3 gpm per square foot. Cysts
passed the filter with considerable ease while the effluent re-
mained relatively clear. It is therefore apparent that removal
of cysts is not necessarily a function of turbidity removal.
c. Test III, Operation at Rated Capacity with Coagulants.
(See Figures 12, 13, and 14.) Bvery control porn for field
operation was employed in this test. The raw water was obtained
from the Potomac River just prior to the tests; jar tests were
conducted to obtain the optimum coagulant dosages; pH determina~
tions were made at one minute intervals; and the pump speed was
not changed during the operation. Notwithstanding the attempt
to provide ideal operating conditions and controls, cysts passed
the filter. The increased turbidity and high plate counts in
Samples 31, 32, and 33 indioate o break through of the filter
bed after 25 minutes of the test operation. A close correlation
is noted between effluent turbidity and bacterial removal, while
cysts passed the filter in the greatest number when the effluent
turbidity was lowest. The presence of after floc in Samples Sl,
32, and 33 was due to insufficient time for complete flocculation
ahead of the filter. At the output rate of 15 gpm, slightly more
than one minute is available for floc formation before the water
reaches the portable sand filter. The bacterial analysis shows
that the quality of the effluent deteriorated throughout the
operation with Sample 33 producing results not unlike the raw
water. The effluent turbidity did not exceed 3 ppm at the filter.
However, cysts passed the filter with case and the bacterial
analysis shows that nothing better than a crude straining job was
accomplished,
ds Test IV. Operation at Reduced Rate with Coagulantis.. -
(See Figures 16, 16; cat T7-}- This Cost wae Sondwmted ot the
reduced rate of 10 gpm, equivalent to 6.35 gpm per square foot
of filtering surface. The cysts were introduced in two batches,
the first at the start of the operation and the second after 50
minutes, Cysts passed the filter, but the numbers passing were
considerably changed from the results obtained in tests at rated
capacity. At the time the second batch of cysts was applied, a
Schmutzdecke of as much as one-halfpound of clay and coagulants
had been built up on the filter. Cysts passed the filter at this
time in equal or greater numbers thm at the begiming of the test.
Attention is called to the wide range of the pH values obtained
with the Beckmen instrument as compared with the values obtained
with the color indicator at the mit. A comparison of effluent
#19=
turbidities at the unit and after 24 hours shows a considerable
increase in effluent turbidity after standing. For the most
part, this increase was due entirely to after floc. The pre-
sence of clay particles in Samples 38 and 39 indicated a break
through in the filter bed. A marked increase in bacteria passing
the filter accompanied this turbidity rise, while the number of
cysts passing the filter was not materially changed. Here, as
in previous tests, a reasonable effluent was maintained, bacteria
removed to some degree, and a satisfactcry output rate maintained,
but cysts passed the filter with monotonous regularity.
g&- Test V. Operation at Reduced Rate with Coagulants.
(See Figuros 16, 19; 18, 19, 20, and 21.) “The purpose of this test was
to determine the effects of adding the cysts continuously to the
filter, ond to determine the effectiveness of backwash in removing
entrapped cysts from the unit. This test shows that the number cf
cysts passing the filter was changed somewhat by substituting son-
tinuous feed for batch application of the cysts. Samples 55, 56,
and 57 are extremely interesting. After 2C minutes of tne test,
it wes found that the output had fallen to slightly below 10
gallons per minute. The pump speed was insreased slightly, re-
sulting in an output of approximately 11 gallons per minute.
This operation was carefully executed to minimise sudden impulses
on the filter bed. Notwithstanding, a decided break through
occurred immediately following this flow adjustaent, with an in-
crease in effluent turbidity, a sharp rise in bacteria, and, in
this case, a vise in the number of cysts passing the filter being
noted. The unit was backwashed with river water, to which no
cysts had been added, for a period of five minutes at the rate
of 20 gpm. Filtration was resumed as before with no additional
cysts being applied. Sample 59, takea after eight minutes of
filtering, coatained 2.0 cysts per gallon of cffluent. It is
obvious that backwashing should be done with filtered water inas-
. Much as cysts in the backwash water can be caught within the sand
_ bed during the operation. The rate of backwash should be the
highest at which the sand does not escape the filter, probably
about 25 gallons per minute.
| f. Test VI-A, Sedimentation withont Coagulants. (See
Figures 22 and 25.) The purpose of this test was to determine
the effectiveness of sedimentation without coagulants in removing
_ eysts from water. It shows that while the total number of cysts
per gallon of water is reduced, sedimentation for 90 minutes is
not effective in removing either oysts or bacteria from water.
Attention is directed to the fact that the effestiveness of sedi-
mentation was hased on the top portion of the sett! ed water.
(See Test VI-B.)
Test VI-B. Operation at Reduced Rate without out Coagulants.
(See Fi cusses 24, 25, and 26.) This test parallels to sane degree
Test I in that water containing cysts was pumped onto the filter
without coagulants. It differs in that the supernatant used from
20
- Test VI-A contained a reasonably uniform number of cysts,
while batch application of the cysts was used in the first
test. In addition, it is possible that the cysts remaining
in the supernatant of Test VI-A and used here contained only
the smaller cysts. Cysts passed the filter in this test at
a fairly wmiform rate. The reduced flow rate of 6.35 gpm/ft?
was used in this test, whereas the unit was operated at rated
eapasity in the earlier test. The raw water ueod was obtained
from the Potomac River. This water contained an vnusual tur-
bidity composed of a very light, nonsettling materiai similar
in appearance to undissolved lime particles. The pH was above
the average for the stream.
h. Test VII-A. Coagulation, 2-Hour Settling, (See
Figures 27 and 28.) lt was the purpose of this test to coagu-
late and settle following, in general, methods used in the
field, namely: determination of optimum coagulant dosage by a
modified jar test and the addition of the coagulants to the
water while pumping with use of the alwn feed pot. The modified
jar test used consists of filling a bottle or other container
with raw water, adding a small amount of alum dissolved in water,
and shaking violently for about one minute. Additional alum is
added until a satisfactory floc is formed. At this point, the
pH of the sample is determined. Pumping is then begm, with
alum being applied through the feed pot in sufficient quantity
to produce the same pH reading as was obtained in the jar test.
This procedure was followed in this test with most unsatisfactory
results, With approximately three feet of suction lift the
coagulant feed through the wit was hovelessly erratic. After
pumping 1288 gallons, it was found that 5.1 er/gal of alum had
been applied while the desired dosage was 10 er/gal. The dosage
applied would have been considerably lower if the sesond feet pot
had not been used during a part of the cperation, Since the floc
formed was extremely fine, little or no settling occurred during
the 60 minutes provided, A standard jar test was then conducted
which showed that the dosage of 10 gr/gal of alum was satisfactory,
but that 5 gr/gal of soda ash in addition considerably improved
the size and settling quality of the floc. Hence 5 ex/gal of alum
and § er/gal of soda ash were dissolved in water end added to the
tank of previously treated water. The soda ash and the alum were
added in turn and distributed throughout the tank by agitation
with a paddle. An excellent floc was formed as indicated by the.
settled water turbidity value of 2 ppm after 60 minutes of settling.
Figure 27, Test VII-A, shows that better removal of cysts was
accomplished in this test with coagulation and sedimentation than
was accomplished by filtration oat rated capacity in Tests II and
III. It is to be noted, however, that samples 79 through 86 were
taken from supernatant and that not more than 25 percent of the
water depth was used in the subsequent filtration in Test VII-B.
The results of Test VII-A are somewhat difficult to interpret
because of the difficulty encountered in obtaining a satisfactory
floc at the start of the operation. It is of considerable interest,
however, in view of the high degree of clarification accamplished,
that cysts were foumd in each of eight small samples collected
from- the supernatant.
i. Test VII-B. Operation at Reduced Rete Foilowing Coague
lation and sedimentation. (See Figures 29 saat 30-) Er thie test
the water which had been coagulated and settled in Test VII-A was
pimped through the filter at the reduced rate of 6.25 gpm per
square foot. The finding of several cysts in three of eight
filter efflvent semples shows that the efficiency of the mit in
removing cysts from water is greatly improved by pretreatment of
the raw water. Attention is directed to the clarity of the
effluent which was consistently below 0.5 ppm and further that
an output of 10 gpm was maintained without eny increase in head
losse
j- Test VITI-A. Coagulation, 75-minute Settling. (See
Figure 31.) ‘This test was conducted fer the purpose of deter-
mining the efficiensy of coagulation and sedimentation in re-
moving cysts from water. The method followed was one that
could be followed in the field, A 60=galloa metal drum was
plased upright in a 3000-rallcn canvas tak and the water pumped
into the drum. The coagulunts were dissoived in water and these
solutions introduced continually during pimpinge Cysts were
pumped through the hypochlorinetor at a sorsvent rate cf 4500
cysts per galion of water pumped. Using the metal crum as a
flash mixer, en exccllent flee wes formed, which settr.ed vapidly,
Reduction in cysts due to coagulntion and sedimentation for 75
minutes was reasonably good, the number pei: gallon being redused
from 4300 to Jess then 100, ‘the resvlts of this test show that
while the number of cysts preseut in a quantity of water ore
materially reduced by a method of coagulation and sedimentation,
suitable for field use, complete removal is not accomplished.
Ke Test VIII-P. Overation at Reduced Rate Followin
Coagulation ard Sedimentation. (See Piguea.oes) in this teat
the wacer treeted and settled in Test VIII-A was pumped throvgh
the portable sand filter at the reduced rate of 6.35 gpm per
square foot. It is apparent from Figure 32 that the prosediure
followed preduced excellent results in removing turbidity. The
passage of cysts through the filter in water coutaining only 0-1
pom turbidity emphasizes the apparent impossibility of removing
Gysts with the sand filter when operated at rates practical for
field use.
somewhat proportionately with the coagulation achieved, the
efficiensy of the mit being highest when the scntrol cf the
coagulation is best. The ccaguiant used in this ecuimmont was
ammonium alum applied throvgh a differential pressure pot. The
-226
Se a a Se as eg
\ Marah es ey R ¥ ‘ SUL ; a atte Pe bata ? AN Ccns Wehr eg HEAD koa EON ae
\
lp
eontact Sine for floc formation ahead of the filter was quite
short, there being but 10 feet of hose connecting the pump to
the filter. The instructions for operating state that coagu-
lents should be applied in sufficient quantity to produce a
clear or satisfactory effluent. The result is that quite fre-
quently a heavy after-floc forms in the effluent, while insuf-
ficient flocculation is obtained ahead of the filter. At present,
“clear water" is determined by observation on the part of the
Operator. Experience dictates that equipment for making a jar
test and a turbidimeter for checking the jena: of the effluent —
should be a part of this equipment.
It will be noted from Figure $3 that two experiments
were conducted using no coagulants. The results of these two
experiments are not directly comparable because in the second
experiment the filtration had been preceded by sedimentation
and conceivably only the smaller cysts were present in the filter
influent. The presence of considerable iron in the raw water
of the first experiment may have acted as a floc, and assisted
in the reduction of the number of cysts passing the filter. The
significant feature of these two experiments is that it is con-
vincingly demonstrated that sand alone does not remove the cysts
of Endamoeba histolytica even at the reduced rate of 6.35 gpm
per square foot. Hence, it follows that if cysts are to be re- .
moved from water with the portable sand filter, the removal must
be accomplished » Ge the coagulants alone or in one tnas ten with
the sand.
A comparison of the experiments in which careful control
of the coagulants was maintained shows that the reduction of the
rate of flow by one third materially aided in the removal of cysts.
Thus the number of cysts passing the filter was reduced from 3900
to 900 and 1400, respectively, in two experiments in which the
rate of flow was reduced from 9.5 to 6.35 gpm per square foot.
This reduction represents a fourfold increase in the efficiency
of cyst removal. This reduction is consistent with the work of
Baylis, Gullans, and Spector performed with a municipal type
_ filter in which practically no cysts were found at the rate of
2.0 gpm per square foot. The microscopic examination of the
effluent samples after sand filtration showed in each case that
objects of sizes considerably larger than cysts passed the filter.
m Results with coagulation and Sedimentation. (See
Figure 34 «) ‘the results of experiments with pretreated water
listed in Figure 34 show that the number of cysts in a given
quantity of water is materially reduced by good coagulation and
sedimentation, but that sedimentation alone for practical periods
of time is of little value. It is obvious, therefore, that coagu-
lation and sedimentation of the raw water is highly desirable be~-
fore filtration through the sand filters. A second feature of
coagulating and settling the raw waier is that the resulting re-
duction in raw water turbidity materially reduces the tendency of
~23-
ET La vee
the filter to "break through" at frequent intervals. Prechlori-
nating the raw water prior to the addition of the coagulants
tends to reduce tastes and odors, and generally enhances the
possibility of producing a safe water. ;
9. Experiments with Diatomite Filters. The diatomite filters
used in this study were experimental models, eight different units
being used in all, It was anticipated that the numbers of cysts
found in the effluent waters would provide a criterion for assessing
the filtering efficiency of the types of equipment and filter aid
tested. However, the results showed that with all equipment and
filter aid tested, cysts were rarely found in the effluent water.
It appears from these experiments that diatomaceous silica filtra-
tion is much more effective than sand filtration for the removal of
cysts. This is further confirmed by the microscopic examination of
the filtered water, in which it was very rare to find particles
larger than 2 or 3 micra in diameter. Experiments I-D through VI-D
were conducted with small mits for the purpose of obtaining data
concerning the general characteristics of diatomaceous silica filters
in removing cysts from water, while the objective of the remainder
of the experiments was to determine the efficiency of the material
and equipment wmder conditions similar to those encomtered in the
field. The experiments conducted were as follows:
Be Experiment I-D» a-Do Stoncheart meee Company _ Model
§F-1. (See Figure 35,) in this experiment, low pressure and
flow rate was used; in general. the results were inconclusive.
However, attention is directed to the high concentration of cysts
used in the rew water and to the fact that from all of the
effluent, no cysts were recovered, Since ail of the water used
was filtered, the filter was emptied with the fourth quart of
water filtered, leaving the filter cake dry. The cake did not
drop from the element when the flow ceased.
be. Experiment 2-D. Wallace and Tiernan Company, Inc.,
Model Model G2. "(See Figure $6.) This experiment was conducted with
a a gravity filter equipped with a wire screen element. Good
clarification was obtained, but a few cysts passed the filter.
, The element was observed to "breathe" under the influence of
_ pressure variations. It is possible that the presence of cysts
in samples 109 and 111 was caused by breaks in the cake because
of slight pressure variations. However, the total number of
cysts present was so small that the results obtained are incon-
clusive. During the experiment it was observed that a gravity
type filter of this general type permits raw water to spill over
in filling the reservoir, thus providing a possible means of
contaminating the filter effluent as well as of bringing the
operator in contact with the raw water.
Cc, Experiment 5-D- S, F. Bowser and 1 Company, Inc, Model
2MS. “(See Figure 57.) Tt will bo note. from Figure $7 that no
cysts were recovered from samples 112, i135, and 114 while a
Bre ae
to keep submerged curing the experiment. Just prior to collecting
large number were present in sample 115, This vnit was equipped
with a very short length of suction hose which was most difficult |
sample 115, air entered the suction hose for several seoonds. The
pump suction was thus momentarily interrupted, which interruption
permitted the sake to break from the sorem element, Subsequent
filtering did not appear to replace the filter aid satisfactorily.
It was noted that the differential pot slurry feeder suppiied with
this unit tended to clog at intervals.
ad. Experiment 4-),S, F. Bowser and Com ek, INC + Medel
i. BC, - (See | ligure 3535) this exper imen’ was quite “Similar to.
Experiment 3-D. In Experiment 4-D the presoat was applied wit:h-
out recirculation by discharging the effluent to waste. Sample
117, oollested after 1.5 minutes of operaticn, contained a emall
mnunber of systs, while sample 2136, taken after 1.95 minutes, con-
tained no soysts. This result indicates that preooating is ascom-
plished with this unit in less then two minutes. With modifica-
tions in the inlet system used in Experiment 3-D, is will be noted
that the cake was replased without difficulty after it hed been
permitted to drop fron the clement. & comnerisen of the action
of the carbon element to thct of the wire screen eloment used
in Experiment 3-D showed that the cavton element retaiaed the
cake better than the wire sereen elencat. This may indicate that
the carbon elenent wovld te the better of the two where variations
in pressures, momentary shutedown and other disturvances are
expestede .
@. Experiment oN. Ins emational Filver Conmmeny, Inn,
Model a Sh, Poe “82e “Pigure 59.) in tac tne “qui pmert vsed in
thse experiment was a luboxetory model; the results of this ex-
periment should be interpreted with caution, The absence of
eysts in the influent is significant,
f. Experiment €-D.Naval Medical Research Institute, Model Xe
(See Figures 40 and 41.) | fhe significance of this “gxper aaent i is.
that it emphasizes the apparent ease with which soysts may be re-
moved with simple devises empinying diatomaeeous cilica as the
filtering mediwn. Attention is directed to the sesornd phase of
this experiment in which aotivated silver filter-aid was used.
It will be seen in Figure 40 that a morked reduction in bacterial
count was accomplished with the special filter aid, but that P.
coli was present in the effluent samples even when the plate count
“was sterile for 0,1 oc.
Be Experiment 7-D.Stoncheart Ingineering Company, Model
SP-xXi. (See Figures 42, 43, and 44.) in this experiment the
recoat was applied with water sontaining a large nurber of cysts.
While the results obtained are inconclusive, Figure 42 shows that
cysts are renoved by equipment having svfficiont canacity to be
used in the field. Cysts wore fo 27 in samples 129 end 1303
thereafter, no cysts were recovers3, The filter used in vhis
«<25<
experiment was not constructed in a manner to permit easy venting
of the air, with the result that the eubee did not properly pre-
coat at the top. In addition, the engine stopped at time six
minutes with some disturbance of the cake, as evidenced by the
presence of silica in the effluent. Attention is directed to the
increase in engine spesd near the end of the operation. It was
found that increasing the engine speed with the portable sand
filter resulted in a “break through" of the filter media, while
no difficulty was encountered with the diatomite wit because of
pressure changes. Slurry was introduced through the pump suction
during the operation.
rr sy bee nna RY ST RBI BT BS RE A OE OH ES EY OE RR AO Or eal
Tes hotel Tey ee Figures 45 anae wey “This soe
was conducted with a standard sand unit converted by substituting
three aloxite elements for the sand. The converted wnit weighed
165 pounds as compared to 435 pounds for the sand filter. The
results tabulated in Figure 45 show that no cysts were recovered
except in the first sample. ‘ince the effluent hose was used in
precoating, the presence of cysts in the first sample may have
been due to contamination of the effluent hose rather than to
cysts passing the filter after the precoat was in place. Atten-
tion is directed to the use of carbon in this experiment. Be-
cause of the presence of considerable colcr in the water, a
secondary precoat of carbon was applied at the start of the
operation. Figure 46 shows that the carbon was retained on the
original precsat, and the absence of any appreciable increase
in turbidity after 24 hours shows that the color was removed
satisfactorily. The influent pressure was maintained at eight
pounds per square inch during the operation, with the exception
of the last three minutes of the filter rum when the inflvent
pressure was increased to 13.5 pounds per sauere inch. The
sudden rise in pressure did not disturb the operation in any
mannere It will be noted that the average output during the
Operation was approximately 19.5 gpm.
i.e Experiment 9-D. U. Se Army Portable water Purification
S oncenhenput eller ltenentatenmmtenaahtieeetedemdenadicanttthintmiatienntend todas teteietetetitadinedeenere tae eid
Unit. Model 1 1240, bd Mitt iN MOTH Use with 6 Bese
differed for 5 nee 8-D only in that “gobawabed harbiek was
omitted and that the pump was operated at full capacity from
the beginning of the operation. The results tabulated show
that the omission of carbon on the filter reduced the resistance
and permitted higher flow rates. However, the marked increase
in effluent turbidity after 24 hours indicates that color is
not removed by the filter alone. The results show that total
removal of cysts was accomplished during the operation at an
average output of 25.9 gpm.
Je Experiments 1 lO-D Through 13-% inclusivee U; Se Army
Portable Water Purification Unit, Model 61 1940, Converted for
a6
_ would be expected to remove completely the cysts of Endamoeba histolytica, —
design features were recognized as being essential for best results:
‘Use With. Diatomaceous Silica. (See Figures 49, 50, 51, and 52.)
_* The purpose o Ts series of tests. was to ‘determine the effec-
ie tiveness of various grades of. diatomaceous silica in the removal
ea Ae: cysts from water. Attention is directed to the absence of
“eysts in quantity in the effluent from all of the materials
tested. Since cysts were removed by all of the materials tested,
. the significant feature of these tests is that no cysts passed
the unit in Experiment 13-D. ‘The filter aid used in the experi- ri
ment was Johns-Manville Celite 545, which is too coarse for water
- filtration. Notwithstanding the passaze of turbidity in excess 1
of 10 ppm no cysts were found in the effluent samples. Bacterial
removal with the several grades of filter-aid tested is shown in
Figure 53. It appears, therefore, that any currently manufactured
filter-aid in the range of the materials tested will produce
satisfactory results.
The test results indicate that diatomaceous silica filtra-
tion is much more effective than sand filtration for the removal of
amoebic cysts. A filtration unit properly designed and operated »
It was not the objective of this study to develop diatomaceous ‘.
silica filters, but rather to determine the efficiency of the material :
in removing cysts from water. However, during the tests the following
a. It appears that all diatomite filters should be pro-
vided with an air release cock which should be left open until
the filter shell is entirely full of water at bie ‘start of the
precoat operation. ~
b. In order to obtain an evenly distributed precoat, to
obtain good initial clarity, and to prevent plugging the element
with dirt, the elements should be so mounted as to permit the
water in the filter to rise at least one inon above the SOP of
the elements.
ce If the filter is precoated hy recirculating a quantity
of water, the water used should be filtered water and the piping
arrangement should permit the change from precoating to filtering
without interrupting the continuous flow of water. ‘If recircula-
tion is not employed, the precoat charge should be introduced
directly into the filter shell.
d. There appears to be no definite relationship between
the optimum rate of slurry feed and the turbidity (ppm) of the
water filtered. » The controlling factor in slurry feeding appears
to be thé nature of the raw water turbidity, water containing
organic slimes requiring much more slurry than water containing
only stosiae wie, SPHEN ARS TONG. parkee less
Vath
s
27
Ge Since the quality of the effluent from a diatomite
filter is not necessarily a function of the pressure employed,
it would appear that greatest efficiency would be realized ee
using pressures considerably in excess of those employed with
sand filters.
f. The spent cake may be contaminated with amoebic cysts,
cercariae, and other such organisms; henee, a cleaning or back=
wash method whish does not bring the operator in direct contact
with the waste material is necessary. The use of any but filtered
water in backwashing should be prohibited, and the methed used
should not require the placing of the sustion hose in the filtered
water tank,
V. CONCLUSIONS
10. Conclusions. As a result of the study of the effisiency of
standard army water purification equipment and of diatomite filters
in removing cysts of Endamoeba pie posy vie from water, it is concluded
that:
De The complete removal of the ¢ysts of Indanoeba histolytica
is not accomplished with the gand filter cf the U. S. Anay Portabie
Water Purification Unit when opotated at flow rates practical for
field use, and it may ve togienliy assuned that this condition
applies also to the U. S. Army Mo>Dile Water Purification Unit.
b. Sedimentation alone for chort periods 48 not effective
in removing amoebic cysts from waters
Ge The total number of cysts in a given quantity of water
is reduced py good coagulation and sedimentation.
d. Pressure type filters. using diatomaceous silica as the
filter medium will remove cysts of Endamoeba histolytica, pro-
vided the retaining membrane or element, a as s well as the filter
shell, is correctly designed.
Ge The sombination of pretreatment, sedimentation, and
filtration gives results See ee bah Ooi than filtration
~ alone. ;
VI. RECOMMENDATIONS
11. Recommendations. In view of the findings of this study of
removal of systs of Endamoeba mistotyisee from water, it is recommended
thats
a. The output of the U. S. Army Portable Water Purification
Unit, “Model 1940, be reduced from 16 gallons per minute to 10 gallons
«2 Bm
per ‘minute as a maximum, and that this output be. Bitton oy
reduced to not greater (han 745 eaters per minute whenever |
possible,
; bb, The naan of the U. S, Army Mobile Water Purifica-
~ tion Unit, Model 1940, be reduced from 75 gallons per minute
to 60 gallons per minute as a maximum, and that this output be
further reduced to not greater than 15 gallons per minute. when-
ever possible, ©
(It must be understood that this reduction in output rates
is of an emergency nature and, while increasing the factor of
safety, does not imply that complete removal of the cysts of
Endamoeba histolytica_is assured by adherence to the action
recommended above.)
&. One hour of detention be provided for coagulating,
settling and prechlorinating all raw water without exception
prior to filtration through either of the sand units,
gd. Field water quality control equipment be provided to
all units in the field, which shall, among other things, pro-
vide equipment for conducting jar tests and for the evaluation
of the overall efficiency of the filtration in terms of turbidity
removal,
e&. The study of diatomaceous silica now being conducted
by the Engineer Board be continued to the end of determining the
feasibility of the adoption of diatomaceous silica filtration
equipment to replace the sand filters now in use,
f. Studies of the epidemiology of amoebic dysentery in
the armed forces of the United Nations be encouraged, and reports
from the field be examined to determine the magnitude of-the part
that water may be playing in the dissemination of amoebic dysentery,
Submitted by:
Asaistant’ Engineer, Sanitary
Water Supply Equipment Branch
Surgeon, zéoluey Latdvillory,
National Institute of Health
U. S. Public Health Service
a9.
National Institute of Health
U. Se Public Health Service
6 =
W. Hs ee oO
Chief, Zoology Laboratory
National Institute of Health
U. S. Public Health Service
Chief, Water Supply Equipment Branch
The Engineer Board
Forwarded:
/
ae. ys elu
a. Colonel, Corps of Engineers eee te
Director, Sechnical Division III
The Engineer Board
' ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are indebted to past Assistant Surgeon
Carl Larson for that part of the bacteriological work that was
performed at the National Institute of Health, to Junior Zoolo-
gist Walter L. Newton and Assistant Zoologist John Tobie for
their aid in the examination of the water samples for amoeba
cysts, and to Assistant Sanitary Engineer Ernest H. Sieveka and
Mr. F. ke DeNormandie of the Engineer Board awl nlii for the
chemical analyses.
iD oy
eee es “WAR ‘DEPARRLiON? a ag a 8 Ge a
ee oe OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS e CS RE ES ies
ee WASHINGTON | op neal we,
SPESD March 19, 1943
Subject: Study of the Effectiveness of Army Purification Methods
in Removing Cysts of Endamosba histolytica
Tos The President,
The Engineer Board,
Fort Belvoir, Virginia
park
1. The Office of the Surgeon General has requested the Chief
of Engineers to cooperate with the Notional Institute of Health in
the study of the removal of the Cysts of Indameeba histolytica from o4)
drinking water by means of stendard Army ‘purification equipment. This —
request has been approved with permission to contact the i de :
Board directly in this matter.
2. The Office of the Surgeon General has made an arrangement
with the National Institute of Health to carry on certain studies of
the epidemiolcgv of amebiusis, This was done in acsordance with a
direotive file number SPRID 720.21, dated dunuary 29, 1943 issued by
the Commanding General, Services of Supply to the Medical Department. a
s copy of this directive has previously been sent to the Ingineer i
oarde
38. It is therefore directed that the Ingineer Board cooperate
with the Surgeon General's office and the National Institute of Health ©
in the program set up by them for the study of the Removal of the 3
Cysts of Endamoeba histolytica. The cooperation of the Engineer Board
is to be limited to that necessary to furnish preperly filtered water ie
as requested by the National Institute of Health.
“By order of the Chief of Imgineers:
/'s/ E. Le Knutson,
Jf Be Le KNUTSON,
Captain, Corps of Engineers,
Assistont, Engineering and Development Branch,
Supply Divisicn.
Yar gersbg
EXT. 76271
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